 Decimals

In the sports world, the winner of an event can no

longer be determined through observation. Racers
are so fast and the margin between winning and losing
is so small, sometimes in hundredths or thousandths
of a second, that digital devices are used to measure
fi nish times.
Consider track and fi eld. Usain Bolt, a Jamaican
sprinter, is a three-time Olympic gold medalist who
holds the world record for the 100-meter and 200-meter
races. Bolt set his fi rst world record in May 2008, with
a time of 9.72 seconds for the 100-meter race. He went
on to set new world records in both the 100-meter and
How much faster is 9.69 seconds than 9.72 seconds?
Decimal number sense is an intuitive knowledge of
decimals. This knowledge is necessary to understand
Bolt’s achievements.
200-meter events in the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics.
In the 100-meter race, he broke his previous record
with a time of 9.69 seconds, and in the 200-meter
race, he broke the previous world record with a time of
19.30 seconds. At the 2009 World Championships, Bolt
surpassed his previous 100-meter and 200-meter world
records to set new ones.
Sports statistics are just one of many examples of
how decimals are used in real life. To really understand
Bolt’s achievements, one must have decimal sense: an
understanding of what these numbers mean.

 Developing the Meaning of Decimals

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Describe why students have diffi culty learning

decimals.
2. Distinguish between the two approaches of
learning decimals.
 decimals are used in all parts of our lives––
from car odometers to the Dewey Decimal
System (Figure 12.1)

Decimals are used in

many professions, such as medicine, finance,
and engineering. For example,
ball bearings used in wheels
and guidance systems are
engineered to a precision of
less than one thousandth or
one ten-thousandth of an inch. Despite the prevalence of
decimals in our lives, both children and adults have
difficulty under standing them and using them
meaningfully. It is important that children understand
how decimals are used in everyday life. This may help
them to understand decimals and use them appropriately.

 From Fractions to Decimals

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Identify base-ten fractions.

2. Explain methods for introducing decimal
notation.
3. Describe how to extend the place value system.

by the fourth grade, students should have a

good understanding of both the meaning and
symbolism of fractions. For example, they
should understand that for the fraction 3_5 , the
whole is partitioned into five equal parts, three of which
are counted, and that 3_5 is greater than 1_2 but less than 1.
By this time, students should also understand place value
and have had ample practice with base-ten blocks and
arrays. This experience will be used to build an
understanding of decimals.

 Base-Ten Fractions
To teach students about decimal fractions, begin by
modeling base-ten fractions .

 Introducing Decimal Notation

Decimals are another way to write fractions whose
denominators are powers of 10, such as 10, 100, and 1000.
The Rational Number Project (RNP) (Cramer et al.,
2009) recommends introducing decimal notation in the
following way (Figure 12.4).

The RNP (2009) maintains that the 10 × 10 grid is

the most flexible model for decimals. Even thousandths
can be represented by partitioning each small square
into 10 equal parts. Other decimal models, such as baseten
blocks and money, can also be used. However, money
should not be the first model used for decimals, because it
only has two decimal places.

 Extending the Place Value System

Before extending the place value system to decimals,

review students’ place value knowledge of whole numbers.
Ask them to write a number such as 3245 in expanded
form:

3245 = 3 × 1000 + 2 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 5

 Decimal Number Sense

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Describe how to convert familiar fractions to

decimals.
2. Identify techniques for ordering decimals.

recall the opening story of this chapter. Usain

Bolt broke his own world record of running
the 100-meter race in 9.69 seconds by running
it in 9.58 seconds. In order to appreciate the
significance of Bolt’s achievements we need decimal
number sense. Decimal number sense includes the ability
to convert familiar fractions to
decimals, compare and order
decimals, and determine when
two decimals are equivalent.
These ideas form the foundation
for this section.
 Familiar Fractions and Decimals

Most fourth and fifth graders have

attained number
sen1se about the size of familiar
1 11
fractions such as 2 4 5 . However,
they may not have a sense of their
decimal
equivalents. Teachers can help them
achieve decimal
number sense by learning to convert
fractions to decimals.

Teaching Tip
 Reviewing factors and multiples
Before teaching students to convert fractions to decimals,
review factors and multiples of whole numbers.
Ask students to find all the factors of 10, 100, and 1000
so that they will understand that fractions with any of
these factors as denominators can be easily converted
to decimals (5 × 2 = 10, 10 × 10 = 100, 4 × 25 = 100,
8 × 125 = 1000

 Ordering Decimals

Students have many misconceptions

about the size of
decimals. Some students think the
decimal with a longer
string of digits is greater. For example,
they may think
that 0.468 is greater than 0.5 because it
has more digits
(see In the Classroom). Although this
would be true for
whole numbers, it is not necessarily
true for decimals.
Conversely, some students think that the decimal with a
shorter string of digits is always greater.

Although ordering decimals such as 1.3 and 1.25 is not

an easy task, it is much easier than ordering decimals such
as 0.6 and 0.06. Martinie and Bay-Williams (2003) asked
students to compare these decimals using a number line, a
10 × 10 grid, money, and place value. They found that the
number line was the most difficult model for students to
use. Whereas students had little trouble placing 0.6 on a
number line, they had a lot of difficulty placing 0.06. Even
though the number line is a difficult model to use, it is an
excellent way to assess students’ decimal sense.
Researchers (Cramer et al., 2009) suggest another way
of ordering decimals using 10 × 10 grids (Figure 12.9).
The same models used to order decimals can be used
to find decimal equivalence (Activity 12.5)

 Decimal Operations
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe two methods for teaching addition
and subtraction of decimals.
2. Explain the importance of estimation in
learning decimal operations.
3. Explain how to use estimation when multiplying
and dividing decimals.

operations with decimals are very similar to

operations with whole numbers and,
therefore, much easier to learn than
operations with fractions. Some curricular
materials still emphasize learning rules for decimal
computation, such as “carry” the decimal point for
addition and subtraction of decimals and “add the number
of decimal places in the factors” for decimal multiplication.
These rules are really not necessary to memorize or to
learn. If students understand estimation with decimals
and the relationship between decimals and fractions, then
they can learn the four operations.

 Addition and Subtraction of Decimals

There are different approaches to teaching addition and

subtraction of decimals. One approach (Cramer et al., 2009)
involves representing each decimal on a different 10 × 10
grid and then combining the decimals on a third grid
(Figure 12.10). This technique works best when each of the
decimals is less than 1. Another approach uses place value to
add or subtract like units and regroup when necessary. This
approach works well for numbers that have a combination
of whole and decimal parts. Initially, it is helpful to place
numbers on a place value chart.

Adding and subtracting

decimals using the
10 × 10 grid • Figure
12.10

Adding and subtracting

decimals using a
place value chart •
Figure 12.11