Mathematical Statistics with Applications:

2.23

From the information, observe that A and B are the events and B  A
Prove that P  B   P  A

Consider S denotes the universal set.

That is, B  B  S
Consider E denotes the cardinality of any set E which lies in the universal set S.

It is given that B  A
We need to prove that P  B   P  A
It is trivial that if B  A then B  A
Dividing both sides by S so,

B A
B A

S S
P  B   P  A

The result is obvious because as B is a subset of A so whenever event B occurs A will also
occur but when A occurs B or may not occur.
Therefore, probability of B should less than that of A.

2.68

a)

n
Prove that    1 for any integer n  1
n

n n!
 
 n  n! n  n !
1

 n  n !
1

0!
1
 Since 0!  1
1
1

Therefore, there is only one way to choose all of the items if order of choosing is not
important.

b)

n
Prove that    1 for any integer n  1
0

n n!
 
 0  0! n  0 !
n!
 Since 0!  1
1  n!
n!

n!
1

From the expression, observe that there is only one way to choose none of the items.

c)

n  n 
Prove that      for any integer n  1
r  n  r

n n!
 
 r  r ! n  r !
n!

 n  n  r ! n  r !
n!

 n   n  r   ! n  r !
n!

 n  r ! n   n  r  !
 n 
 
n  r

Interpretation: It is basically that the number of ways to choose r objects from n is the
same as choosing n  r objects from n.
This is because we are basically dividing the n objects into two groups of sizes r and
nr

d)
 n
n
Prove that  i   2 n
for any integer n  1
i 0  

RHS  2n
 1  1
n

n
 n  n i i
    1 1
i 0  i 

n
n
  
i 0  i 

 LHS

n
n
Hence,  i   2 n
proved.
i 0  

2.69

From the information, observe that n is the sample size and k is the number of items in
the sample.

 n  1  n   n 
Prove that      
 k   k   k  1

n  n  n! n!
   
 k   k  1 k ! n  k  !  k  1 ! n  k  1 !
n ! n  k  1 n !k
 
k ! n  k  ! n  k  1 k  k  1! n  k  1!
n ! n  k  1 n !k
 
k ! n  k  1 ! k ! n  k  1!
n ! n  k  1  n !k

k ! n  k  1!
n ! n  k  1  k 

k ! n  k  1 !
n ! n  1

k ! n  k  1 !


 n  1!
k ! n  k  1 !
 n  1
 
 k 

2.88

From the information, observe that A and B are the two events with probabilities 0.6 and
0.3 respectively.
That is, P  A  0.6 and P  B   0.30

a)

Check whether it possible that P  A  B   0.1

Yes.
It is possible that P  A  B   0.1
Since the probability of an intersection of the events has to be at least 0 because all
probabilities are at least 0 and at most 0.3 (because it is the minimum of the probability of
the separate events).
That is, 0  0.1  0.3

b)

Calculate the smallest possible value for P  A  B 

The smallest value of the intersection of the two events A and B is 0.
Since the events A and B are disjoint sets so their intersection part will be 0.

c)

Check whether it is possible that P  A  B   0.7

No.
This is not possible that the intersection of the two events A and B is 0.7 because this
value is greater than the individual probabilities of events A and B.
That is, the individual probabilities of both events A and B are 0.6 and 0.3 which are less
than 0.7 and intersection of these events is the set of all common elements in the both sets
so obviously it is less than both individual probabilities.

d)

Calculate the largest possible value for P  A  B 

The largest value of P  A  B   0.3
Since the intersection of the both events A and B are the subset of individual events of A
and B so the maximum value is equal to the which of the lowest probability of individual
events.

2.103

From the information, observe that the probability played a role in the rigging
Pennsylvania State Lottery.
The three digit winning number, each of the numbers 0, 1, 2 ...., 9 is placed in a ping
pong all.
The total number of digits in the ping pong ball is 10.
The probability of getting a winning number of 6 in the Pennsylvania or Connecticut state
1
lottery was
10
The hours after the rigging of the Pennsylvania State lottery was announced, Connecticut
state lottery officials were stunned to learn that their winning number for the day was
666.

a)

All evidence indicates that the Connecticut selection of 666 was due to pure chance.
Calculate the probability that a 666 would be drawn in Connecticut, given that a 666 had
been selected.

P  666 in CT  666 in PA 
P  666 in CT | 666 in PA  
P  666 in PA 
P  666 in CT  P  666 in PA 

P  666 in PA 
 P  666 in CT 
 P  Winning number 6  
 
  P  Winning number 6  
 
 P  Winning number 6  
1 1 1
  
10 10 10
1

1000
 0.001

b)

Calculate the probability of drawing a 666 in Pennsylvania lottery and a 666 in

Connecticut lottery.
The probability of getting three digit winning number in Connecticut is,

 P  Winning number 6  
 
P  666 in CT    P  Winning number 6  
 
 P  Winning number 6  
1 1 1
  
10 10 10
1

1000
 0.001

The probability of drawing a winning number in Pennsylvania that we exclude 2 even

1
numbers 4 and 6 is
8

Therefore, the required probability is,

P  666 in CT  666 in PT   P  666 in CT  P  666 in PT 

1
 0.001 
8
 0.000125

2.160

From the information, observe that a machine for producing a new experimental
electronic component generates defectives from time to time in a random manner.
Consider a random sample of 12 components, observe that there is 2 are defective.

a)

Calculate the probability that the arrangement given that 10 of the 12 components are
defective.
The number of components is 12.
The number of defective components is 2.
The number of good components is 10.
Therefore, the number of total arrangements that the good components from the total
components is,

12 
Total number of ways   
10 
12!

10! 12  10 !
12  11  10!

10! 2!
12  11

2
 66

Therefore, the required probability of observing the specific arrangement is,

Favourable cases
Probability 
Total cases
1

66

b)
Calculate the probability of observing two runs.
The total number of cases is 66.
There are two such arrangements that consist of runs.
The combination is DDNNNNNNNNNN.
Therefore, the favourable number of cases is 2.
The required probability is,

Favourable cases
P  Two runs  
Total cases
2

66
1

33