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NUMBER SYSTEM

1.1 NUMBER SYSTEM REPRESENTATION

Number system is set of values to represent quantity. The number
system is not limited. Here we see in computers, how it manipulates
and stores the numbers.
1.1.1 Radix(r) or base(b)
Radix(r) or base(b) is nothing but the number of values that a digit
can assume is equal to the base of the system.
Example: decimal is representated by its base 10, hence every digit
can assume 10 values(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9). The largest value is
always one less than the base.

Fig.1.1.1 Representation of number system

Where,

„X‟ represents the given digit value (i.e.X0,X1,X2 are integer

part digit values and X-1,X-2,X-3 are fractional part digit
values)

„B‟ represents the base (power value represents the

positional weight)

To represent a number in required radix system is obtained by

multiplying the digit(X) and the positional weight(B) then, add all the
values.

……. X2 B2 + X1B1 + X0B0+ X-1B-1+ X-2B-2 + X-3B-3 ……..

1.1.2 Classification of Number systems

Fig.1.1.2 Classification of Number systems

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Table 1.1 comparisons of decimal, binary, octal, hexadecimal

numbers

Table.1.1 illustrates the equivalences between decimal, binary, octal,

and hexadecimal number.

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Table 1.2 Difference between decimal, binary, octal and

hexadecimal numbers

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1.2 NUMBER BASE CONVERSION

The number base conversion can be done by two ways. The first is
decimal to any other base (or) radix and second is any other base (or)
radix to decimal.

Fig.1.2.1 Number base conversion

1.2.1 Conversion from any radix to decimal number system
Steps:
1. Write the given number.
2. Write the weights of different position.
3. Multiply each digit in the given number with the corresponding
weight to obtain product number.
4. Add all the product numbers to get decimal equivalent.
1.2.1.1 Binary to decimal number system
Example 1.2.1 convert (10111.101)2 to decimal

(1 x 24)+ (0 x 23) +(1 x 22) +(1 x 21) +(1 x 20) +(1 x 2-1) +(0 x 2-2) +(1 x 2-3)
=(23.875)10

Example 1.2.2 convert (10111.101)2 to decimal

(1 x 24)+ (0 x 23) +(1 x 22) +(1 x 21) +(0 x 20) +(0 x 2-1) +(1 x 2-2) +(0 x 2-3)
=(22.3125)10

1.2.1.2 Octal to decimal number system

Example 1.2.3 convert (235.23)8 to decimal

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(2 x 82)+(3 x 81) +(5 x 80) +(2 x 8-1) +(3 x 8-2) =(157.40625)10

Example 1.2.4 convert (26.24)8 to ( )10

(2 x 81)+(6 x 80)+(2 x 8-1)+(4 x 8-2) =(22.3125)10

1.2.1.3 Hexa decimal to decimal number system

Example 1.2.5 convert (ABC.3C)16 to decimal

(A x 162)+(B x 161) +(C x 160) +(3 x 16-1) +(C x 16-2) =(2748.234375)10

Example 1.2.6 convert (16.5)16 to decimal

(1 x 161) +(6 x 160) +(5 x 16-1) =(22.3125)10

Example 1.2.7 convert (FAFA.B)16 to decimal

(F x 163)+ (A x 162)+(F x 161) +(A x 160) +(B x 16-1) =(64250.6875)10

1.2.1.4 Other base to decimal system

Example 1.2.8 convert (4310)5 to decimal

(4 x 53) +(3 x 52) +(1 x 51) +(0 x 50) =(580)10

Example 1.2.9 convert (198)12 to decimal

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(1 x 122)+(9 x 121) +(8 x 120) =(260)10

Example 1.2.10 convert (525)12 to decimal

(5 x 62)+(2 x 61) +(5 x 60) =(190)10

1.2.2 Conversion of decimal system to any base system

The decimal number system may have both integer part as well as
fractional part. The integer part of decimal number is converted to any
other base or radix by continuously dividing (by the base value) the
number until further division is not possible. The remainder gives the
required number. The fractional part of decimal number is converted to
any base or radix by continuously multiplying (by the base value) the
number until the fractional part becomes zero. The carry gives the required
number.

Fig.1.2.2 method for conversion of decimal system to any radix

1.2.2.1 Division method

Steps:
1. Repeatedly divide the integer part of decimal number by base until
it cannot be divided further.
2. The remainder is taken in reverse order to form new base number.
3. First remainder is least significant digit(LSD) and last remainder is
most significant digit(MSD)

Example 1.2.11 convert (105)10 to ( )2

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Ans: (1101001)2

Example 1.2.12 convert (204)10 to ( )8

Ans: (314)8

Example 1.2.13 convert (25)10 to ( )16

Ans: (19)16

Example 1.2.14 convert (54)10 to ( )4

Ans: (312)4

1.2.2.2 Multiplication method

Steps:
1. The number to be converted is multiplied by the radix.
2. The product has integer part and fractional part.
3. The integer part is taken as carry
4. The fractional part is multiplied by the base
5. This step4 is repeated until fractional part becomes „0‟.
6. Carry is written downwards, which is the required number.

Example 1.2.15 convert (0.8125)10 to ( )2

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Ans: (0.1101)2

Example 1.2.16 convert (0.45)10 to ( )8

Ans: (0.3463…)8
Example 1.2.17 convert (0.122)10 to ( )16

Ans: (0.1F3B…..)16

Example 1.2.18 convert (1305.375)10 to binary, octal and hexadecimal

Decimal to binary number

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Ans: (10100011001.011)2
Decimal to octal number

Ans: (2431.3)8
Decimal to hexadecimal number

Ans: (519.6)16
Example 1.2.19 convert (301.12)10 to binary, octal and hexadecimal
Decimal to binary number

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Ans: (100101100.0001…)2

Decimal to octal number

Ans: (455.075…)8

Decimal to hexadecimal number

Ans: (13D.1EB…)16

Example 1.2.20 convert (757.25)10 to binary, octal and hexadecimal

Decimal to binary number

Ans: (1011110101.01)2
Decimal to octal number

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Ans: (1365.20)8

Decimal to hexadecimal number

Ans: (2F5.40)16

1.2.3 Special conversion procedures(weightage)

1.2.3.1 Binary to octal conversion

The binary number is represented as 2 and octal as 8 where the octal

number can be also given as 23. The power three is the number of digit in
integer portion of number i.e, three bit of binary represents one octal value.

Step:

1. Group the binary number by three digits.

2. Each group is represented by an octal value.

3. All the octal value together gives the equivalent octal number.

Ans: (754)8

1.2.3.2 Octal to binary conversion

Octal number can be converted to binary number by representing each octal

numbers by three bits of binary.

Steps:

1. Each octal value in the number is represented by three bits of binary.

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2. All the binary value together gives the equivalent binary number.

Ans: (110011100)2

1.2.3.3 Binary to hexadecimal conversion

The binary number is represented as 2 and hexa decimal as 16 where the

hexadecimal number can be also given as 24. The power four is the number
of digit in integer portion of number i.e, four bit of binary represents one
hexadecimal value.

Step:

1. Group the binary number by four digits.

2. Each group is represented by an hexadecimal value.

3. All the hexadecimal value together gives the equivalent hexadecimal

number.

Ans: (D8B)16

1.2.3.4 Hexadecimal to binary conversion

Hexadecimal number can be converted to binary number by representing

each Hexadecimal value by four bits of binary.

Steps:

1. Each Hexadecimal value in the number is represented by four bits of

binary.

2. All the binary value together gives the equivalent binary number.

Ans: (001111111101)2

1.2.3.5 Octal to hexadecimal conversion

Octal number cannot be directly converted to hexadecimal numbers because

its base cannot be made equal. Therefore this type is converted by
intermediate conversion stage of binary equivalent.

Steps:

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1. First convert each octal value to its equivalent binary number (refer
section 1.2.3.2).

2. Then convert the binary number to its equivalent hexadecimal

number (refer section 1.2.3.3).

(615)8 to ( )16

Octal to binary

Binary: (110001101)2

Binary to hexadecimal

Ans: (18D)16

1.2.3.6 Hexadecimal to Octal conversion

Hexadecimal number cannot be directly converted to octal numbers because

its base cannot be made equal. Therefore this type is converted by
intermediate conversion stage of binary equivalent.

Steps:

1. First convert each hexadecimal value to its equivalent binary number

(refer section 1.2.3.4).

2. Then convert the binary number to its equivalent octal number (refer
section 1.2.3.1).

(25B)16 to ( )8

Hexadecimal to binary

Binary: (001001011011)2

Binary to octal

Ans: (1133)8

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Example 1.2.21 convert (30.23)8 to hexadecimal.

Octal to binary

binary: (011000.010011)2

binary to hexadecimal

Ans: (18.4C)16

Example 1.2.22 convert (1001000.111)2 to octal and hexadecimal.

Binary to octal

Ans: (110.7)8

Binary to hexadecimal

Ans: (48.E)16

Example 1.2.23 convert (375.64)8 to binary and hexadecimal.

Octal to binary

Ans: (011111101.110100)2

Binary to hexadecimal

Ans: (FD.D0)16

Example 1.2.24 convert (ADE.B)16 to binary and octal

Hexadecimal to binary

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Ans: (101011011110.1011)2
Binary to octal

Ans: (375.64)8

Example 1.2.25 convert (1.100010)2 to octal and hexadecimal.

Binary to octal

Ans: (1.42)8
Binary to hexadecimal

Ans: (1.88)16
Example 1.2.26 convert (110.010)2 to octal and hexadecimal.
Binary to octal

Ans: (6.2)8
Binary to hexadecimal

Ans: (6.4)16

1.3 COMPLEMENTS

Complements can be taken only for negative numbers.it is used to

simplify subtraction operation and for logical manipulation.

A-B is taken in addition form

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Fig. Classification of complement

1.3.1 Diminished radix complement

1’s complement

Steps:

1. 1‟s complement is taken only for binary numbers.

2. Change „o‟ to „1‟ and „1‟ to „0‟.

9’s complement

Steps:

1. 9‟s complement is taken only for decimal numbers.

2. Subtract each digit from 9.

Take 9‟s complement for 546700

1.3.2 Radix complement

2’s complement

Steps:

1. 2‟s complement is taken only for binary numbers.

2. Change „o‟ to „1‟ and „1‟ to „0‟ i.e., take 1‟s complement and add „1‟ to
the least significant bit(LSB).

Take 2‟s complement for (10101)2

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10’s complement

Steps:

1. 10‟s complement is taken only for decimal numbers.

2. Subtract each digit from 9 i.e., take 9‟s complement and add 1 to the
least significant bit (LSB).

Take 10‟s complement for 546700

1.4 BINARY CODES

A code is a symbol or group of symbols that stands for something.

Binary bits are often used in groups to stand for things such as decimal or
alphanumeric characters. It is advantage since only 0‟s and I‟s are being
used, implementation becomes easy.

All the computers understand only machine code that is binary in

nature „0‟ and „1‟. Therefore different codes are used to store and transmit
data efficiently. Machine contains alphabets, numbers, punctuation and
special character all represented as „0‟ and „1‟.

1.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CODES (Nov/Dec’11)

Fig. Classification of codes

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1.6.1.1 Weighted binary codes

In this type of codes every bit is assigned with positional

weights. Therefore arithmetic operations can be performed using these
codes.

Table 1.6.2 Relationship between decimal, binary and BCD codes

1. BCD addition

Steps

1. Convert the decimal number to BCD codes.

2. Add BCD number using rules of binary addition.

3. Check result for each digit

i) It is said to be Valid, if binary sum of each digit  9, then no

correction required.

ii) It is said to be Invalid, if binary sum >9 then go to step 4.

4. Add (0110)2 of 4 bit binary to the sum to get the correct result.

Example: 1.6.1 Add 5 and 3

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Ans: 1000

Example: 1.6.2 Add 4 and 1

Ans: 0101

Example: 1.6.3 Add 11 and 12

Example: 1.6.4 Add 8 and 4

Ans: 12

Example: 1.6.5 Add 39 and 42

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Ans: 81

Example: 1.6.6 Add 8 and 8

(Note: The carry becomes the next digit for BCD) Ans: 16

DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILIES

Fundamental characteristics of Logic families

1. Fan-in: the fan in of a gate is the number of inputs connected to the

gate without any degradation in the voltage levels. For example: an
inverter has fan-in of 1, two input NOR gate, fan-in 2. etc., the
propagation delay increases with increase in fan in i.e., 2 input gates
is faster than 4 input gates. Fan-in of gate should be selected to
accommodate the number of inputs.
2. Fan-out: the number of load gates that a logic gate output is capable
of driving without possible logic errors.

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Fig. High level output

It provides a current source IOH to all the gate inputs connected to it. Each
gate input requires a current IIH for proper operation.

Fig. Low level output

It provides a current sink IOL for all the gate inputs connected to it.
Each gate input supplies a current IIL.
FAN OUT = or (for TTL fan-out=10(max))

3. Power dissipation:

The power dissipation represents the amount of power needed

by the gate and is expressed in milliwatts (mW). This number
represents he power delivered to the gate from power supply. It is
defined as the amount of power that is dissipated in gate is calculated
from the supply voltage VCC and the current ICC that is drawn by the
circuit P= VCC . ICC

ICC(avg)=

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ICCH  current drawn from the power supply when the output
of gate is in high-voltage level

ICCL  when the output of gate is in low-voltage level

Average power dissipated PD = ICC(avg) . VCC

Example: A standard TTL NAND gate uses a supply voltage VCC of 5V

and has current drains ICCH=1mA, ICCL=3 mA. Find the power dissipated
for 4 NAND gate.

ICC(avg)=

= =2mA

= ICC(avg) . VCC

=2m x 5

=10mW

Power dissipated for 4 NAND gate=4 x 10m = 40 Mw

4. Propagation delay: the propagation delay of a gate is the average

transition – delay time for the signal to propagate from input to output
when the binary input signal changes in value. The signals through a
gate take a certain amount of time to propagate from the inputs to
the output. This interval of time is defined as the propagation delay of
the gate. Propagation delay is measured in nanoseconds(ns).
Pdelay=max( , )
The larger value is considered as a propagation delay time for that
logic gates.

Fig. propagation delay

: it is the delay time measured when output is charging from
logic1 to logic 0 state (high to low)
: it is the delay time measured when output is charging from logic
0 to logic 1 state(low to high)
5. Noise margin: the unwanted signals are called noise.

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AC noise: random pulse caused by other switching signal

DC noise: by drift in voltage level of signal.

Output voltage range input voltage range

Fig. Noise margin

Noise margin is the maximum noise voltage added to an input signal

of a digital circuit that doesnot cause an undesirsble change in circuits
output.the noise margin is the difference , whichever is smaller.

SWITCHING CIRCUITS

1. Semiconductor diode
The diode behaves like „one way‟ switch.

Diode is ON when forward biased ,switch is closed and therefore

conducts current.

Fig. Diode as closed switch

Diode is OFF when it is reverse biased and switch is open and will not
conduct current.

Fig. Diode as open switch

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2. BJT’s:

ON: working as saturated region (emitter base junction and collector base
junction are forward biased)

Note:

If input voltage through

base is high (or) if input
voltage through emitter
transistor is low, these
conditions makes the
transistor to ON.

Fig. BJT as closed switch

High base turns the transistor ON and makes it as closed switch.

OFF: working as a cut off( emitter base junction and collector base junction
are reverse biased)

Note:

If input voltage through

emitter is high (or) if
input voltage through
base transistor is low,
these conditions makes
the transistor to OFF.

Fig. BJT as open switch

Low on base turns the transistor OFF and makes it an open switch.

Resistor–transistor logic (RTL) circuit (NOR gate)

Resistor–transistor logic (RTL) uses resistors as the input network and

bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) as switching devices. This has been used
in early computers with electron tubes, and in RTL circuits constructed with
discrete components, but in 1961 it became the first digital logic family to be
produced as a monolithic integrated circuit. Such were used in the US space
program in 1962. Truth table for 3 input NOR

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Fig.RTL circuit for NOR logic

All the binary inputs are given to the base of the transistor through a
resistor and all the emitter terminal are grounded. All the collector terminals
are tied together at the output.

Low level voltage: 0.2V

High level voltage: 1 to 3.6 V

Case i: If any input in RTL gate is high, the corresponding transistor is

driven into saturation (switch closed) and output goes low.

Case ii: if all inputs are low at 0.2V, all transistors are cutoff (switch open)
and the output goes high.

Advantage:

1. RTL technology involves a minimum number of transistors, which was

an important consideration before integrated circuit technology (that
is, in circuits using discrete components), as transistors were the
most expensive component to produce.

2. Output loaded with input of other gate, more current is consumed by

load.
3. Any voltage below 1V in the output may not drive the next transistor
into saturation.
4. Propagation delay averages 25ns.

Limitations:

1. It has high power dissipation when the transistor is switched on (the

power is dissipated mainly by the base resistors connected to logical
"1" and by the collector resistor). This requires that more current be
supplied to and heat be removed from RTL circuits.
2. It has limited fan-in: 3 inputs being the limit for many circuit designs,
before it completely lost usable noise immunity

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3. It has poor noise immunity, and limited ability to drive multiple loads
(fan-out), so buffer circuits such as this were needed to expand the
number of drivable stages, provide isolation, or drive bus lines.

Diode–transistor logic (DTL) circuit (NAND)

Diode–transistor logic (DTL) is so called, because the logic gating

function is performed by a diode network and the amplifying function is
performed by a transistor.

Truth table for NAND

Fig. DTL circuit for NAND logic

Each input is associated with one diode. The diode D1,D2, D3 and the
resistor R1 and R3 form AND gate.

Low level voltage: 0.2V

High level voltage: 4 to 5V

Case i:

If any input of gate is at 0.2V, example A=0.2V, B=C=5V, then D1

conducts forward biased and D2 and D3 are reverse biased and open. Point
P receives 0.2 V and diode drop 0.7V for a total of 0.9V.for a transistor to
start conducting voltage at point P must be high as 1.-VBE drop in T1 +two
diode D4,D5( or 3x0.6=1.8V).The voltage at P is 0.9V by the input
conducting diode, transistor T1 is cutoff (open). Therefore the output voltage
is high at 5V.

Case ii:

If all inputs are high the diodes D1, D2, D3 are reverse biased and
D4,D5 are forward biased, the transistor is driven into saturation region.
The input diodes are reverse biased and OFF. The base current is equal to
difference of current flowing in two resistor R1 and R3 (Vp=2.1V) and is

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sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation. Therefore output drops to

VCE=0.2V, which is low level for gate TI=OFF.

Advantages:

1. As the diodes can perform AND and OR operations but along with a
transistor the output signal can be amplified.

2. In DTL, the signal can be restored to full logic levels if we add a

transistor at the output of the logic gates. This results in logic
inversion.

3. the OR operation can be performed by the diodes instead of resistors.

This removes the interaction between input signals.

Limitations:

1. The switching speed of the transistor is limited due to the input

resistor to transistor.

2. Propagation delay is relatively large.

3. If all the inputs are high, the transistor goes into saturation; charge is
stored in the base region. When it comes out of saturation (one input
goes low) this charge has to be removed and will dominate the
propagation time. A Baker clamp can be used to keep the transistor
from saturating.

The switching speed and fan out of DTL family are improved in TTL
family. However, as switching speed increases, the power dissipation also
increases.

Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)

TTL is called as transistor transistor logic since the logic gating and
amplifying function are done by transistors. In 1963, TTL integrated circuits
were manufactured by several semiconductor companies like Texas
instruments with the start of 5400 series and in 1964 with a series of 7400.
TTL component parts are made by Motorola, Fairchild, Siemens, national
semiconductors.TTL circuits were preferred with high speed and low power
dissipation allows optimization of a design.

TTL is notable circuit which has a wide spread integrated circuits(IC)

family, which is been used in many application such as computer industrial
controls, test equipment and instrumentation, consumer electronics,
synthesizers etc.,.

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All TTL series are available in SSI components and in more complex
forms, such as MSI and LSI components.TTL series differs by the internal
construction of basic NAND gate but not in the performance.

Types based on output configuration

1. Open collector output

2. Totem-pole output
3. Three state output
1.Open collector output gate (TTL NAND gate)
An open collector device ia an IC with an output gate no connected to
VCC. Open collector IC consist of circuit with final driver unconnected atleast
to VCC. The input base to the driver is used to receive the signal, while the
common pin emitter is grounded. Since collector is unattached, the lead
could be attached to any circuit voltage to interface with another device.

Truth table for NAND

Fig. Open collector output gate (TTL NAND logic)

Cut off mode:

The operating mode of a bipolar transistor is cutoff when there is no

collector to emitter is effectively an open circuit. In digital application
transistor in cut off mode is considered as OFF.

Saturation mode:

The operating mode of a bipolar transistor, when there is an increase

in base current, will not cause a further increase in the collector current
and path from collector to emitter is very nearly a short circuit. This is the
ON state of a transistor in digital circuits.

It is modified circuit of DTL gate circuit

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1. Multiple emitter of transistor T1 are connected to inputs, it behaves

like the input diodes in DTL gate (common base). The base collector
junction of T1 acts as another PN junction diode D4 in DTL gate.
2. Transistor T2 replaces the diode D5 in DTL gate. The output of TTL
gate is taken from the open collector of T3.
3. RL connected externally to IC package to pull-up the output to high
voltage level, when T3 is OFF, else T3 acts as open circuit and a small
amount of noise can change this to low level.
4. When T3 conducts, its collector will have a current path supplied by
the input of the loading gate through VCC, THE R1 resistor and
forward biased base-emitter junction.
Low level voltage: 0.2V
High level voltage: 2.4 to 5V

Case i:

If any one of the inputs given to emitter of the transistor T1 is low, T1

conducts and it is turned ON giving minimum collector voltage. This
minimum collector voltage is given to the base of the transistor T2 and it is
turned OFF which acts as open circuit. Since emitter voltage of T2 is
minimum and it is connected to the base of T3. T3 does not receive
enough voltage to conduct therefore T3 is also turned OFF giving maximum
collector voltage.

Output Y= HIGH, if any one input is low.

Case ii:

If all inputs given to the emitter of transistor T1 are high, then T1 does not
conduct and is turned OFF acts as open circuit. Therefore the collector
voltage of T1 is maximum. This maximum voltage is given to the base of T2
and thus T2 conducts and transistor T2 is turned ON. T2 giving a maximum
emitter voltage and thus transistor T3 is also turned ON, gives a minimum
collector voltage.
Output Y= LOW, if all the input are high.
Advantage:
1. More than one open collector output can connect to a single line. If all
outputs attached to the line are in high-impedance state, the pull up
resistor will hold the wire in high voltage (logic 1). If one or more
device outputs are in ground (logic0) state, they will sink current and
pull the line voltage towards ground. This wired logic connection has
several uses.
2. Open collector devices are commonly used to connect multiple devices
to a bus. One carrying interrupt or write enable signals. If open
collector devices are not used then the outputs of the inactive would

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attempt to hold the bus voltage high resulting in unpredictable

output.
Limitations:
1. It is power consuming, since they tend to require higher current
minimizes for correct operation.
2. Has high static power as there is always a direct current path from
VCC to ground and when the device is switched ON.
3. When it is in „OFF‟ state they often have a few nanoamperes of leakage
current.
4. The pull-up resistor is used at the output transistor which prevents
the rapid charging of any wiring capacitance on the output. One way
to improve the rise time is to reduce the resistance value but this
increases the power dissipation when the output is low.

2. Totem-Pole Output of TTL circuit (NAND)

The addition of push-pull circuit in the output of the gate is called
totem pole. If the output devices are driven by two or more signals of
differing phase, the design is push-pull because of low output impedance. In
open collector circuit, problem arises when the output is high and the pull-
up resistor is too large. Ideally we would like to have a very low resistance
pull-up when the output is high, but a very high pull-up resistance when
the output is low. In this way, we could get quick charging and very low
power dissipation. Totem pole TTL circuit has effective low impedances
during „0‟ to „1‟ transition provides us an ability to connect its output to a
capacitor.

Normally an output impedance of gate is resistive + capacitive

load.Capacitive load consist of capacitance of output transistor, capacitance
of fan-out gates and any stray wiring capacitance.

When output of the transistor changes from low or high state when it goes
from saturation to cut off, then the total capacitance „C‟ charges
exponentially from low to high voltage level with a time constant equal to
RC.

In totem-pole the active pull-up resistor RL in open collector is replaced by

transistor T4 and diode D1.

1. When the output Y is in low state, T2 and T3 are driven into

saturation as in open-collector gate. The voltage in collector of
T2 is VBE(T3)+VCE(T2)=0.7+0.2=0.9V. The Output Y=
VCE(T2)=0.2V.
2. Transistor T4 is cutoff because its base must be one VBE drop +
one diode drop (or) 2x0.6=1.2V to start conducting.

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3. Since the collector of T2 is connected to the base of T4, the later

voltage is 0.9V instead of 1.2V, So T4 is cutoff.
4. The reason for placing the diode in the circuit is to provide a
diode drop in the output path and thus ensure that T4 is cutoff
when T3 is saturated.

Truth table for NAND

Fig. Totem-Pole Output of TTL circuit (NAND logic)

Case i:
If any one of the input given to the emitter of transistor T1 is low, then
the transistor T1 is turned ON, giving a minimum collector voltage which
is given to base of transistor T2. Since T2 receives minimum voltage in
base T2 it is turned OFF and acts as open circuit, giving a maximum
collector voltage and minimum emitter voltage. The maximum collector
voltage is given to the transistor T4, therefore it is turned ON, and giving
maximum emitter voltage makes the diode D1 to conduct. Since emitter
voltage of T2 is minimum, T3 is OFF results in maximum collector
output.
Output Y= HIGH, If any one of the input is low
Case ii:
If all the inputs to the emitter of T1 is high then the transistor T1 is
turned OFF, gives a maximum collector voltage and is connected to the
base of T2.the maximum voltage in base of transistor T2 turns it ON, and
the collector voltage is minimum and emitter voltage is maximum. T4 is
OFF and diode D1 does not conduct, acts as open circuit. The maximum
emitter in T2 is given to the base of T3 and it is turned ON, gives a
minimum collector voltage.
Output Y=LOW, if all the inputs are high

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Since current is needed to charge the load capacitance causes T4

to saturate momentarily, and the output voltage rises with a time
constant RC. Transition from low to high level is much faster.

Advantages:
It has a Low output resistance at output logic „1‟. The resistance R4 does not
allow to increase the output resistance and its influence is compensated by
the negative feedback.
Limitations:
It has decreased voltage level i.e., not more than 3.5V of the output logic‟1‟,
even if the output is unloaded.

3. Three state gate

Tri state or three state logic allows an output port to assume a high
impedance state along with the logic „1‟ and logic‟0‟ levels, which allows
multiple circuits to share the output line. Example: data bus drivers.

Tri state buffer:

Tri-state buffer requires two inputs one is the data input and the other is
enable or control input. A three state buffer input is controlled by output
that can be turned “ON” or “OFF” by means of an external “control” or
enable signal input. This control input can be either logic‟0‟ or logic‟1‟.
Tri state buffer

Fig. Tri state buffer logic

1. If the Control input C is high switch is closed the gate is enabled

and the output is same as the input thus behaves like a normal
buffer.

2. If the Control input C is low, the switch is open and instead of

„high‟ or „low‟ outputs this gives a very high impedance (z) state, in
which the buffer output is electrically disconnected from all the

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circuits and no current is drawn from the supply. then output is

open circuit, gives high impedance.

Tristate buffer control:

A tri sate buffer is used as internal and external buses in microprocessor,

computer memory and peripherals, I/O ,CPU, same data bus is carrying
data with peripherals, I/O or memory it creates contention. Contention
occurs when multiple devices are connected together, when in need to drive
the device output to high or low.

The digital information is sent over these data highways either serially one
bit at a time or it may be up to eight or more wires together in parallel form
such as in microprocessor data bus allowing multiple tri-state buffer to be
connected to the same data highway without damage or loss of data.

Fig. Data bus control with tri-state buffer

The tri-state buffer can be used to isolate devices from data bus and
one another. Tri state buffers are connected together with decoders which
are used to allow only one set of tri state buffer to be active at any one time
making all other tri state buffers in high impedance

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Fig. Tri state buffer control decoder

4. Tri state inverter

It requires two inputs one is the data input and the other is enable or
control input. A three state inverter input is controlled by output that can be
turned “ON” or “OFF” by means of an external “control” or enable signal
input. This control input can be either logic‟0‟ or logic‟1‟.

Tri-state inverter

Fig. Tri-state inverter logic diagram

Case i:

If control input is low (for any data input A either „0‟ or „1‟) given to the
emitter of transistor T1 is turned ON, giving a minimum collector voltage,
this is given to the base of transistor T2. Since T2 receives minimum voltage
is given to the base of T2 and it is turned OFF. This gives maximum
collector voltage and minimum emitter voltage. The minimum emitter
voltage of T2 is given to the base of T4, hence T4 is turned OFF.

The maximum collector voltage is bypassed through diode D1 since

diode D1 conducts. Therefore T3 does not receive sufficient voltage hence T3

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is turned OFF. Since both T3 and T4 are turned OFF, output is open
circuited. This state is called high impedance state.

Output Y= High impedance state, if C is low for any input A.

Fig. Tri-state inverter circuit

Case ii:

a. If control input is high, and data input is low given to the emitter of
transistor T1 hence it is turned ON. This gives a minimum collector
voltage and maximum emitter voltage. The minimum collector
voltage given to the base of transistor T2 turns it OFF, which gives
maximum collector voltage and minimum emitter voltage.

The maximum collector voltage from T2 is given to the base of T3

since D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct (open circuit) and
makes the transistor T3 to turn ON (maximum emitter voltage).

The minimum emitter voltage given to base of T4 and it is

turned OFF (open circuit).

Therefore output Y= HIGH, if input A is low.

b. If both control input and data input is high, given to the emitter of
transistor T1 hence it is turned OFF. This gives a maximum
collector voltage and minimum emitter voltage. The maximum
collector voltage given to the base of transistor T2 turns it ON,
which gives minimum collector voltage and maximum emitter
voltage.

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The minimum collector voltage from T2 is given to the base of

T3, since D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct (open circuit)
and makes the transistor T3 to turn OFF.

The maximum emitter voltage given to base of T4 and it is

turned ON.

Therefore output Y=LOW, if input A is high.

TTL logic uses a multi emitter transistor, a transistor with many

emitter terminals. As every emitter is nothing but a diode, this logic
eliminates these of all diodes. This is the major advantage. As transistor
becomes ON and OFF much rapidly than a diode, switching time will be
faster. TTL, or transistor-transistor logic replaced resistor-transistor logic,
and used much less power. The TTL family is very fast and reliable, and
newer faster, less power-consuming, etc.

5. Schottky TTL gate:

A Schottky PN junction is made up of a semiconductor and a metal.

This kind of junction has two characteristics: low turn-on voltage and low
junction capacitance.
1. The turn-on voltage for the BC junction is lower, thus VCEsat is
higher.
2. Due to lower junction capacitance, the transistor cannot go so deep
into saturation.
Therefore Schottky TTL is thus faster than standard TTL and the
terminal voltages are slightly different.

Fig. Schottky TTL circuit

Saturation delays the switching transistor from ON to OFF condition

saturation can be eliminated by Schottky diode between base and collector
prevents transistor going into saturation. The voltage across conducting
Schottky diode is only 0.4V compared with 0.7V in conventional diode. The

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resulting transistor is called Schottky transistor except T4 , since it does not

saturate but stays in active region.

Resistor values are reduced to decrease propagation delay further two

new transistor T5 and T6 have been added Schottky diode are inserted
between each input terminal and ground. T5 and T4 gives two VBE drop to
prevent T4 from conducting when output is low. This combination
constitutes a double emitter-follower called Darlington pair.

It provides very high current gain and extremely low resistance exactly
what is needed during low to high swing of output, resulting in decrease in
propagation delay.

Emitter Coupled Logic(ECL)

Emitter coupled logic(ECL) is a high speed integrated circuit, ECL was

invented in august 1956 at IBM by Hannon S.Yourke called as current
steering logic. It uses a differential amplifier with single-ended input and
limited emitter current to avoid saturated region of operation and its slow
turn-off behavior. since the current is steered between two legs of an emitter
coupled pair, it is called as current steering and this logic is also called as
current mode circuits.

In this the transistors never go to saturation and the input/output

voltages have a small swing(0.8V) the input impedance is high and the
output resistance is low, therefore the transistors change states quickly. It
has low gate delay and high fan-out.

Truth table for OR Truth table for NOR

ECL circuit consist of differential amplifier input stage to perform logic,

followed by an emitter follower to drive outputs and shift the output
voltages. VCC is connected to ground and VEE is connected to -5.2V.

Positive logic: high= -0.9 V

Low= -1.7 V

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Fig.Two input ECL logic circuit

Case i:

If both the inputs are low, transistor T1 and T2 is turned OFF, both
emitter voltage is minimum and collector voltage is maximum. The
minimum emitter voltage from T1 and T2 is given to the emitter terminal of
T3, which turns ON. The maximum collector voltage from T1 and T2 is
given to base of T6. Hence T6 is turned ON, gives HIGH emitter voltage.
Therefore NOR output is HIGH. The minimum collector voltage from T3 is
given to base of T5. Hence T5 is turned OFF, gives LOW emitter voltage.
Therefore OR output is LOW.

Case ii:

If both the inputs are high, transistor T1 and T2 is turned ON, both
emitter voltage is maximum and collector voltage is minimum. The
maximum emitter voltage from T1 and T2 is given to the emitter terminal of
T3, which turns OFF. The minimum collector voltage from T1 and T2 is
given to base of T6. Hence T6 is turned OFF, gives LOW emitter voltage.

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Therefore NOR output is LOW. The maximum collector voltage from T3 is

given to base of T5. Hence T5 is turned ON, gives HIGH emitter voltage.
Therefore OR output is HIGH.

Case iii:

If any one of the inputs is high (A=0 and B=1), transistor T1 is turned
OFF and T2 is turned ON. T2 emitter voltage is maximum which is given to
the T3 emitter, makes it OFF produces a maximum collector voltage which
is given to the base of T5. The transistor T5 is turned ON therefore gives a
maximum emitter voltage. Hence OR output is HIGH. Since T1 is turned
OFF and becomes open and T2 is ON the minimum collector voltage is
given to T6 making the transistor OFF. Therefore emitter voltage is
minimum and NOR output is LOW.

Case iv:

If any one of the inputs is high (A=1 and B=0), transistor T1 is turned
ON and T2 is turned OFF. T1 emitter voltage is maximum which is given to
the T3 emitter, makes it OFF produces a maximum collector voltage which
is given to the base of T5. The transistor T5 is turned ON therefore gives a
maximum emitter voltage. Hence OR output is HIGH. Since T2 is turned
OFF and becomes open and T1 is ON the minimum collector voltage that is
given to T6 making the transistor OFF. Therefore emitter voltage is
minimum and NOR output is LOW.

Since ECL transistors do not saturate, it is possible to achieve

propagation delays as low as 1-2 ns. This ECL logic family has lowest
propagation delay of any family and is used mostly in system requiring very
high speed operation. Its noise immunity and power dissipation however are
worst of all logic families available.

Advantages:
1. Since no saturation of transistors small logic voltage swings (0.8V or
less) therefore fastest switching speed circuits.
2. Due to the large output current propagation time is from 0.2 to 1ns.
3. Constant current from supply setting VCC to 0V eliminates ripple.
4. Has high power dissipation.
Limitations:
1. More power consuming circuit, Since it consumes more power it is
used only when high speed is required.
2. Each gate continuously draws current, which means it requires
significantly more power than those of other families.
3. More different power supply voltages are needed and both PNP and
NPN transistors are required.

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Metal Oxide Semiconductor

MOS devices can be used as transistor and also as resistors. A

resistor is obtained from MOS by permanently biasing the gate terminal for
conduction. The value of resistance is determined by the ratio of source to
drain voltage to the channel.

Fig. Symbol of MOS transistors

p-channel: gate logic 0-ON state, logic 1-OFF state

n-channel: gate logic 1-ON state, logic 0-OFF state

for an n-channel MOS the supply voltage VDD is positive (about 5V) to allow
positive current flow from drain to source. the two voltage levels are a
function of threshold voltage VT . The low voltage level is anywhere from 0 to
VT and high level ranges from VT to VDD. n-channel gate usually positive logic.
the p-channel MOS circuits use a negative voltage for inverter VDD, to allow
positive current flow from source to drain.the two voltage levels are both
negative above and below the negative threshold voltage VT.p-channel gate
employ negative logic.

NMOS Inverter Logic

T1 acts as load resistor and T2 as a active device. The load resistor MOS has
its gate connected to VDD, thus maintaining it in the conduction sate.

Table. Truth table of NOT

Fig. NMOS inverter logic

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NMOS transistor T1 gate terminal is always connected with VDD, thus

T1 will be always ON.

Case i:

If the low input is given to the gate of the transistor T2, it turns OFF
and acts as open circuit. Therefore VDD passes through transistor T1 and
gives a high output.

Output Y=High

Case ii:

If high input is given to the gate of the transistor T2, which turns ON
and acts short circuit. Therefore output is ground.

Output Y=Low

NMOS NAND logic

NMOS transistor T1 gate terminal is always connected with VDD, thus

T1 will be always ON.
Case i:
If both the inputs are low then T2 and T3 turns OFF, which acts
as open circuit. Therefore VDD passes through transistor T1and gives
an high output.
Output Y=high

Case ii:
If both the inputs to the gate of NMOS T2 and T3 are high, both
the transistor are turned ON. T1, T2, T3 are all short circuited,
therefore the circuit gives a low output.
Output Y=Low
Case iii:
If any of the input is low (A=0 and B=1 (or) A=1 and B=0) the
corresponding NMOS transistor which gets high input to the gate

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terminal will turn ON and the other is OFF. Therefore the circuit acts as
open circuit, gives a high output.
Output Y=high

NMOS NOR logic

NMOS transistor T1 gate terminal is always connected with VDD,

thus T1 will be always ON.

Case i:
If both the inputs are low then T2 and T3 turns OFF, which acts
as open circuit. Therefore VDD passes through transistor T1and gives
an high output.
Output Y=high
Case ii:
If both the inputs to the gate of NMOS T2 and T3 are high, both
the transistor are turned ON. T1, T2, T3 are all short circuited,
therefore the circuit gives a low output.
Output Y=Low
Case iii:
If any of the input is low (A=0 and B=1 (or) A=1 and B=0) the
corresponding NMOS transistor which gets high input to the gate
terminal will turn ON and the other is OFF. Therefore the circuit acts as
short circuit, gives a low output.
Output Y=low

Advantages:

1. Reduce the complexity of the circuit i.e., fabricate fast and low-cost
with simple circuit.

2. Has low static power consumption

3. High noise immunity

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4. high density of logic function on a chip

Limitation:

NMOS circuits are slow to transition from low to high. When

transitioning from high to low, the transistors provide low resistance, and
the capacitative charge at the output drains away very quickly (similar to
discharging a capacitor through a very low resistor). But the resistance
between the output and the positive supply is much greater, so the low to
high transition takes longer (similar to charging a capacitor through a high
value resistor). Using a resistor of lower value will speed up the process
but also increases static power dissipation. However, a better (and the
most common) way to make the gates faster is to use depletion-mode
transistors instead of enhancement-mode transistors as loads. This is
called depletion-load NMOS logic.

Complementary MOS Transistors (CMOS)

TTL logic gate series are based on bipolar transistor logic technology
and they are current operating devices, normally consumes large amount of
power from at a fixed +5V power supply, this is one disadvantage.

Secondly, TTL gates have limited operating speed when switched from OFF
to ON and Vice-versa, resulting in gate or propagation delay.

To overcome this we go to Complementary MOS logic gates using Field

effect transistor. These gates have both P-channel and N-channel, with no
switching. The power consumption of CMOS gates is almost zero, making
them ideal for use in low power battery circuits and with switching speeds
upwards of 100MHz for use in high frequency timing and computer circuits.

Both n-channel and p-channel device can be fabricated on the same

substrate

1. n-channel MOS conducts when its gate-to-source voltage is positive.

2. p-channel MOS conducts when its gate-to-source voltage is negative.
3. Either type of device is turned OFF if its gate-to-source voltage is zero.

CMOS Inverter logic

The source terminal of p-channel device is at VDD and the source

terminal of n-channel device is at ground.

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Case i:
If Input to the transistor A is low then both gates are at zero potential.
The input is at –VDD relative to source of p-channel and at 0V relative to
source of n-channel. Therefore p channel is turned ON and n-channel is
turned OFF, gives an high output.
Output Y is HIGH.
Case ii:
If the Input to the transistor A is high then both gate are at VDD and is
reversed. Therefore p channel is turned OFF and n-channel is turned ON,
giving a low output.
Output Y is LOW.

CMOS NAND logic

The two input NAND gate consist of two p-type unit in parallel and
two n-type unit series.

Truth table of NAND

Fig. CMOS NAND logic

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Case i:
If both the inputs are low then p-type T1 and T2 turns ON whereas n-
type T3 and T4 turns OFF, which acts as open circuit. Therefore VDD passes
through transistor T1and T2, gives an high output.
Output Y=high
Case ii:
If both the inputs to the gate of p-type T1 and T2 are high, both the
transistor are turned OFF whereas n-type T3and T4 turns ON therefore the
circuit gives a low output.
Output Y=Low
Case iii:
If any of the input is low (A=0 and B=1) the corresponding p-type
transistor T2 turns ON and T1 turns OFF, whereas n-type transistor T3
OFF and T4 turns ON. Therefore the circuit acts as open circuit, gives a
high output.
Output Y=high
Case iv:
If any of the input is low (A=1 and B=0) the corresponding p-type
transistor T2 turns OFF and T1 turns ON, whereas n-type transistor T3
ON and T4 turns OFF. Therefore the circuit acts as open circuit, gives a
high output.
Output Y=high

CMOS NOR logic

Two input NOR gate consist of two n-type unit in parallel and two p-type
its in series.

Table. Truth table of NOR

Fig. CMOS NOR logic

Case i:
If both the inputs are low then p-type T1 and T2 turns ON
whereas n-type T3 and T4 turns OFF, which acts as open circuit.

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Therefore VDD passes through transistor T1and T2, gives a high

output.
Output Y=high
Case ii:
If both the inputs to the gate of p-type T1 and T2 are high, both
the transistor are turned OFF, whereas n-type T3 and T4 turns ON.
therefore the circuit gives a low output.
Output Y=Low
Case iii:
If any of the input is low (A=0 and B=1) the corresponding p-
type transistor T2 turns OFF and T1 turns ON, whereas n-type
transistor T3 OFF and T4 turns ON. Therefore the top circuit acts as
open circuit, gives a low output.
Output Y=low
Case iv:
If any of the input is low (A=1 and B=0) the corresponding p-
type transistor T2 turns ON and T1 turns OFF, whereas n-type
transistor T3 ON and T4 turns OFF. Therefore the top circuit acts as
open circuit, gives a low output.
Output Y=low

CMOS inverter as two switches

Vin =Low voltage: upper switch (p) closes, therefore output is high voltage
(VOUT)

Vin =high voltage: lower switch (n) closes. Therefore output is ground

VOUT=complement of Vin

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Here arrows to indicate channel type is omitted and gate input of p-channel
is drawn with an inversion bubble enabled with low voltage

Input=low upper transistor conducts making logic 1

Input=high lower transistor conducts making logic 0

Therefore CMOS inverter

Advantages:

1. Both n-channel and p-channel devices can be fabricated together on

the same substrate material.

2. Improves the switching speed and propagation delay.

3. Has less power consumption.

4. Very low static power consumption in compare with NMOS

technology.

Limitations:

1. They can be easily damaged by static electricity. Therefore extra care

has to be taken when handling the device.

2. It operates in single supply voltage of between +3 and +18 Volts.

Lowering the supply voltage reduces the charge stored on any
capacitances and consequently reduces the energy required for a logic
transition. Reduced energy implies less heat dissipation. By lowering
the power supply from 5V to 3.3V, switching power was reduced by
almost 60 percent (power dissipation is proportional to the square of
the supply voltage). Newer CPUs have lowered their power supply
voltages further.

3. CMOS technology is more complex to fabricate than NMOS

technology, so it is more expensive.

CMOS compared to TTL:

 CMOS components are typically more expensive than TTL equivalents.

However, CMOS technology is usually less expensive on a system level
due to CMOS chips being smaller and requiring less regulation.
 CMOS circuits do not draw as much power as TTL circuits while at
rest. However, CMOS power consumption increases faster with higher
clock speeds than TTL does. Lower current draw requires less power
supply distribution, therefore causing a simpler and cheaper design.
 Due to longer rise and fall times, the transmission of digital signals
becomes simpler and less expensive with CMOS chips.

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 CMOS components are more susceptible to damage from electrostatic

discharge than TTL components.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOGIC FAMILIES

Characteristics of RTL:
1. Operating speed is low, i.e., propagation delay of the order of 500ns, it
cannot operate at speed above 4Mhz.
2. Poor noise immunity
3. Power dissipation is very high.
4. It is temperature sensitive circuits.
5. Fan out is 4 or 5 with a switching delay of 50ns and fan in is 4.

Charactersistics of DTL family:

1. The propagation delay of DTL is 25ns, in this the turn off delay is
larger than turn on delay by a factor of 2 or 3.
2. It has high noise margin, due to additional diode D5 connected to D4.
when the output is low the noise margin is 0.8 V and when the output
is high, the noise margin is 3.4V.
3. Fan out is 8 which is higher than RTL.

Characteristics of TTL:

1. It has average power dissipation of about 10mW per gate.

2. Since the propagation delay is 10ns, the switching speed is fast.
3. Its fan out is 10 and drives 10 standard TTL inputs.
4. It has a fixed 5V power supply. Both 74 series and 54 series can
operate at 5V.
5. It has greater tolerance to temperature and voltage.
74 series works with 0 to 700C
54 series works with -550 to +1250C.
6. It has less noise immunity than CMOS.

Characteristics of ECL:
1. In this type the transistors are not allowed to go into complete
saturation due to this the transistors are kept close to each other and
thus eliminating storage delays and also consumes high power.
2. The logic level are kept close to each other to reduce noise margin and
it is very difficult to achieve good noise immunity.
3. Since the power supply current are more stable than TTL and CMOS
circuits power consumption is high.
4. This is the fastest if all the logic families, since its propagation delay is
500ps.

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Characteristics of NMOS:
1. This has a propagation delay of 50ns.
2. Its noise margin is about 1V.
3. It can be easily operated at a fan out of 50.
4. It is fabricated by only one basic element which doesnot require any
resistor, diode etc., and lower power dissipation make easy foe LSI.
Characteristics of CMOS:
1. Less power consuming.
2. It is called active power dissipation because the average power
dissipation of CMOS devices whose output is continuously changing.
3. Propagation delay ranges from 25 to 150ns.
4. The noise margin is about 45% of the supply voltage VDD.
5. it works over a temperature
74 series works with -400 to +850C
54 series works with -550 to +1250C.

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MINIMIZATION
TECHNIQUES
M.SARASWATHI
J.GAJAPATHI

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THE NAME BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
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 Algebra of Logic.

 Deals with variables that has two discrete values “0” and “1”.

 Perform mathematical operations in binary system.

 Consist of postulates and theorems.

 Three basic binary operators : AND, OR , NOT.

 Complex logic expression reduced to simple expression.

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NEED FOR MINIMIZATION

The simplified expression can

 Reduces the number of gates needed.

 Reduce power.

 Reduces amount of space required by gates .

 Save the cost of unnecessary gates.

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 LOGIC GATES
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A
A
F F
AND OR A NOT F
B B

INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B F=A. B A B F=A+ B INPUT OUTPUT

0 0 0 A
0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 1
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BOOLEAN LAWS

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SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
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For Example :

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HOW SIMPLIFIED EXPRESSION IS GOT?
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REDRAW THE MINIMIZED EXPRESSION

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0
0
0
1

0 1
0
1
1

0 0
0 1
1
1
1
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 TRUTH TABLE
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BEFORE SIMPLIFICATION AFTER SIMPLIFICATION

INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B C F A B C F
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
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1 1
SIMPLIFY THE FOLLOWING BOOLEAN FUNCTION
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TO MINIMUM NUMBER OF LITERALS

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COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
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CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORM
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 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
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Advantages
 Solve simple yes-no decision-making problems.

 Reduces complex circuit to simple circuit.

Disadvantages
 Time consuming process.

 Need better understanding of laws and theorems.

 Reduction process of any Logic starts with assumptions.

Gives only True-or-False results.
Never produces “maybe” result.
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Advantages of K-map over Boolean Algebra

 A pictorial method of simplifying the Boolean expression.

 It is nothing but a 2-D truth-table.

 Minimizes without Boolean laws and theorems .

 It requires less number of steps.

 Minimizes number of Logical gates using straight-forward method.

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Why Do You Need To Know About
Karnaugh – Maps ?

 K-Maps are used for many small design problems.

 Larger designs are done using computer implementation.

 Small number of variables occur in interface problems.

 Gain a great deal of insight into digital logic circuits.

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What is a 1-D Truth Table?
Boolean Function for AND gate
A Truth Table for AND function
Y=A . B INPUT OUTPUT
B
A B Y=A . B
0 0 0
2n Combinations
0 1 0
n Number of inputs 1 0 0
1 1 1
22 = 4 combinations 00, 01, 10 , 11

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of Truth Table
0 0
A’ B’ Truth Table for AND function
INPUT OUTPUT
0 1
A B Y=A . B
A’ B  Instead of 4 rows, 4 squares are used.
0 0 0
This square representation is called as MAP method.
1 0 0 1 0
A B’ 1 0 0 Each square or cell represent a minterm or maxterm.
1 1 1
1 1
A B

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Why the Name K-Map

+ MAPS = Karnaugh - Map

Or
K - Map

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Rules of Karnaugh - Map
Representation of minterm 2 variable K-Map
Binary
Minterm Value Variable
A B
minterm
m0 0 0 A’ B’
m1 0 1 A’ B

m2 1 0 A B’
4 Variable K-Map
m3 1 1 A B

3 Variable K-Map

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Rules of Karnaugh - Map
 The output is independent of the value of B. B is redundant!

 The 7 rules of K-Map to group

 What is meant by adjacency?
 Why Gray code is used in K-Map?
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Adjacency property in K-Map

 Adjacency Property wraps around at edges, top and bottom, left and right.
 Binary 000 (m0 ) is adjacent to 001 (m1 ) ,100 (m4 ) and 010 (m2 ).

 Binary 111 (m7 ) is adjacent to 011 (m3 ),110 (m6 ) and 101 (m5 ).

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Rule1: Groups should not include any cell containing
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a zero

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Rule 2: Groups may be horizontal or Vertical ,
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but not diagonal

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Rule 3: Group must contain 2n cell i.e., 1,2,4,8 etc.,
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cells

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Rule 4: Each group should be as large as possible
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resulting in as few groups as possible

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Rule 5: Each cell containing a one must be part of a
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group if possible

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Rule 6: Group may overlap

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Rule 7: Group may wrap around the table

1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1

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How to write the simplified expression?
 There are 2 rows and 4 columns in the group
 In row, the inputs are named as AB and the
values are 00 and 10. 1 1 1 1
 The first value represents A and second value 0 0 0 0
represents B.
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
 In column, the inputs are named as CD and
all four values are in the group.

F=(Row variable) (Column variable)

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0 0 1 1 Group 2

0 1 1 0 Group 1

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1 0 0 1
Group 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1

Group 2
The Boolean function for the above four variable K map represented as

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1 0 0 1
Group 1
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0
Group 2
1 0 0 1
Group 3 BD

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1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

 When all row values or all column values are selected for grouping then need not represent any
variable, the function becomes 1.

For example : Row

Column
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1 1 1 1
Group 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

Group 2

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0 1 0 1 Group 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 Group 2
0 1 0 1

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Summary

 No Zeros Allowed.
 No Diagonals.
 Only power of 2 number of cells in each group.
 Groups should be as large as possible.
 Everyone must be in atleast one group.
 Overlapping allowed.
 Wrap around allowed.
 Fewest number of groups possible.
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