Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays

Unit-2 Point Sources and Arrays

2.1 Introduction
Usually the radiation patterns of single-element antennas are relatively wide,
i.e., they have relatively low directivity (gain). In long distance communications,
antennas with high directivity are often required. Such antennas are possible to
construct by enlarging the dimensions of the radiating aperture (maximum size much
larger than λ). This approach however may lead to the appearance of multiple side
lobes. Besides, the antenna is usually large and difficult to fabricate.
Another way to increase the electrical size of an antenna is to construct it as an assembly of
radiating elements in a proper electrical and geometrical configuration – antenna array. Usually, the
array elements are identical.

Point source:
An antenna which does not have any specified shape is called a point source. Point source is also said to
be isotropic antenna. Fig. 2.1 depicts point source.

Fig. 2.1: Point source

Antenna array:
Sometimes it is desired to radiate most of the energy in one particular direction like highly populated
area. The field strength can be increased in preferred directions by properly exciting group or array of
antennas.
An antenna array is a system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity in a desired
direction. It may also be defined as “a radiating system consisting of several spaced and properly phased
radiators”.

2.2 Point sources

2.2.1 Power pattern
The time rate of energy flow per unit area is the power density and measured in Watts/m 2. A
source that radiated energy uniformly in all directions is an isotropic antenna. For such a source the radial
component Sr of the pointing vector (power density) is independent of ϴ and ϕ. A graph of Sr (radial
component) at a constant radius as a function of angle is a power density pattern, but is usually called a
power pattern.
The 3-dimensional power pattern for an isotropic antenna is a sphere and 2-dimensional power pattern for
an isotropic antenna is a circle.

2.2.2 Power theorem

Let the pointing vector or power density is known at all points on a sphere of radius „r‟ from point source
in a lossless medium. The total power radiated by the source is the integral over the surface of the sphere
of the radial component Sr of the average pointing vector.
P  S  ds
Where, P – power density
Sr – radial component of average pointing vector, W/m2
ds – Infinitesimal element of area of sphere = r 2 sin  d d meter2

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 1 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays

Fig. 2.2.1: Power theorem

For an isotropic source,
P  Sr   ds
P  Sr   r sin  d d
2

 2   
 
P  S r  r 2  d   sin  d 
 0   0 
P  S r  4 r 2
P
Sr  Watts/ m2
4 r 2

2.2.3 Field pattern

A pattern showing the variation of the electric field intensity at a constant radius „r‟ as a function of angle
(ϴ, ϕ) is called a “field pattern”.
It is customary to give the filed patterns for the two components Eϴ and Eϕ of the electric filed. Hence the
total electric field is given by,
E  E2  E2
Where, E – Amplitude of total electric field intensity
Eϴ – Amplitude of ϴ component
Eϕ – Amplitude of ϕ component

Fig. 2.2.2: Electric filed components in free space

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 2 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
2.2.4 Phase pattern
The field varies harmonically with time and that the frequency is known. Far field in all directions from a
source may be completely specified by a knowledge of 4 quantities.
1. Amplitude of Eϴ as a function of r, ϴ & ϕ.
2. Amplitude of Eϕ as a function of r, ϴ & ϕ.
3. Phase lag of Eϕ behind Eϴ as a function of ϴ & ϕ.
4. Phase lag of field component behind its value at a reference point as a function of r, ϴ & ϕ.

2.3 Array of two isotropic point sources

The following cases will be dealt with arrays of two isotropic point sources:
1. Equal amplitude and equal phase
2. Equal amplitude and opposite phase
3. Unequal amplitude and any phase

2.3.1 Arrays of two isotropic point sources with equal amplitude and equal phase
Consider two isotropic point sources separated by a distance „d‟ and symmetrically situated with
respect to origin „O‟ as shown in Fig. 2.3.1.
The EM waves from source-1 reach the point „P‟ at a later time then the EM waves from source-2
because of path difference (ab). The fields due to source-1 lags while that due to source-2 leads.
Path difference = ab meters
d d
 cos  cos
2 2
 d cos wavelengths
From optics theory, we have
Phase angle, ψ = ωt
 2 f
C
 2 t

2
  C t 

2
  path differece 

   d cos  radians
2
Where,  

Fig. 2.3.1: Array of 2 point sources
Let, E1 – far electric field at distance „P‟ due to point source-1
E2 – far electric field at distance „P‟ due to point source-2
E – total electric field at distance „P‟
then,
j j
 
E  E1e 2  E2e 2

j

Where, E1e 2 - field component due to point source-1 lagged by ψ/2
j

E2 e 2 - field component due to point source-2 leaded by ψ/2
Since the amplitudes are equal, E1  E2  E0
  j 
j

E  E0  e 2  e 2 

 

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 3 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
  j 
j

2 e 2
 e 
E  2.E0  
 2 
 
 
E  2 E0 cos  
2
Amplitude Phase

Array factor:
 
2 E0 cos  
Array factor, E 
Total field
  2   cos   
2
Maximum total field 2 E0  
Pattern is said to be normalised, when the total amplitude 2E0 maximum value is „1‟.
 
Now, E  cos  
2
  d cos 
E  cos  
 2 
 
For dipole, d  , (From this step you can consider as an example problem)
2 2
 2  cos  2
E  cos   
  2 2  
 
E  cos  cos 
2 
From the above equation the directions of maxima, minima and half point points are calculated as shown
below.
(a) Maxima direction (Peaks):
 
„E‟ is maximum, when cos  cos  is maximum, its maximum value is „1‟.
2 
 
i.e., cos  cos   1
2 

cos   K where K  0, 1,2....
2

For K = 0, cos  0
2
  cos1  0 
Therefore, max  900

(b) Minima direction (Nulls):

 
„E‟ is minimum, when cos  cos  is minimum, its minimum value is „0‟.
2 
  
i.e., cos  cos   0
 2 
 
cos    2 K  1 where K  0, 1,2....
2 2
 
For K = 0, cos  
2 2
cos  1
Therefore, min  00 and 1800

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 4 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
(c) Half power point direction (HPPD) :
1 1
At half power points, power is times of maximum value of power and voltage or current is times
2 2
the maximum value of voltage or current. i.e., the half power point direction is obtained by equating „E‟
1
to .
2
  1
i.e., cos  cos  
2  2
 
cos    2 K  1 where K  0, 1,2....
2 4
 
For K = 0, cos  
2 4
1
cos  
2
Therefore,  HPPD  600 and  1200
Now, the field pattern is estimated as shown in Fig. 2.3.2.
From Fig. 2.3.4, it is clear that first nulls obtained at ±00, ±1800, hence BWFN = 1800.

Fig. 2.3.2: Field pattern of two points sources of equal amplitude and equal phase with d = λ/2
If the reference point (Origin) in Fig. 2.3.3 is shifted to point source-1, then the field pattern remains
same but the phase pattern changes.

Fig. 2.3.3

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 5 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
The field pattern is expressed as
E  E1e j 0  E2e j
Since amplitudes are equal, i.e., E1  E2  E0

E  E0 1  E2e j 
j
   j 
j

E  E0e  e 2  E2e 2 
2

 
j j
j   2  
  e  E e 2

E  2 E0 e 2  2

 2 
 
j
  
E  2 E0 e 2 cos  
2
Amplitude Phase
Pattern is said to be normalised, when the total amplitude 2E0 maximum value is „1‟.
j
  
Now, E e 2 cos  
2
j

Therefore, the term e 2 represents the variation of phase with respect to reference.
2.3.2 Arrays of two isotropic point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase
It is exactly similar to the previous case except the point source-1 out of phase to point source-2. i.e,
when there is maxima in source-1 at one particular instant, then there is minimum in source-2 at that
instant.
The total far filed at distant „P‟ is
j j
 
E   E1e 2  E2e 2

Where, Phase of source-1 is –ψ/2 and phase of source-2 is +ψ/2 with respect to origin „O‟.
Since the amplitudes are equal, E1  E2  E0
  j 
j

E  E0  e 2 e 2 
 
 
j j
   
e 2 e 2 
E  2 j.E0  
 2j 
 
 
E  2 j  E0 sin  
2
Amplitude Phase

Pattern is said to be normalised, when the total amplitude 2jE0 maximum value is „1‟.
 
Now, E  sin  
2
  d cos 
E  sin  
 2 
 
For dipole, d  , (From this step you can consider as an example problem)
2 2
 2  cos  2
E  sin   
  2 2  
 
E  sin  cos 
2 

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 6 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
From the above equation the directions of maxima, minima and half point points are calculated as shown
below.
(a) Maxima direction (Peaks):
 
„E‟ is maximum, when sin  cos  is maximum, its maximum value is „1‟.
2 
 
i.e., sin  cos   1
 2 
 
cos    2 K  1 where K  0, 1,2....
2 2
For K = 0,
 
cos  
2 2
cos  1

Therefore, max   00 and  1800

(b) Minima direction (Nulls):
 
„E‟ is minimum, when sin  cos  is minimum, its minimum value is „0‟.
2 
 
i.e., cos  cos   0
2 

cos   K where K  0, 1,2....
2
For K = 0,

cos  0
2
min  cos1  0 

Therefore, min   900

(c) Half power point direction:

1 1
At half power points, power is times of maximum value of power and voltage or current is times
2 2
the maximum value of voltage or current. i.e., the half power point direction is obtained by equating „E‟
1
to .
2
  1
i.e., sin  cos  
2  2
 
cos    2 K  1 where K  0, 1,2....
2 4
For K = 0,
 
cos  
2 4
1
cos  
2
Therefore,  HPPD  600 and  1200
Now, the filed pattern is estimated as shown in Fig. 2.3.4.
From Fig. 2.3.4, it is clear that first nulls obtained at ±900, hence BWFN = 1800.

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 7 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays

Fig. 2.3.4: Field pattern of two points sources of equal amplitude and opposite phase with d = λ/2

2.3.3 Arrays of two point sources with unequal amplitude and any phase
Consider two point sources whose amplitudes are not equal and having phase difference of „δ‟
radians. Let at source-1 taken as reference for phase and amplitude of fields due to source-1 and source-2
at a distant point „P‟ is E1 and E2.
The phase angle is given by,
2
  d cos   radians

Now, the total electric field component is
E  E1 e  j 0  E2 e  j
E  E1  E2 e  j
 E 
E  E1 1  2 e  j 
 E1 

E  E1 1  K e  j 
E2
Where, K 
E1
Usually E1 > E2, hence K < 1. i.e,. 0 < K < 1
E  E1 1  K  cos  j sin  
E  E1 1  K cos   j K sin 

The magnitude of E is calculated as

E  E1 1  K cos    K sin 
2 2

The phase is calculated as

 K sin 
E  Tan1  
 1  K cos 

Example 2.1
Draw the radiation pattern when arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude having a phase
difference of π/2 and d = λ/2.
Sol: Given δ = π/2, d = λ/2
IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 8 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107
Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
We have, phase difference

   d cos     d cos 
2
2   
 cos    cos 
 2 2 2
Now, the total electric filed intesisity is
   
E  cos    cos  cos  
2 2 4

Maximum direction (Peaks) Minimum direction (Nulls) Half power point direction
„E‟ is maximum when „E‟ is minimum when At half power points
      1
E  cos  cos    1 E  cos  cos    0 E  cos  cos   
2 4 2 4 2 4 2
ϴ = ±120 satisfies the above
0
ϴ = ±60 satisfies the above
0
ϴ = ±90 , ±180 , ±0 satisfies the
0 0 0

condition. condition. above condition.

The field pattern is shown in Fig. E2.1. Half power beam width = 1800 and Beam width between first
nulls = 2400.

Fig. E2.1: Field pattern

Example 2.2
Draw the radiation pattern when arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude having a phase
difference of π/2 and d = λ/4.
Sol:
We have, phase difference

   d cos     d cos 
4
2    
 cos   cos 
 4 2 2 2
Now, the total electric filed intesisity is
   
E  cos    cos  cos  
2 4 4

Maximum direction (Peaks) Minimum direction (Nulls) Half power point direction
„E‟ is maximum when „E‟ is minimum when At half power points
      1
E  cos  cos    1 E  cos  cos    0 E  cos  cos   
4 4 4 4 4 4 2
ϴ = ±180 satisfies the above
0
ϴ = ± 0 satisfies the above
0
ϴ = ±90 satisfies the above
0

condition. condition. condition.

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 9 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
The field pattern is shown in Fig. E2.2. Half power beam width = 1800 and Beam width between first
nulls = 3600.

Fig. E2.2: Field pattern

Note: Estimation of Maxima, Minima and Half power point directions

Direction sin(X) (sin pattern) cos(X) (cos pattern)
sin  X   1
cos  X   1
Maxima direction (Peaks) 
X    2K  1  ; K  0, 1, 2.... X   K ; K  0, 1,2....
2
cos  X    0
sin  X    0
Minima direction (Nulls) 
X   K ; K  0, 1,2.... X    2K  1  ; K  0, 1,2....
2
1 1
sin  X    cos  X   
2 2
Half power point direction
 
X    2K  1  ; K  0, 1,2.... X    2K  1  ; K  0, 1,2....
4 4

2.4 Linear array with n-isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing:
An array is said to be linear, if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally along a line
and uniform, also they are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having an uniform progressive phase
shift along the line.
The total far field Et is the vector sum of individual electric fields.
Et  E1e0 j  E2e1 j  E3e2 j  E4e3 j    En e 
n 1 j
i.e.,
Since amplitudes are equal, i.e., E1  E2  E3    En  E0
Et  E0e0 j  E0e1 j  E0e2 j  E0e3 j    E0e
n 1 j


Et  E0 1  e1 j  e2 j  e3 j    e
n 1 j
 ------------ (1)
2
Where,    d cos   radians .

= Total phase difference of the fields at point „P‟ from adjacent sources.
Now, multiplying by e j on two sides, we get
Et e j  E0  e j  e2 j  e3 j  e4 j    en j  ------------ (2)

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 10 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
By subtracting the equation (2) from equation (1), we get
  
Et 1  e j  E0 1  en j 
 1  en j 
Et  E0  j 
 1 e 
 jn 
jn

2 e 2
j  n 1 
 e 
Et  E0 e 2  
 j 
j

 e 2  e 2 
 
jn jn jn
   
  e 2  
e 2  e 2 

Et  E0  j

j j

   
  e 2  
e 2  e 2 

  
 n 
j  n 1 sin  
Et  E0 e 2  2 
 
sin  
2
 n 
sin  
 2   n 1 
Et  E0 e j  Where,  
 2 

 
sin  
2
 n 
sin  
 2  cos   j sin 
Et  E0  
 
sin  
2
This is the equation of total far field pattern of linear array of n-isotropic point sources by taking point
source-1 as reference point for phase.
In case, the reference point is shifted to the centre of the array from the source or origin of the co-
 n 1 
ordinate, then phase angle    is eliminated.
 2 
 n 
sin  
i.e., Et  E0  2 
 
sin  
2

Array factor:
 
sin  
Total field 2
Array factor, E  
Total field Max.  
n sin  
2
Relative filed: The relative field of individual source is
 
sin  
Total field 2
Array factor, E  
Total field Max.  
n sin  
2

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 11 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
2.4.1 Broad side array
A broadside array is an array, which has maximum radiation at ϴ = ±900. (normal to the axis of
the array).

Additional information:
Broadside array is one in which a number of identical parallel antennas are placed along a line
drawn perpendicular to this respective axis as shown in Fig.
In Fig. individual antennas are equally spaced along a line and each element is fed with current of
equal magnitude, all I the same phase.
The broadside array may be defined as “an arrangement in which the principal direction
radiation is proportional to the array axis and also to the pane containing the array element”. The
broadside array is bidirectional.

Estimation of field pattern:

(a) Maxima direction (Peaks):
The total filed expressed as
 n 
sin  
E  E0  2 
 
sin  
2
The directions of peaks are obtained by equating E = 1; ψ = 0.
i.e.,    d cos  
For a broadside array,   0 , hence
   d cos  0
cos  0
  900
(b) Side lobes maxima direction:
„E‟ is maximum when numerator is maximum and
denominator is minimum. Hence, the peaks of side lobes
obtained as follows:
 n 
sin   1
 2 
n 
   2 K  1
2 2
n    2 K  1 
n   d cos       2K  1
For a broadside array,   0 , hence
cos  
 2K  1 
n d

  cos1  
 2K  1 

 n d 
(c) Minima direction (Nulls):
At nulls „E‟ is 0. Hence, the minima direction obtained as follows:
 n 
sin  0
 2 
n
  K
2
n  2 K 

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 12 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
2 K
 d cos    
n
For a broadside array,   0 , hence
2K
cos  
n d
 2K 
  cos 1   
 n d 

(d) Beam width between full nulls for broadside array: (Exact value)
Fig. illustrates the calculation of beam width between first nulls (BWFN) for a broadside array.

„ϕ‟ is a null adjacent to main lobe measured above 00 and below 900.
 2K 
  cos 1   
 n d 
Since it is first null, K = 1, then
 2 
  cos 1   
 n d 
From Fig. it is clear that, BWFN = 2 [90 – ϕ]
  2  
BWFN  2 90  cos 1   
  n d  
 2 
BWFN  2sin 1   
 n d 
(e) BWFN interms of length of the array ‘L’: (approximate value)
BWFN is the angle between first nulls or double the angle between first null and main lobe
maxima direction.
BWFN  2 
BWFN  290   
The minima direction (null) for a broadside array pattern is
 2K 
  cos 1   
 n d 
 2 K 
90    cos 1    where   90  
 n d 
 2K 
cos 90       
 n d 
2K
sin   
n d

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 13 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays

For smaller values of „γ‟, sin γ = γ, hence

2K 
 
n d
For K = 1 we obtain BWFN and substituting „β‟ value, we get
2 1  

2
n d



nd
2
BWFN  2 
nd
Let „L‟ is the total length of array in meters, then L = nd
2 2
BWFN  2  or radians
L L

2  57.3
BWFN  degrees
L

(f) Half power beam width:
HPBW = BWFN/2

Example 2.3
A linear uniform array of point sources satisfy the parameters, n = 4, δ = 0, d = λ/2. Obtain the field
pattern and also find BWFN and HPBW.
Sol: Given no. of antennas, n = 4, for broadside array, δ = 0,d = λ/2
The total filed expressed as
 n 
sin  
E  E0  2 
 
sin  
2
The directions of peaks are obtained by equating E = 1; ψ = 0.
i.e.,    d cos  
For a broadside array,   0 , hence
   d cos  0
cos  0
  900
(b) Side lobes maxima direction:
We know that,
  2 K  1  
  cos1   
 n d 

  cos1  
 2K  1  2 
 n d  4    4
 4   2
  2 K  1 
  cos1   
 4 
 1   1
For K = 0;   cos1    75.50 ;   cos1     104.50
 4  4
 3  1
For K = 1;   cos1    41.40 ;   cos 1     138.60
 4  4

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 14 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
(c) Minima direction (Nulls):
We know that,
 2K 
  cos 1   
 n d 
 2K 
  cos 1   
 4 
 K
  cos 1   
 2
For K = 0;   cos1  0   900
Nulls in the direction of peaks are eliminated. i.e., Nulls for K = 0 are to be eliminated since they appear
in maxima direction. Hence we go further to obtain nulls.
 1  1
For K = 1;   cos1     600 ;   cos1     1200
 2  2
Nulls for K = 1 are to always adjacent to main lobes known as first nulls.
For K = 2;   cos1  1   00 ;   cos1  1   1800
Now, to estimate the field pattern, procedure is adopted as follows:

2.4.2 End-fire array

For an array to be end fire, the phase angle is such that, it makes the maximum radiation in the
line of array. i.e., 00 or 1800. The end-fire array is nothing but broadside array except that individual
elements are fed in out of phase.

Additional information:
In the end-fire a number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line and individual
elements are fed with current of equal magnitude but their phases varies progressively along the line in
such a way as to make the entire arrangement substantially unidirectional.
In other words, individual elements are excited in such a manner that a progressive phase
difference between adjacent elements (in cycles) becomes equal to the spacing (in wavelength) between
the elements.

Estimation of field pattern:

The total filed expressed as
 n 
sin  
E  E0  2 
 
sin  
2

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 15 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
(a) Maxima direction (Peaks):
Thus for an array to be end-fire ψ = 0 and ϴ = 00 or 1800.
i.e.,    d cos    0
For a broadside array,   0 , hence
    d cos
    d cos   00
    d cos  0 
  d
Now, for an end-fire system
   d cos   d or
   d  cos  1
(b) Side lobes maxima direction:
 n   
The directions of peaks are obtained when sin    1 provided sin    0 .
 2  2
n 
   2 K  1
2 2
n 
   2 K  1
2 2
n    2 K  1 

 
 2K  1 
n
Substituting „ψ‟, we get
 d cos    
 2K  1
n
For an end-fire array,     d , hence

 d cos   d  
 2K  1
n
 2 K  1 
 d  cos  1  
n
cos  1  
 2K  1 
n d

cos  
 2K  1 1
n d

  cos 1  
 2K  1  1

 n d 
Since cosϴ ranges from 0 to 1, hence the equation becomes
  2 K  1  
  cos 1    1
 n d 
(c) Minima direction (Nulls):
At nulls „E‟ is 0. Hence, the minima direction obtained as follows:
 n 
sin  0
 2 
n
  K
2
2K
 
n

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 16 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
Substituting „ψ‟, we get
2 K
 d cos    
n
For an end-fire array,     d , hence
2 K
 d cos   d  
n
2 K
cos  1  
n d
 2K 
  cos 1    1
 n d 
Since cosϴ ranges from 0 to 1, hence the equation becomes
 2 K 
  cos 1    1
 n d 

(d) Beam width between full nulls for end-fire array: (Exact value)
Fig. illustrates the calculation of BWFN for a broadside array.

„ϕ‟ is a null adjacent to main lobe measured above 00 and below 900 and it is already obtained as
 2K 
  cos 1    1
 n d 
Since BWFN is the angle between first nulls and it is obtained for K = 1.
 2 
  cos 1    1
 n d 
From Fig. it is clear that, BWFN = 2ϕ
 2 
BWFN  2cos 1    1
 n d 

(e) BWFN interms of length of the array ‘L’: (Approximate value)

BWFN is the angle between first nulls or double the angle between first null and main lobe
maxima direction.
BWFN  2 
The minima direction (null) for an end-fire array pattern is
2 K
cos  1  
n d
Substituting „β‟, we get
2K
cos  1  
2
n d


IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 17 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
  K
1  2sin 2    1  
2 nd
  K
2sin 2    
2 nd
  K
sin 2    
2 2nd
  K
sin    
2 2nd
 K 
  2sin 1   
 2nd 
For smaller values of ϴ, sinϴ = ϴ, hence
K 4K 
  2 
2nd 2nd
For K = 1,
4 2
 
2nd nd
2
BWFN  2  2
nd
2 2
BWFN  2  2 2 radians
L L

2
BWFN  2  114.6 degrees
L

(f) Half power beam width:
HPBW = BWFN/2

Useful information:
 Directivity increases as the beam width (beam solid angle) reduces.
 In a broadside array system the beam width can be reduced by increasing the number of antennas (n)
or distance (βd). Thereby directivity increases.
 In an end-fire array system the beam width reduces as (2π/nβd) reduces. Thereby directivity can be
increased.

2.4.3 Extended end-fire array: (or End-fire array with increased directivity)
It is observed that a broadside pattern is obtained δ = 0 and end-fire pattern is obtained when
δ = –βd. Extended end-fire pattern is obtained when „δ‟ is anything apart from 0 and –βd. Hansen and

Woodyard have shown that a larger directivity is obtained when     d  , which is termed as the
n
condition for super directivity.
We know that,    d cos  

But, for extended end-fire array,     d  ,
n
Now,    d cos  

   d  cos  1 
n

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 18 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
Beam width between full nulls for extended end-fire array:
At nulls „E‟ is 0. Hence, the minima direction obtained as follows:
 n  n 2K
sin  0   K    
 2  2 n
Substituting „ψ‟, we get
2 K
 d cos    
n

For an extended end-fire array,     d  , hence
n
 2 K
 d cos   d  
n n
2 K 
 d  cos  1   
n n
2 K 
cos  1   
n d n d
 2 K  
  cos 1     1
 n  d n  d 
Since BWFN is the angle between first nulls and it is obtained for K = 1. (cosϴ ranges from 0 to 1)
 2  
  cos 1     1
 n d n d 
  
  cos 1 1 
 n  d 
Now, BWFN = 2ϴ
  
BWFN  2cos 1 1  
 n d 
Consider an example n = 4, d = λ/2,
 
 2   2 
For End-fire array, BWFN  2cos 1    1  2cos 1    1  1200
 n d   4  2   
  2 
 
     
For Extended end-fire array, BWFN  2cos 1    1  2cos 1    1  82.80
 n d   4  2   
  2 

Hence, that directivity increases using super directivity condition. The phase shift between
adjacent elements is increased by π/4 as compared to end-fire array. The back lobe is exclusively large
and the side lobes can be reduced by reducing the spacing between adjacent elements.

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 19 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
Note:
1. For Broadside array,   0 , so    d cos     d cos
2. For End-fire array,    d , so    d cos     d  cos  1
 
3. For Extended End-fire array,     d  , so    d cos     d  cos  1 
n n

Example 2.4
Obtain the field pattern for a linear uniform array of 6-isotropic point sources spaced λ/2 distance
apart. The power is applied with equal amplitude and in phase. Also find HPBW and BWFN.
Sol: Given n = 6, d = λ/2
The total filed expressed as
 n 
sin  
E  E0  2 
 
sin  
2
(a) Major lobe maxima direction: (Peaks)
The directions of peaks are obtained by equating E = 1; ψ = 0.
i.e.,    d cos  
For a broadside array,   0 , hence
   d cos  0
cos  0
  900
(b) Side lobes maxima direction: (Side lobes)
We know that,
  2 K  1  
  cos1   
 n d 

  cos1  
 2K  1  2 
 n d  6    6
 6   2
  2 K  1 
  cos1   
 6 
 3  3
For K = 1;   cos1    600 ;   cos1     1200
 6  6
 5  5
For K = 2;   cos1    33.50 ;   cos1     146.50
 6  6
(c) Minima direction: (Nulls)
We know that,
 2K 
  cos 1   
 n d 
 2K 
  cos 1   
 6 
 K
  cos 1   
 3
 1  1
For K = 1;   cos1    70.50 ;   cos 1    109.50
3   3
Nulls for K = 1 are to always adjacent to main lobes known as first nulls.

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 20 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
 2  2
For K = 2;   cos1    48.20 ;   cos 1    138.80
 3 3 
For K = 3;   cos1  1   00 ;   cos1  1   1800
Nulls in the direction of peaks are eliminated. i.e., Nulls for K = 0 are to be eliminated since they appear
in maxima direction.
Now, to estimate the field pattern, procedure is adopted as follows:

Fig E2.4: Field pattern

2.5 Comparative study on Broad side and End-fire arrays:
Direction ▼ Broadside Array ▼ End-Fire Array ▼

δ 0 – βd

Main lobe maxima

  900   00 and 1800
direction (Peaks)
Side lobes maxima 
  cos1  
 2K  1  
  cos 1  
 2K  1
 1


direction (Side lobes)  n d   n d 
 2K   2 K 
Minima direction (Nulls)   cos 1      cos 1    1
 n d   n d 
 2   2 
Beam Width between BWFN  2sin 1     Acurate  BWFN  2cos 1    1  Acurate 
 n d   n d 
First Nulls (BWFN)
114.60 2
(For K = 1) BWFN   Approx. BWFN  114.60  Approx.
L L
Half Power Beam Width BWFN BWFN
HPBW  HPBW 
(HPBW) 2 2

2.6 Null directions for array of ‘n’ isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing
(The section discusses about only null directions and 80% of this section already covered in previous
section)
For array of „n‟ isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing the total field is given by,
 n 
sin   jn
E  2   1 e
   1  e j
sin  
2

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Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
The null directions obtained from
 n 
sin  0
 2 
n
  K K  0,1, 2,......
2
n   2K
2K
 
n
Substituting „ψ‟ , we get
2 K
 d cos    
n
2 K
 d cos   
n
2 K 
cos   
n d  d
2.6.1 Broadside array
For broadside δ = 0,
2 K 0
cos   
n d  d
2K
cos  
n d
2
For K = 1, cos 
n d
 2 
  cos 1  
 n d 
  2   1  2 
Exact value: BWFN  2 90     2 90  cos 1     2sin  
  n d    n d 
2 2 2
Approximate value: BWFN  2  2   2 
n d 2
n d nd

For example consider n = 4, d = λ/2, then BWFN of broadside array is calculated as:
 
 2  1 1
 2 
Exact value: BWFN  2  2sin    2sins    60
0

 n d   4 2 
 
  2
2 2
Approximate value: BWFN  2    57.30
nd 4  
2

2.6.2 End-fire array

For end-fire    d
2 K   d 
cos   
n d d
2 K
cos   1
n d
2 K
cos  1  
n d

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Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
  2 K
1  2sin 2    1  
2 n d

  2K
2sin 2    
2 2
n d

  K
sin 2    
2 2nd

  K
sin    
2 2nd

 K 
  2sin 1   
 2nd 
For K =1,
  
  2sin 1  
 2nd 
For smaller values of ϴ, sinϴ = ϴ, hence
 4
 2 
2nd 2nd
2

nd
2
BWFN  2  2
nd

2 2
BWFN  2  2 2 radians
L L


2
BWFN  2  114.6 degrees
L


For example consider n = 4, d = λ/2, then BWFN of end-fire array is calculated as:
  
1   
   120 0
Exact value: BWFN = 2ϴ =  4sin 1    4sin
 2nd   2 4  
 2
2 2
Approximate value: BWFN = 2ϴ =  114.6  114.6  114.60
nd 
 4
2

2.6.3 Extended end-fire array


For extended end-fire array,     d  ,
n
 
2K   d  

n
cos  
n d d
2 K d 
cos    
n d  d n d

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Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
2K 
cos   1
n d n d
2K 
cos  1   
n d n d
  2K 
1  2sin 2    1   
2 n d n d
  2K 
2sin 2     
2 n d n d
  2 K 
2sin 2     
2 n d n  d
For K = 1,
   2 
2sin 2    
 2  n d n d
  
2sin 2   
 2  n d
  
sin   
2 2n d

 
  2sin 1  2sin 1
2 4nd
2n  d


Exact value: BWFN = 2ϴ = 4sin 1
4nd

 
Approximate value: BWFN = 2ϴ = 4 2
4nd nd

2.7 Non-isotropic but similar point sources and the principle of multiplication
The filed pattern of an array of point sources is not much complicated to analyse. But, the analysis
of an array of non-isotropic antennas is very much complicated. Hence, to simplify the mathematical
analysis of an array of non-isotropic point sources “the principle of pattern multiplication” is used.
 The principle is applicable only for antennas which are identical and having the same orientation.
 Identical antennas will result in same parameters like pattern shape, beam width, directivities,
efficiency, and radiation resistance.

Principle of pattern multiplication:

The filed pattern of an array of identical antennas is a product of primary pattern and secondary
pattern.
Let, E1 be the primary pattern obtained for any individual source and E2 be the secondary field pattern
obtained for the complete array system replacing all antennas by isotropic point sources maintaining
same power and phase difference.
i.e., primary pattern : E1 1 and secondary pattern : E2 2
by the pattern multiplication,
E  E1  E2 and   1  2

Example of pattern synthesis by pattern multiplication:

Consider 4-element array of equispaced identical antennas as shown in Fig. 2.7.1. Let the spacing
between 2 units be d = λ/2. Also assume that all the elements are supplied with equal amplitude currents
which are in phase.
IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 24 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107
Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays

Fig. 2.7.1: Linear array of 4 isotropic elements spaced λ/2 apart and fed in phase

Fig. 2.7.2: Array of 4 isotropic elements replaced by 2 antennas placed λ-apart

Fig. 2.7.3: Radiation pattern of 2 antennas spaced at Fig. 2.7.4: Radiation pattern of 2 antennas spaced
at distance λ/2 and fed with equal currents in phase distance λ and fed with equal currents in phase

The elements 1 and 2 are considered as one unit and is considered to be placed between the mid-
way of the elements. Similarly, elements 3 and 4 are considered as another unit and is placed between the
mid-way of the elements. Thus, it is clear that, array of 4 identical elements placed λ/2 apart, replaced by
an array of 2 single antennas placed at a distance of λ-apart. Fig. 2.7.4 illustrates all the assumptions.

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 25 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
Now, from the principle of pattern multiplication, we get

Fig. 2.7.5: Pattern multiplication

Thus, 4 elements spaced λ/2 have been replaced by 2 units spaced λ and by doing so, the problem
of determining radiation of 4 elements has reduced to finding out the radiation pattern of 2 antennas
λ-apart.
Conclusion:
According to pattern multiplication, the resultant radiation pattern of 4 elements spaced λ/2 is obtained by
multiplying the radiation pattern of individual elements and array of 2 units spaced λ-apart.

Example 2.5
Obtain the field pattern for a linear uniform array of 5-isotropic point sources satisfying the
following parameters: d= λ/2, δ = –dr distance apart. The power is applied with equal amplitude
and in phase. Also find HPBW and BWFN.
Sol: Given n = 5, d = λ/2, δ = –dr = –βd (in the standard textbook dr = βd)
It is clear that given array is end-fire system.
(a) Major lobe maxima direction: (Peaks)
The directions of peaks are obtained by equating E = 1; ψ = 0.
i.e.,    d cos    0
 d cos   d  0
cos  1
   00 ,  1800
(b) Side lobes maxima direction: (Side lobes)
We know that, for an end-fire the side lobe direction obtained by
  2 K  1   2 
  cos1 1   n d  5    5
 n d   2

  cos 1 1 
 2K  1 

 5 
 1
For K = 0;   cos1 1     36.80
 5
 3
For K = 1;   cos 1 1     66.40
 5
 5
For K = 2;   cos 1 1     900
 5
 7
For K = 3;   cos1 1    113.60
 5

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Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
(c) Minima direction: (Nulls)
We know that, for an end-fire the side lobe direction obtained by
 2 K  2 
  cos1 1   n d  5    5
 n d   2
 2K 
  cos 1 1 
 5 
 0  2
For K = 0;   cos 1 1     00 For K = 1;   cos1 1     53.10
 5  5
 4  6
For K = 2;   cos1 1     78.50 For K = 3;   cos1 1    101.50
 5  5
 8
For K = 4;   cos1 1    126.90
 5
(d) BWFN = 106.20
(e) HPBW = 106.20/2 = 53.10
Nulls in the direction of peaks are eliminated. i.e., Nulls for K = 0 are to be eliminated since they appear
in maxima direction. The field pattern is estimated as shown in Fig. E2.5.

Fig. E2.5: Field pattern

Example 2.6
An array of 4 isotropic antennas placed along a straight line. Distance between adjacent element is
λ/2. The peak is to be obtained in a direction of 600 from the axis of the array. What should be the
phase difference between adjacent elements. Complete the filed pattern and find BWFN and
HPBW.
Sol: Given n = 4, d = λ/2, δ = –dr = –βd
The peaks are obtained for ψ = 0.
i.e.,    d cos    0
 d cos    0
 
 d cos 600    0
2  1
  0
 22

 
2
 2   
Therefore,    d cos   cos    cos 
2  2 2 2

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 27 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
(a) Main lobe maxima direction: (Peaks)
From the given data from question, it is to be obtained in the direction ±600.
(b) Side lobes maxima direction: (Side lobes)
We know that the side lobe directions are obtained by
 n  n 
sin   1    2 K  1
 2  2 2

 
 2K  1 
n
  2K  1 
 cos   
2 n

 cos  
 2 K  1 

n 2

cos   
 2 K  1  1
n 2
  2 K  1 1 
  cos1    
 4 2
1 1  1 1
For K = 0;   cos1     41.40 &   cos 1      75.520 (To be eliminated)
4 2  4 2
3 1
For K = 1;   cos1     104.50
4 2
 5 1
For K = 2;   cos 1      138.50
 4 2
(c) Minima direction: (Nulls)
We know that the null directions are obtained by
 n  n
sin  0   K
 2  2
2K
 
n
 2 K
 cos  
2 n
2K 
 cos   
n 2
2K 1
cos   
4 2
 K 1
  cos 1    
 2 2
1
For K = 0;   cos1    600 (To be eliminated)
2
1 1  1 1
For K = 1;   cos1      900 &   cos 1      00
2 2  2 2
 2 1
For K = 2;   cos1      1200
 2 2
 3 1
For K = 3;   cos1      1800
 2 2
(d) BWFN = 900 (e) HPBW = 900/2 = 450

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Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
Nulls in the direction of peaks are eliminated. i.e., Nulls for K = 0 are to be eliminated since they appear
in maxima direction. The field pattern is estimated as shown in Fig. E2.6.

Fig. E2.6: Field pattern

Example 2.7
An array of 4 isotropic antennas placed along a straight line λ/6 apart. They have a phase
difference of π/3 between adjacent elements. Complete the filed pattern and find BWFN and
HPBW.
Sol: Given n = 4, d = λ/6, δ = π/3
(a) Main lobe maxima direction: (Peaks)
The peaks are obtained for ψ = 0.
i.e.,    d cos    0
2  
cos   0
 6 3
 
cos  0
3 3
cos  1
  1800
(b) Side lobes maxima direction: (Side lobes)
We know that the side lobe directions are obtained by
 n 
sin   1
 2 
n 
   2 K  1
2 2
 2 K  1 
 
n
   2K  1
cos   
3 3 4
  2K  1
 cos  1  
3 4
3
cos  1    2 K  1
4
 3 
  cos1    2 K  1  1
 4 

3 
For K = 0,   cos1   1  104.50
4 

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Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
(c) Minima direction: (Nulls)
We know that the null directions are obtained by
 n 
sin  0
 2 
n
  K
2
2K
 
n
  2 K
cos  
3 3 4
 K
 cos  1  
3 2
3K
cos   1
2
 3K 
  cos1    1
 2 
For K = 0,   cos  1  1800
1
Fig. E2.7: Field pattern
 3 
For K = 1,   cos1    1  600
2 
(d) BWFN = 2400
(e) HPBW = 2400/2 = 1200

Example 2.8
Prove that the width of main lobe of uniform end-fire array is broader than that of a uniform
broadside array.
Sol:
From the previous discussions we have,
2  57.3
BWFN of broadside array is BWFN  degrees
L

2
BWFN of end-fire array is BWFN  114.6 degrees
L

L L
From the above two equations, it is clear that 
. Moreover these values are in the denominator
 
which clearly indicates that the beamwidth of end-fire array is greater than that of broadside array.

Example 2.9
The lower lobe of an 8 element uniform broadside array was observed to be 450, with a frequency
of 40MHz. Estimate the distance.
Sol: Given n = 8, lower lobe direction = 450
The minima direction of the broadside array is
 2K 
  cos 1   
 n d 
 2 
For K = 1,   cos 1    450
 n d 
2
cos 450 
2
8 d


IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 30 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
2
cos 450 
2
8 d

Solving, d = 2.449 meters

Example 2.10
A linear array of 4 isotropic antennas placed along a straight line λ/2 apart. They have equal
magnitudes and a phase difference of –dr between adjacent elements. Obtain the filed pattern and
find BWFN and HPBW.
Sol: Given n = 4, d = λ/2, δ = –dr = –βd
(a) Main lobe maxima direction: (Peaks)
From the given data from question δ (δ = –dr = –βd), it is clear that array is end-fire type. Hence peaks
obtained in ±00 or ±1800.
(b) Side lobes maxima direction: (Side lobes)
We know that the side lobe directions are obtained by
 n  n 
sin   1    2 K  1
 2  2 2

 
 2K  1 
n

 d cos    
 2K  1
n

 d cos   d  
 2K  1
4
2   2K  1
 cos  1  
 2 4

cos  
 2 K  1   1
4
  2 K  1 
  cos 1 1  
 4 
For K = 0;   41.1 0
(To be eliminated)
For K = 1;   75.52 0

For K = 2;   104.480
For K = 3;   138.60

(c) Minima direction: (Nulls)

We know that the null directions are obtained by
 n  n
sin  0   K
 2  2
2K
 
n
2 K
 d cos    
4
2 K
 d cos   d  
4
2  2 K
 cos  1  
 2 4

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 31 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
2K
cos   1
4
 K
  cos 1 1  
 2
For K = 0;   00 (To be eliminated)
For K = 1;   600
For K = 2;   900
For K = 3;   1200
Nulls in the direction of peaks are eliminated. i.e., Nulls for K = 0 are to be eliminated since they appear
in maxima direction. The field pattern is estimated as shown in Fig. E2.10.
(d) BWFN = 1200 (e) HPBW = 1200/2 = 600

Fig. E2.10: Field pattern

Example 2.11
Estimate the field pattern for the following data.
 n 
cos  
    2 
n  4, d  ,   ,    cos  , E 
2 3 3  
cos  
2
Sol:

Peaks:    d cos     cos  0
3

 cos   0    109.470
3
    
Sidelobes: 2  cos     K Nulls: 2  cos      2 K  1
 3  3 2
 K 1   2 K  1 1 
  cos1       cos1    
 2 3  4 3
For K = 0;   146.440 For K = 0;   125.69 , 94.78
0 0

For K = 1;   80.40 For K = 1;   65.380

For K = 2;   48.190 For K = 2;   23.560

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 32 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107

Antennas and Propagation Chapter 2: Point Sources and Arrays
Now, the field pattern is estimated as shown in Fig. E2.11.

Fig. E2.11: Estimated filed pattern

Example 2.12
Estimate the field pattern for the following data.
 n 
sin  
  2   2 
n  4, d  ,   ,   cos  , E 
3 2 3 2  
sin  
2
Sol: The estimated pattern is given below, students should explain the estimation process.

Example 2.13
6-vertical radiators spaced λ/2 distance apart. The power is applied with equal amplitude and in
phase. Obtain the filed pattern and find BWFN and HPBW.
Sol: Already discussed the similar problem for 4 point sources.

Example 2.14
57.30
Show that the HPBW of a long uniform broadside array is given by .
L
λ
Sol: Refer sections 2.4.1 & 2.6.1

Note: Any discrepancy contact respective faculty.

IVK REDDY, Dept. of E & C 33 A.I.T., Bangalore-560107