RING THEORY

Def. RING:
Discuss examples of (Z, +, ·), (Q, +, ·), (R, +, ·), (C, +, ·), ring of continuous(differentiable)
functions, ring of matrices.

Also discuss the Ring of Gaussian integer and number fields.

Theorem 0.1. In a ring (R, +, ·), the following results hold.

1. a · 0 = 0 ∀a ∈ R

2. a · (−b) = −ab ∀a, b ∈ R

3. (−a) · (−b) = ab ∀a, b ∈ R

Def. COMMUTATIVE RING:

Def. BOOLEAN RING:

1. Show that a Boolean ring is commutative.

Def. RING WITH UNITY:

Def. ZERO DIVISORS:

Def. INTEGRAL DOMAIN:

2. Show that the ring of Gaussian integers is an integral domain.

√ √
3. Show that Z[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z} is an integral domain.

√ √
4. Let d be an integer. Prove that Z[ d] = {a + b d|a, b ∈ Z} is an integral domain.

5. Show that there exist zero divisors in the ring of n × n matrices and ring of continuous
functions.

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 6. Give examples of ring which are not integral domain.

Def. UNITS IN A RING:

7. Show that every nonzero element of Zn is a unit or a zero-divisor.

Def. DIVISION RING:

Def. FIELD:
Def. CHARACTERISTIC OF A RING: The characteristic of a ring R is the least pos-
itive integer n such that nx = 0 for all x in R. If no such integer exists, we say that R has
characteristic 0. The characteristic of R is denoted by char(R).

Thus, the ring of integers has characteristic 0 and Zn has characteristic n. An infinite ring
Z2 [x] is of characteristic.

Theorem 0.2. Let R be a ring with unity 1. If 1 has infinite order under addition, then the
characteristic of R is 0. If 1 has order n under addition, then the characteristic of R is n.

Proof: If 1 has infinite order, then there is no positive integer n such that n · 1 = 0, so R has
characteristic 0. Now suppose that 1 has additive order n. Then n · 1 = 0, and n is the least
positive integer with this property. So, for any x in R, we have

n·x = x+x+···+x
= 1x + 1x + · · · + 1x
= (1 + 1 + · · · + 1)x
= (n · 1)x = 0x = 0.

Thus, R has characteristic n.

Theorem 0.3. The characteristic of an integral domain is 0 or prime.

Proof: If the order of unity 1 ∈ R has infinite order

8. Show that the set of nilpotent elements of a commutative ring form a subring.

9. Show that 0 is the only nilpotent element in an integral domain.

10. Prove that the only idempotents in an integral domain are 0 and 1.
√ √
11. Let d be an integer. Prove that Q[ d] = {a + b d|a, b ∈ Q} is a field.

12. Let F be a field of order 2n . Prove that the characteristic of F is 2.

Solution: Note the Char(F) = O(1) under addition. Also F is a finite group so O(1) must
be finite. Since characteristic of integral domain is either 0 or prime, we conclude that

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 order of 1 must be prime.

Also, the prime O(1) divides 2n , so by Lagrange’s theorem, O(1) = 2.

13. Let F be a field of order pn . Prove that the characteristic of F is p.

14. Let x and y belong to a commutative ring R with prime characteristic p. Show that

(x + y) p = x p + y p .

15. (SUBFIELD TEST) Let F be a field and let K be a subset of F with at least two element.
Prove that K is a subfield of F if, for any a, b(b 6= 0) in K a − b and ab−1 belong to K.

16. If a is an idempotent in a commutative ring, show that 1 − a is also an idempotent.

Def. LEFT IDEAL: A R be a ring. A subset I of R is called a left ideal of R if

1. I is a subgroup of (R, +), i.e. a, b ∈ I ⇒ a − b ∈ I

2. a ∈ I and x ∈ R ⇒ xa ∈ I.

Def. RIGHT IDEAL: A R be a ring. A subset I of R is called a right ideal of R if

1. a, b ∈ I ⇒ a − b ∈ I
2. a ∈ I and x ∈ R ⇒ ax ∈ I.

Def. A subset I of R, which is both a left ideal and a right ideal is called a two sided ideal
i.e. if for every r ∈ R and a ∈ I, both ra, ar ∈ I.

Alternatively, a subring I is said to be ideal if for every r ∈ R and a ∈ I, both ra, ar ∈ I.

1. It is very clear that every ideal is a subring but the converse is not true. For example,
subring of integers is not an ideal of ring of rationals.
2. Note that in any ring R, the subrings {0} and R are always ideals.

17. Find the ideals of Z.

18. Let R be the ring of continuous functions from R to R. Let A = { f ∈ R| f (0) is an even integer}.
Show that A is a subring of R but not an ideal of R.

Theorem 0.4. (IDEAL TEST) A nonempty subset A of a ring R is an ideal of R if

1. a − b ∈ A whenever a, b ∈ A.

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 2. ra, ar ∈ A whenever a ∈ A and r ∈ R.

Proof:
19. Show that intersection of ideals is an ideal.
Solution: Let I1 and I2 be two ideals of a ring R. Let for a, b ∈ I1 ∩ I2 =⇒ a, b ∈ I1 and
a, b ∈ I2 . Therefore, by ideal test a − b ∈ I1 and a − b ∈ I2 . Hence a − b ∈ I1 ∩ I2 .

Next, let x ∈ I1 ∩ I2 =⇒ x ∈ I1 and x ∈ I2 . Since I1 and I2 are ideals, therefore for any
x ∈ R, rx, xr ∈ I1 and rx, xr ∈ I2 . Hence rx, xr ∈ I1 ∩ I2 . Hence by ideal test, I1 ∩ I2 is an
ideal.

20. If A is an ideal of a ring R and 1 belongs to A, prove that A = R.

Solution: Since 1 ∈ I and I is an ideal of R so by definition of ideals, for any r ∈ R, r =
1 · r ∈ I. Hence R ⊆ I, which implies I = R.

21. Prove that the only ideals of a field F are {0} and F itself.

22. Prove that a commutative ring with unity F is a field iff F has only two ideals {0} and F.
Solution: Let F be a field and I be an ideal of F such that I 6= {0}.
Since, I 6= {0} therefore I contains atleast one non-zero element a ∈ I ⊆ F, so a(6= 0) ∈ F,
therefore a is a unit. Hence I is an ideal containing unit therefore I = F.

Conversely, assume that F is a commutative ring with unity such that F has only two ideals
namely {0} and F itself.

To Prove: F is a field.
It is sufficient to prove that every non-zero element of F is a unit.

Let a ∈ F − {0}. Now, consider the Fa = { f a| f ∈ F}.

Claim: Fa is an ideal of F and Fa 6= {0}.

Since, 1 ∈ F =⇒ 1 · a ∈ Fa =⇒ a ∈ Fa =⇒ Fa 6= {0}.
Let f1 a, f2 a ∈ Fa then f1 a − f2 a = (a1 − f2 )a ∈ Fa. Next, f (a) ∈ Fa and x ∈ F,
x( f a) = (x f )a ∈ Fa,
as x, f ∈ F =⇒ x f ∈ F. Hence by ideal test, Fa is an ideal of F, but by assumption F has
only two ideals, so Fa = F.

Since, 1 ∈ F =⇒ 1 ∈ Fa, therefore, ∃b ∈ F − {0} such that 1 = b · a = a · b =⇒ a is a

unit. Hence, F is a field.

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 Def. SUM OF IDEALS: Let I1 and I2 are ideals of a ring R, then define the sum of ideals
I1 + I2 as

I1 + I2 = {i1 + i2 | i1 ∈ I1 , i2 ∈ I2 }.

23. If A and B are ideals in a ring R, show that the sum of A and B, A + B = {a + b|a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
is an ideal containing A and B both.
Solution: Let I1 and I2 are ideals of a ring R, then sum of ideals I1 and I2 is given as

I1 + I2 = {i1 + i2 | i1 ∈ I1 , i2 ∈ I2 }.

Since, 0 ∈ I1 and 0 ∈ I2 , therefore 0 + 0 ∈ I1 + I2 . Hence, I1 + I2 is non-empty.

Let a, b ∈ I1 + I2 be arbitrary then a = x1 + y1 and b = x2 + y2 for some x1 , x2 ∈ I1 and

y1 , y2 ∈ I2 . Then a − b = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 ) ∈ I1 + I2 . Moreover for a = x1 + y1 ∈
I1 + I2 =⇒ x1 ∈ I1 and y1 ∈ I2 so for any r ∈ R, rx1 , x1 r ∈ I1 and ry1 , y1 r ∈ I2 implies
r(x1 + y1 ), (x1 + y1 )r ∈ I1 + I2 . Hence by ideal test I1 + I2 is an ideal.

Def. If A and B are ideals of a ring. The product of A and B is defined as , AB =

f inite
{∑ai ∈A,bi ∈B ai bi }. In another words, AB is the set of all finite sums of the element of the
type ab where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

24. If A and B are ideals of a ring R. Show that the product of ideals AB is also an ideal. Also
show that AB ⊆ A ∩ B
Solution:

25. If A and B are ideals of a commutative ring R with unity and A + B = R, show that
A ∩ B = AB.

Def. FACTOR RINGS/ QUOTIENT RINGS: Let R be a ring and let A be an ideal of R.
Since R is a group under addition and A is a normal subgroup of R, we may form the factor
group R/A = {a + A|r ∈ R} under addition such that two cosets s + A and t + A,

(s + A) + (t + A) = s + t + A.

We define product of two cosets s + A and t + A as st + A.

Claim: R/A is a ring under the defined operations addition and multiplication above.

26. Find the quotient rings of ring of integers.

Example 0.1. Consider the ring of polynomials R[x] and let x2 + 1 denote the ideal



generated by the polynomial x2 + 1 i.e.

2
x + 1 = { f (x)(x2 + 1)| f (x) ∈ R[x]}.


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 Then
R[x]
= g(x)+ < x2 + 1 > |g(x) ∈ R[x]

2
< x +1 >
= ax + b+ < x2 + 1 > |a, b ∈ R .


27. If R is a commutative ring and I be an ideal of R then R/A is also commutative.

28. If R is a ring with unity and I be an ideal of R, then R/A is a ring with unity.

Def. PRIME IDEAL: A prime ideal A of a commutative ring R is a proper ideal of R such
that a, b ∈ R and ab ∈ A =⇒ a ∈ A or b ∈ A.

1. {0} and for p− prime, pZ are prime ideals of Z.

2. The zero ideal {0} is always prime ideal in an integral domain.
3. If n ∈ N is composite, then {0} ideal is not a prime ideal. For example, 2 · 3 = 0 but
neither 2 nor 3 belongs to {0}.

29. Show that the only prime ideals of Z are {0} and pZ, where p is a prime.
Solution: Since Z is an integral domain, {0} is a prime ideal. Next, we consider the ideal
pZ for p prime. Let xy ∈ pZ, then p divides xy which implies p|x or p|y =⇒ x ∈ pZ or
y ∈ pZ. Hence, pZ is prime ideal.

Let n ∈ Z be composite say ab = n, where 1 < a, b < n and consider the ideal nZ. Clearly,
the elements of nZ are precisely the multiples of n. Now, ab = n ∈ nZ but neither a ∈ nZ
nor b ∈ nZ.

30. Show by an example that intersection of prime ideals need not be a prime ideal.
Solution: 2Z and 3Z are prime ideals of Z but 6Z = 2Z ∩ 3Z is not a prime ideal.

Theorem 0.5. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let A be an ideal of R. Then
R/A is an integral domain if and only if A is prime.

Proof: Suppose that R/A is an integral domain and ab ∈ A.

Then 0 + A = ab + A = (a + A)(b + A). Since 0 + A is the zero element of R/A, and R/A
is integral domain, therefore a + A = 0 + A or b + A = 0 + A i.e. either a ∈ A or b ∈ A.
Therefore, A is prime ideal.

Conversely, assume that A is a prime ideal. Let a + A, b + A ∈ R/A such that (a + A)(b +
A) = 0 + A, which implies ab ∈ A =⇒ a ∈ A or b ∈ A which in turn implies a + A = 0 + A

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 or b + A = 0 + A. Hence R/A is an integral domain.

Let a ∈ R be an arbitrary nonzero element.

CLAIM: a is invertible.
Consider the ideal a2 generated 2 . If a2 = R, then there exist b ∈ R



by the element a
such that 1 = a2 b as 1 ∈ R = a2 . Hence 1 = a(ab) and a is invertible.



Next, if a2 is a proper ideal, then


2
2

2  a is a prime ideal
by2 assumption. Since the product
a · a = a is in the prime ideal a , it follows that a ∈ a . Thus there exist b ∈ R such
that a = a2 b =⇒ a(ab − 1) = 0. Since a 6= 0, so ab = 1. Hence a is a unit. Hence R is a
field.

Converse is trivial.

31. Let A be a ring in which every element x satisfies xn = x for some n > 1 (depending on x).
Show that every prime ideal in A is maximal.
Proof:

32. Let R be a non-zero commutative ring with unity. If every ideal of R is a prime ideal then
show that R is a field and conversely.
Proof: As the zero ideal {0} of R is a proper ideal, it is a prime ideal by assumption.
Hence, R is integral domain as if ab = 0 ∈ {0}, then a ∈ {0} or b ∈ {0} as {0} is prime
ideal, so ab = 0 =⇒ a = 0 or b = 0.

Def. MAXIMAL IDEAL: A maximal ideal A of a commutative ring R is a proper ideal

of R such that whenever B is an ideal of R and A ⊆ B ⊆ R, then B = A or B = R.

33. If R is a commutative ring and a ∈ R show that aR = {ar | r ∈ R} is a two sided ideal of R.
Sol: Let x, y ∈ aR =⇒ x = ar1 , y = ar2 . Hence x − y = a(r1 − r2 ) ∈ aR.
Also, for r ∈ R, we have rx = rar1 = a(rr1 ) ∈ aR and xr = ar1 r = a(r1 r) ∈ aR. Hence, by
ideal test aR is an ideal.

Theorem 0.6. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let A be an ideal of R. Then
R/A is a field if and only if A is maximal.

Proof: Let R/A is a field.

To show A is a maximal ideal of R, we need to show that for any ideal B of R such that
A ⊂ B ⊆ R implies B = R.
Consider x ∈ B − A, then x + A is non-zero element of R/A. Since R/A is field, there-
fore there exist a non-zero element y + A ∈ R/A such that (x + A)(y + A) = 1 + A =⇒
1 − xy ∈ A =⇒ 1 − xy ∈ B. Note that x ∈ B, so for y ∈ R, we have xy ∈ B. Hence
1 = (1 − xy) + xy ∈ B, which concludes B = R.

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 Conversely, assume that A is maximal ideal of R. To prove ”R/A is a field.”
Since R is commutative ring with unity, R/A is a commutative ring with unity. We just
need to show that every non-zero element of R/A is a unit.
Let x + A 6= 0 + A =⇒ x 6∈ A. Consider the ideal Rx + A which contains A. Since x ∈ Rx + A
and x 6∈ A, we have A ⊂ Rx + A, therefore by maximality of A, we conclude that Rx + A = R.
Since 1 ∈ R = Rx + A =⇒ 1 = rx + a =⇒ 1 + A = rx + a + A =⇒ 1 = rx + A as
a ∈ A, hence 1 + A = (r + A)(x + A). Also, observe that r 6= 0 as it was that the case
then 1 + A = 0 · x + A = A =⇒ 1 ∈ A =⇒ A = R, contradicting the fact that A is proper
maximal ideal. Hence x + A is a unit. Therefore R/A is a unit.

Corollary 0.1. Every maximal ideal is a prime ideal but converse is not true.
The ideal < x > is prime in Z[x] but not a maximal ideal. Note that < x >= {x f (x)| f (x) ∈
Z[x]} or simply < x > denote the ideal of all polynomials with constant term 0. Clearly,
< x > is a prime ideal. To see that < x > is not a maximal ideal observe that < x >⊂<
x, 2 >⊂ Z[x].

34. Give an example of a ring that has exactly two maximal ideals.

35. Show that the in Z ⊕ Z, I = {(a, 0)|a ∈ Z}. Show that I is prime ideal but not a maximal
ideal.

Def. IDEAL GENERATED BY A SUBSET: Let X be a subset of ring R. The ideal

generated by X in R is defined to be the set
( )
f inite f inite f inite f inite
∑ ni xi + ∑ r jy j + ∑ zk sk + ∑ al tl bl
ni ∈Z,xi ∈X r j ∈R,y j ∈X sk ∈R,xk ∈X al ,bl ∈R,tl ∈X

1. If X = φ , the ideal generated by X is {0}.

2. PRINCIPAL IDEAL: Let R be a ring. The ideal generated by a singleton set is
called Principal ideal i.e. if X = {x}, then the ideal generated by the X defined by
{nx + rx + xs + axb|n ∈ Z, r, s, a, b ∈ R} is called principal ideal.

3. Principal ideal ring: A ring R s called a principal ideal ring (P I R) if R is commuta-

tive and every ideal of R is principal.
4. PID
Example 0.2. Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials with real coefficients and let A
denote the subset of all polynomials with constant term 0. Then A is an ideal of R[x] gen-
erated by {x}.

Example 0.3. Let Z[x] denote the ring of all polynomials with integer coefficients and let I
be the subset of Z[x] of all polynomials with even constant terms. Then I is an ideal of Z[x]
generated by {x, 2}.

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 RING HOMOMORPHISMS AND IMBEDDING OF RINGS
Def. Ring Homomorphism: A ring homomorphism φ from a ring R to a ring S is a
mapping from R to S that preserves the two ring operations; that is, for all a, b ∈ R,

φ (a + b) = φ (a) + φ (b)
φ (ab) = φ (a)φ (b).

A ring homomorphism that is both one-to-one and onto is called a ring isomorphism.

36. Show that for any positive integer n, the mapping k → k(modn) is a ring homomorphism
from Z onto Zn . This is called the natural homomorphism from Z to Zn .

37. Show that the mapping a + ib → a − ib is a ring homomorphism from complex numbers
onto the complex numbers.

38. Let R be a commutative ring of characteristic 2. Then the mapping a → a2 is a ring homo-
morphism from R to R.

39. Let R be a commutative ring of prime characteristic p. Show that the Frobenius map x → x p
is a ring homomorphism from R to R.

40. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Prove that if x is nilpotent in R then φ (x) is nilpo-
tent in S.

Properties of Ring Homomorphisms

Let φ be a ring homomorphism from a ring R to a ring S. Let A be a subring of R

and let B be an ideal of S.

1. For any r ∈ R and any positive integer n, φ (nr) = nφ (r) and φ (rn ) = (φ (r))n .

2. φ (A) = {φ (a)|a ∈ A} is a subring of S.

3. If A is an ideal and φ is onto S, then φ (A) is an ideal.

4. φ −1 (B) = {r ∈ R|φ (r) ∈ B} is an ideal of R.

5. If R is commutative, then φ (R) is commutative.

6. If R has a unity 1, S 6= {0} and φ is onto, then φ (1) is the unity of S.

Def. Let φ be a ring homomorphism from a ring R to a ring S. The KERNEL OF Ring
Homomorphism is defined as Ker(φ ) = {r ∈ R|φ (r) = 0}.

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 Theorem 0.7. Let φ be a ring homomorphism from a ring R to a ring S. Then ker(φ ) is an
ideal of R.

Proof: Clearly, φ (0) = 0, so ker(φ ) is non-empty.

Theorem 0.8. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then prove that ker(φ ) = {0R } if
and only if φ is 1 − 1 map.

Proof: Let ker(φ ) = {0}. Let φ (a) = φ (b) =⇒ φ (a − b) = 0 =⇒ (a − b) ∈ ker(φ ) =

{0} =⇒ a = b, hence φ is one one map.

Conversely, assume that φ is one one. For x ∈ ker(φ ), we have φ (x) = 0 = φ (0). Since φ
is one one so, we conclude that x = 0 and hence ker(φ ) = {0}.

41. If R is a ring with unity and S be an integral domain. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism
such that ker(φ ) 6= R, then show that φ (1) is unity of S.
Solution: For any s ∈ S,

φ (1) · s = φ (1 · 1) · s
=⇒ φ (1) · s = φ (1) · φ (1) · s
=⇒ φ (1)[φ (1) · s − s] = 0
=⇒ [φ (1) · s − s] = 0
=⇒ φ (1) · s = s,

as if φ (1) = 0, then ker(φ ) = R. Hence φ (1) is unity of S.

42. Show that the only homomorphisms from Z to Z are the identity and zero maps.
Solution:

Theorem 0.9. Every ideal of a ring R is the kernel of a ring homomorphism of R. In

particular, an ideal A is the kernel of the mapping r → r + A from R to R/A.

Theorem 0.10. If F is a field of characteristic p, then F contains a subfield isomorphic to

Z p . If F is a field of characteristic 0, then F contains a subfield isomorphic to the rational
numbers.

Proof:

43. Show that a homomorphism from a field onto a ring with more than one element must be
an isomorphism.

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