Definition of Counselling

Questions:
1. What is the concept of counselling?
Counselling
The application of one or more psychological counselling theories and a recognized
set of communication skills appropriate to a client’s intimate concerns, problems or
aspirations.

Counseling theories:
1. Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic Theory

Psychoanalysis or psychodynamic theory, also known as the “historical perspective,” has its
roots with Sigmund Freud, who believed there were unconscious forces that drive behavior.
The techniques he developed, such as free association (freely talking to the therapist about
whatever comes up without censoring), dream analysis (examining dreams for important
information about the unconscious), and transference (redirecting feelings about certain
people in one’s life onto the therapist) are still used by psychoanalysts today

2. Behavioral Theory

Behavioral theory is based on the belief that behavior is learned. Classic conditioning is one
type of behavioral therapy that stems from early theorist Ivan Pavlov’s research. Pavlov
executed a famous study using dogs, which focused on the effects of a learned response (e.g.,
a dog salivating when hearing a bell) through a stimulus (e.g., pairing the sound of a bell with
food).

B. F. Skinner developed another behavioral therapy approach, called operant conditioning.

He believed in the power of rewards to increase the likelihood of a behavior and
punishments to decrease the occurrence of a behavior. Behavioral therapists work on
changing unwanted and destructive behaviors through behavior modification techniques
such as positive or negative reinforcement.

3. Cognitive Theory

In the 1960s, psychotherapist Aaron Beck developed cognitive theory External link . This
counseling theory focuses on how people’s thinking can change feelings and behaviors.
Unlike psychodynamic theory, therapy based on cognitive theory is brief in nature and
oriented toward problem solving. Cognitive therapists focus more on their client’s present
situation and distorted thinking than on their past. Cognitive and behavioral therapy are
often combined as one form of theory practiced by counselors and therapists. Cognitive
behavioral therapy, or CBT, has been found in research External link to help with a number
of mental illnesses including anxiety, personality, eating, and substance abuse disorders.
 4. Humanistic Approach

Humanistic therapists care most about the present and helping their clients achieve their
highest potential. Instead of energy spent on the past or on negative behaviors, humanists
believe in the goodness of all people and emphasize a person’s self-growth and self-
actualization.

Humanistic theories include client-centered, gestalt, and existential therapies. Carl Rogers
developed client-centered therapy, which focuses on the belief that clients control their own
destinies. He believed that all therapists need to do is show their genuine care and interest.
Gestalt therapists’ work focuses more on what’s going on in the moment versus what is being
said in therapy. Existential therapists help clients find meaning in their lives by focusing on
free will, self-determination, and responsibility.

5. Holistic/Integrative Therapy

Holistic and integrative therapy involves integrating various elements of different theories
to the practice. In addition to traditional talk therapy, holistic therapy may include
nontraditional therapies such as hypnotherapy or guided imagery. The key is to use the
techniques and psychotherapy tools best suited for a particular client and problem.

There are various therapies that counselors can choose to study, but the type of theory
matters less than the success of the relationship between client and therapist. In
the Counseling@Northwestern online Master of Arts in Counseling Program, students are
prepared to become self-reflective practitioners and learn to examine the factors that
influence the client-therapist relationship to become successful counselors.

Communication skills: active listening, friendliness, giving and receiving feedback,

empathy, respect,volume and clarity.

Problems: anaging one's relationships so that they are healthy and functional, surviving
disabilities, coping with grief, loss and self-esteem issues.

Aspirations: Career success, freedom, love, ambitions, security

Client-individuals or a group in a demoralized, distressed or in a negative state of mind

about their situation

Methods- face to face dialogue, group work, telephone, email, written materials

- It is the process of guiding a person during a stage of life when reassessments (looking
at oneself, mental pause) or decisions have to be made about himself or herself and
his or her life course.
- Must be professionally trained and certified to perform counselling
- -non clinical intervention (no medical treatment or testing, more on patient care)
 - Areas of expertise: marriage, family, youth, student, life transitions- managing issues
of loss and death, retirement, divorce, parenting, bankruptcy.)
- Heart of guidance service in schools

Counseling in schools- is usually done as individual or group intervention designed to

facilitate positive change in student behaviour, feelings and attitudes

Counseling – For Nystul (2003) defined it as basically an art and a science wherein you
endeavor to weigh the objective and subjective facets of the counseling process.
- As an art is the subjective dimension of counseling. It upholds a flexible
and creative process whereby the counselor modifies the approach to
meet the developing needs of the clients.
- As a science, on the other hand, is the objective dimension of the
counseling process.
- In practical terms, counseling happens when a person who is distressed
asks for help and permit another person to enter into a kind of
connection with him/her. It is indicative with formal of someone in
search of counseling requests for time and attention from person who
will listen, who will allow him/her to speak and who will not condemn
and criticize him/her.
- Informal helping- is a kin with formal helping in some ways such as
presence of good listening skills, empathy, and caring capacity.

Subjective (influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions.)

Objective- not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and

representing facts.

It is a science because it employs scientific methods in a professional environment to help

clients deal effectively with their problems. It is an art because how effective methods
may be used, the counsellor must have the knack to handle the client well.

Appraisal and Assessment- aid in counselling

- Gathering information about clients through the use of psychological

testing and non-psychometric devices

Psychometry-mental capabalities and behaviour style of an individual

-s a branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, interpretation of

qualitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence,
aptitude (ability to do something, aptitude test is a systematic means of testing a job
candidate's abilities to perform specific tasks and react to a range of different situations. E.g.
NCAE), interest, and personality traits. It uses a number of calibrated short or multiple choice
questions to accurately measure an individual aptitude or potential in a particular area.

- standardized ad administered by a professional psychometrician

Context and basic Concepts of Counseling

Counselling is affected by contexts (circumstances) or surrounding factors

Context- Urie Bonfenbrenner- peers, culture, neighborhoods, the counselling, client,

counsellor, contextual and process factors.

World Health Organization, Philippine Mental Health Association, American Psychological

Association

1. Peers- Friends attitudes, norms, behaviour have a stong influence to individuals

especially to adolescents. Some personal issues were introduced by their peers,
example Children who are isolated or ostracized from their peers are restricted in
their ability to develop social skills and self-confidence, which can lead to a cycle of
negative socialization. Children may also be rejected by their peers because of
atypical characteristics, such as a handicap or minority status.
. Peers helping peers for the success of counselling. Students can help
when peers are in trouble. ... "Students are more likely to talk candidly about personal
issues with each other than with faculty
2. Neighbourhood-The interaction between the family and its neighbourhood is one
of the immediate context to consider in counselling. For example in counselling
students, the network of parents,teachers, grandparents and civic leaders may
introduce additional strengths or challenges in counselling. (Drugs, alcohol)
3. Culture- It is a major consideration in counselling because families, peers, and
neighbourhood are all bound together by culture.
Culture is the source of norms, values, symbols and language provide the basis of
normal functioning of an individual. Understanding the cultural context of a client
makes it easier for a counsellor to appreciate the nature of their struggles as well as
their personal characteristics that may help or hinder the success of counselling.
(Openness, self-revealing, making choices, personal determination of independence)
e.g. spiritual beliefs, economic, family history, sexual identity, physical
characteristics, location)

4. Counseling- the success and struggles of the counselling may depend on the
counselling factor itself
Contributors:
 a. Client factors-expectations and attitude of the client define the result of the
counselling process.
b. Counselor factors-the personality, skills and personal qualities of the counsellor
can impact the outcome of the counselling relationship (communication skills,
empathy, problem-solving skills, acceptance
c. Contextual factors-the context in which the counselling takes place. The
environment and atmosphere where to conduct the sessions. A client has to feel
comfortable and positive. It must take place in a quiet, warm and comfortable
place away from any distraction.
d. Process factors-the stages of counselling, the actual counselling
Vellemean six stages of counselling
1. Developing trust- warmth, genuineness and empathy
2. Exploring problem areas- clear and deep analysis of the problem,where it
comes from, what triggers it and why it may developed
3. Helping to set goals- setting and managing goals-directed interventions
4. Empowering into action- fostering action to achieve set goals
5. Helping to maintain change- providing support and techniques for the client
to maintain changes
6. Agreeing when to end the helping relationship-the process is being directed
to independence
Goals and Scope of Counseling
General Goal: Client empowerment- development of skills and abilities that require self-
management and improved motivation toward actions that are good for one’s self and
develop positive outlook toward the past leading to some sense of closure and attainment
of relative inner and outer harmony resulting in improvement in relationships with family,
friends, colleagues and others.
. Development Goals – assist in meeting or advancing the clients human growth and
development including social, personal, emotional, cognitive, and physical wellness.
2. Preventive Goals – helps the client avoid some undesired outcome.
3. Enhancement Goals- enhance special skills and abilities.
4. Remedial Goals – assisting a client to overcome and treat an undesirable development
5. Exploratory Goals- examining options, testing of skills, trying new and different activities, etc.
6. Reinforcement Goals- helps client in recognizing, that what they are doing, thinking, and
feeling is fine
7. Cognitive Goals-involves acquiring the basic foundation of learning and cognitive skills
8. Physiological Goals – involves acquiring the basic understanding and habits for good health
9. Psychological Goals – aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning emotional
control, and developing positive self – concept.
The presented list of counseling goals, some of which are enhancement of the above
goals.

Goal Description
Insight Understanding of the origins and
development of emotional difficulties , leading
to an increased capacity to take rational
control over feelings and actions
Relating with others Becoming better able to form and maintain
meaningful and satisfying relationships with
other people : for example , within the family
or workplace
Self- awareness Becoming more aware of thoughts and
feelings that had been blocked off or denied,
or developing a more accurate sense of how
self is perceived by others.
Self- acceptance The development of a positive attitude toward
self, marked by an ability to acknowledge
areas of experience that had been the
subject of self- criticism and rejection
Self – actualization Moving in the direction of fulfilling potential or
achieving an integration of previously
conflicting parts of self.
Enlightenment Assisting the client to arrive at a higher state
of spiritual awakening
Problem- Solving Finding a solution to a specific problem that
the client had not been able to resolve alone.
Acquiring a general competence in problem –
solving
Psychological education Enabling the client to acquire ideas and
techniques with which to understand and
control behavior
Acquisition of Social Skills Learning and mastering social and
interpersonal skills such as maintenance of
eye contact , turn taking in conversations,
assertive, or anger control
Cognitive change The modification or replacement of irrational
beliefs or mal adaptive thought patterns
associated with self- destructive behavior
Behavior change The modification or replacement of
maladaptive or self- destructive patterns of
behavior.
Systematic change Introducing change into the way in that social
systems operate
Empowerment Working on skills , awareness, and
knowledge that will enable to client to take
control of his or her own life
Restitution Helping the client to make amends for
previous destructive behavior
 Generality Inspiring in the person a desire and capacity
to care for others and pass on knowledge
and to contribute to the collective good
through political engagement

Scope- wide
Broadly, the scope of counseling includes individual counseling, marital and premarital
counseling, family counseling, and community counseling.

Principles of Counseling
Advice-making judgments about a counselee’s problems and lays out options for a couse of
action. As a counsellor, avoid breeding a relationship in which the counselee feels inferior
and emotionally dependent on the counsellor.
Reassurance-Counseling is providing clients the courage to face a problem or confidence
to pursue a suitable course of action. It encourages clients to believe in themselves and in
the real possibility of improvement.
Release of emotional tension-Counseling provides clients the opportunity to get
emotional release from their frustrations and other personal issues. Counseling experience
shows that as persons begin to explain their concerns to a symphathetic listener, their
tensions begin to subside.
Clarified thinking- The counsellor must clarify to the counselee what is right. The
counsellor must encourage the counselee to accept responsibility for the problems and be
more realistic in solving them.
Reorientation- changing emotional self through a change in basic goals and aspirations.
Listening skills-Good listening to understand both the content of the clients’ problem and
the emotions.
Respect-Put the personal feelings aside and treat the client with respect
Empathy and positive regard. (Carl Rogers)-understanding the feelings and perspective
of the client. Putting yourself in another’s shoes (sympathy-showing concern for another
person). Positive regard- accepting and respecting others as they are without judgment or
evaluation
Clarification, confrontation and interpretation-
Clarification-restating what the client is either saying or feeling so the client may learn
something or understand the issue better
Confrontation-highlighting discrepancies that clients have previously been unaware
(incongruent messages)
Interpretation-presenting the client with an alternative way of labelling events
Transference and countertransference-