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MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

Introduction; chip formation; orthogonal cutting; cutting forces in orthogonal cutting, theory
of Ernst and Merchant; Theory of Lee and Shaffer, stress distribution on rake face;
ploughing force; chip velocity; Machining with variable uncut chip thickness; oblique cutting;
mechanics of turning process; Mechanics of milling process; Mechanics of drilling process;
Question Bank.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics of metal cutting consists of study of machining process and accurate
estimation of dynamic cutting forces by the use of suitable analytical models.
Different scientists have prepared different models and advanced their own theory
and analysis of metal cutting action. There are certain basic concepts used by most
of them. A wedge-shaped tool with a straight cutting edge is made to move
relative to the workpiece and a layer of metal called chip is removed. The model of
cutting process is shown in Fig. 2.1. The chip is formed by a continuous shearing
action of workpiece and there is friction between the flowing chip and face of the
tool.

Chip Friction

Tool

Motion of
workpiece
Chip formation

Fig. 2.1 Model of cutting process.

Different machining processes may be classified into two categories:

1. Orthogonal cutting: A special case of metal cutting, where the cutting
edge of the fool is arranged perpendicular to the direction of relative
work-tool motion is called orthogonal cutting. It represents a two-
40 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

1. Continuous chips
2. Continuous chips with built-up edge
3. Discontinuous chips
4. Segmented chips

2.2.1 Continuous Chip

A continuous ribbon-type chip is produced during cutting of ductile materials such
as low carbon steel, copper, brass and aluminium alloys. The tool presses against
the material which is deformed plastically. The material is subjected to both
compression and shear. The chip slides over the tool rake face for some distance
and then leaves the tool. Friction between the chip and tool may produce
additional deformation of the chip material called secondary deformation.
Similarly, the plastic zone ahead of tool edge is called the primary zone of
deformation and the deformation zone on the rake face is called secondary zone of
deformation, see figure 2.4.
Chip Tool
Primary zone
of deformation Secondary zone
of deformation

Workpiece

Fig. 2.4 Continuous chip.

Heat is generated in the two deformation zones. Heat is also generated due to
sliding of chip on the rake face. The heat generated results in increase of
temperature of tool-chip interface and that of tool.
The size of primary zone of deformation depends upon the following factors:
1. Rake angle of tool
2. Cutting speed
3. Properties of work material
4. Friction on rake face
1. Rake angle
The transition of work material into chip is gradual and the material suffers less
overall deformation if rake angle of tool is large. The cutting forces are small.
If rake angle is small or negative, the material suffers more severe deformation.
The cutting forces are also large.
2. Cutting speed
The thickness of primary zone of deformation reduces and zone becomes
narrower with the increase of cutting speed.
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 41

3. Work material
The size of the primary zone depends upon the following properties of work
material.
1. Strength
2. Strain hardening
3. Strain rate
4. Heat conductivity
4. Friction on rake face
The size of both primary and secondary zones of deformation increases due to
increase in friction between chip and tool rake face.

2.2.2 Continuous Chip with Built-up Edge

The chip slides under heavy pressure on the rake face. Also there is high
temperature between the chip and tool. Due to high temperature and pressure
existing, the chip may stick to the rake face of the tool. The heat of chip is
conducted to the tool at close contact area. The chip becomes stronger and more of
deforming work material is attracted. The size of built-up edge (BUE ) goes on
increasing till a “critical size” is reached when it breaks. The broken portion of
BUE gets embedded into the machined surface or gets attached to the under side of
the flowing chip. The building up and breaking of BUE is cyclic and there is a
regular embedding of broken BUE into machined surface. The surface friction is
affected.
With the increase of cutting speed, the temperature of cutting zone increases.
The built-up edge is softened at high temperature and critical size of BUE reduces.
At very high cutting speeds, the BUE disappears completely.
Chip
Tool
Fragment of BUE
Built-up edge

Workpiece

Fig. 2.5 Continuous chip with BUE.

2.2.3 Discontinuous Chip

Discontinuous chips are produced during machining of brittle materials such as
cast iron and brasses. There is crack formation in the deforming zone ahead of
cutting edge. The crack travels with further advancement of tool and results in
formation of small lumps of chip. These lumps start moving up the rake face.
42 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools
Chips

Tool

Workpiece

Fig. 2.6 Discontinuous chips.

The friction force obstructs the motion of the lump and crack propagates
towards the surface. The fragment of chip gets detached. The heat generated in the
cutting zone is mostly carried by the chip and tool life increases due to its lower
temperature.

2.2.4 Segmented Chip

During machining of most engineering materials, segmented chips are produced
which are a combination of continuous chips and discontinuous chips. The shape
of these chips depends upon rake angle, cutting speed and material properties.

2.3 ORTHOGONAL CUTTING

The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed. See
Fig. 2.7.

Tool

Chip

90°

Workpiece

Fig. 2.7 Orthogonal cutting.

2.3.1 Shear Plane

The work material deforms plastically ahead of cutting tool edge. It slides on
the rake face of tool and forms a chip. The region between the start of the chip
and undeformed (elastically deformed) workpiece is called zone of plastic
deformation.
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 43

The size of zone of plastic deformation depends upon cutting parameters.

The size of this zone decreases with the increase of cutting speed. In the analysis
of thin zones, it is assumed that the work material shears across a plane and forms
the chip. This plane is called shear plane.

2.3.2 Shear Plane Angle

The angle between the cutting velocity vector and shear plane is called angle of
shear plane $. The chip is formed by plastic deformation of work material and
material flow is continuous.

Chip
D
tc a
Tool
C $-a
B
t $
A
Workpiece

Fig. 2.8 Shear plane angle.

From equation of continuity,

t.b.v = tc.bc.vc ...(1)
where, t = deprth of cut.
b = width of cut
v = cutting velocity
tc = chip thickness
bc = width of chip
vc = chip velocity
In most cutting processes, b = bc
tv = tcvc ...(2)
The chip thickness ratio,
t
r = = vc = Lc ...(3)
t
tc v L
where, L = uncut chip length
Lc = length of chip formed.
From Fig. 2.8, the length of shear plane,
t tc
AC = = ...(4)
sin $ cos ($ – α)
44 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

where, a = rake angle of tool.

t sin $
rt = = ...(5)
tc cos ($ – α)
rt cos α
tan $ = ...(6)
1 – rt sin α
The shear angle $ can be experimentally found out from rt and rake angle a.
A pipe of ductile material is turned with the help of tool with side rake angle
(condition for orthogonal cutting). Measure L and Lc and calculate rt. Measure
rake angle a.
The tool should have only back rake angle and side zero rake angle for
orthogonal cutting.
Example 2.1 The end of a pipe was orthogonally cut with a tool of 20° rake
angle. The chip length was measured as 85 mm whereas uncut chip length
was 202 mm. Determine shear plane angle and chip thickness if depth of cut was
0.5 mm.
Solution: Assume, the chip width bc = width of uncut chip, b
Chip length Lc = 85 mm
Length of uncut chip L = 202 mm
L 85
Chip thickness ratio r = c = = 0.42
t L 202
rt cos α
Now, tan $ =
1 – rt sin α
0.42 cos 20°
=
1 – 0.42 sin 20°
Shear plane angle, $ = 27.4° Ans.
t
Chip thickness, t = = 0.5 = 1.19 mm Ans.
c
rt 0.42
Example 2.2 A specimen of 100 mm length along the stroke of a shaper is
machined with 15° rake angle tool. Determine the shear plane angle and chip
thickness if uncut chip thickness is 1.5 mm and chip length obtained is 40 mm.
Solution: Assuming that there is no change in the width of chip during
machining,
t × L = tc × Lc.
t L 40 = 0.4.
Chip thickness ratio, r=
t
= c=
tc L 100
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 45

rt cos α
tan $ =
1 – rt sin α

0.4 cos15°
=
1 – 0.4 sin 15°
Shear plane angle,
$ = 25.8°
t 1.5
Chip thickness, tc = = = 3.75 mm Ans.
rt 0.4

2.4 CUTTING FORCES IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING

.
In orthogonal cutting the resultant forceR applied by the tool to the chip lies in a
plane normal to the tool cutting edge. This can be determined experimentally by
measuring its orthogonal components in the direction of cutting (known as cutting
force Fh) and other normal to the direction of cutting (known as thrust force Fv)
with the help of dynamometers. The magnitude of resultant force may be found
out as follows

R= Fh2 + Fv2
The component of R in the direction of width b is zero.

Chip

Tool
Fh

Motion of
workpiece R Fv

Fig. 2.9 Orthogonal component of cutting force.

The geometrical relationships of components of resultant force in other

directions can be found out with the help of Fig. 2.10 which shows the following
angles and directions.
Shear plane angle = $
Angle of friction = þ
Tool rake angle = a.
46 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

The following pairs of components are shown in selected directions.

1. Fh = Horizontal force component along cutting velocity vector.
FV = Vertical force component normal to cutting velocity vector.
2. Fs = Force component parallel to shear plane (AC)
Fp = Force component normal to shear plane (AC)
3. Ft = Force component parallel to tool rake face.
Fn = Force component normal to tool rake face.

Chip

a
Tool
C
Fs
Fh $
B
A
Fv Workpiece
R 90°-þ
Fp þ
Fn Ft
D

Fig. 2.10 Cutting forces.

R= Fh2 + Fv2

R= Fs2 + Fp2

R= Ft2 + Fn2
If average coefficient of friction between the chip and tool is µ.
Ft
µ = tan þ = ...(1)
Fn

Fv
Also tan (þ − a) = ...(2)
Fh
Equations (1) and (2) can be used to find friction angle þ.
Expressing different force components in term of R, $, þ and a,
y
Fs = R cos ($ + þ – a)
F = R sin ($ + þ – a) 1
P

F = R cos (þ – a)y
h

F = R sin (þ – a) 1
v
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 47

y
Fn = R cos þ

F = R sin þ) 1
t

2.5 THEORY OF ERNST AND MERCHANT

Merchant’s model for orthogonal cutting is based on the assumption that shear
plane angle $ should minimize the work done during cutting.
Following assumptions are made
1. The tool edge is sharp.
2. The shear plane is thin.
3. The deformation is in two dimensions only.
4. The normal and shear stresses are distributed uniformly on the shear
plane.
5. The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
From Fig. 2.10, following relations were obtained:
Fh = R cos (þ − a)
Fs = R cos ($ + þ − a)
Let yield stress of material in shear = k
Fs = Area × k
= (AC) × b × k
t×b
= k.
sin $
Fs t × b ×k
R= =
cos ($ + þ – a) sin $ cos ($ + þ – a)

t × b × k cos (þ – α)
Fh = ...(1)
sin $ cos ($ + þ – α)
The energy consumption during machining.
Pm = Fh.v
Assume that $ and þ are not functions of cutting velocity v.

dPm = dFh = 0
d$ d$
Differentiating equation (1) w.r.t $ and putting equal to zero for minimi-zation
of Fh.
48 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

t × b × cos (þ – α)[cos $ ($ + þ – α) – sin $ sin ($ + þ – α)]

sin2 $ cos2 ($ + þ – α)
sin $ s 0 and cos ($ + þ − a) s 0
cos ($ + þ − a) = 0
cos (þ − a ) s 0
cos (2$ + þ − a) = 0
Hence, optimum value,
n (þ – α)
$= – .
42
Example 2.3 Determine the shear plane angle, cutting force component and
resultant force on the tool for orthogonal cutting of a material with yield stress of
250 N/mm2. Following are the machining parameters.
Tool rake angle = 15°
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25 mm
Chip width = 2 mm
Chip thickness ratio = 0.46
Angle of friction = 40°
Solution:
rt cos α
tan $ =
(1 – rt sin α)

0.46 cos15°
=
(1 – 0.46 sin 15°)
$ = 29.57°
Shear force along the shear plane,
t.b. K 0.25 × 2 × 250
Fs= =
sin $ sin 29.57º
= 279.04 N
The resultant force on cutting tool,
Fs 279.04
R= =
cos ($ + þ – α) cos (29.57 + 40º – 15º)

279.04
= = 426.3 N.
cos 54.57º
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 49

The cutting force component,

Fh = R cos (þ − a)
= 426.3 cos (40° − 15°) = 426.3 cos 25°
= 393.85 N Ans.
Example 2.4 Determine the shear plane angle, resultant force on the tool and
cutting force component for orthogonal cutting operation of a material with shear
yield strength of 200 N/mm2. The machining data is as follows:
Uncut chip length = 100 mm
Length of cut length = 50 mm
Rake angle of tool = 10°
Width of cut = 1.5 mm
Uncut chip thickness = 0.2 mm
Coefficient of friction = 0.8
Lc 50
Solution: Chip thickness ratio, r = = = 0.5
t L 100
rt cos a
tan $ =
1 – rt sin a

0.5 cos10°
=
1 – 0.5 sin 10°
Shear plane angle,
$ = 28.34°.
Shear force along shear plane,
tbK 0.2 × 1.5 × 200
Fs = =
sin $ sin 28.34º
Resultant force on cutting tool,
tbK
R=
sin $. cos ($ + þ – α)
tan þ = µ = 0.8
þ = 38.66°
126.3
R= = 126.3
cos (28.34° + 38.66° – 10°) cos 57°
= 232 N Ans.
50 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

Cutting force component

Fh = R cos (þ − a) = 232 cos (38.66° − 10°)
= 203.58 N Ans.

2.6 THEORY OF LEE AND SHAFFER

The theory of Lee and Shaffer is based on slip line field theory and applies
simplified plasticity analysis to the problem of orthogonal metal cutting. The
following assumptions are made on the behaviour of work material under stress.
1. The material is rigid plastic. The stress-strain curve is shown in Fig. 2.11.
2. The behaviour of material is independent of rate of deformation.
3. The effect of temperature increase during deformation are negligible.
4. The inertia effects resulting from acceleration of material during
deformation are negligible.
Stress

Strain

Fig. 2.11 Stress-stain curve for a rigid-plastic material.

Chip

tc
Tool
B R
C 45°
þ
t 45°-þ
$
A
Workpiece

Fig. 2.12 Slip-line field for orthogonal cutting.

 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 51

The slip-line field for orthogonal cutting is shown in Fig. 2.12.

R = resultant tool force
þ = mean friction angle on tool face
$ = shear plane angle
a = rake angle
t = undeformed chip thickness
tc = chip thickness
Triangle ABC contains the zone of deformation. The plane CB is stress free
and slip lines meet CB at 45°. AC is the shear plane and there is velocity
discontinuity along AC. A set of slip lines are parallel to AC and other set
perpendicular to AC and inclined at an angle (45° − þ) with the tool rake face.
From Fig. 2.12, 3 CAB = 45° + þ
$ + 3 CAB = 90° + a
$ = 45° − (þ − a).
or, $ + þ − a = 45° ...(1)
Equation (1) is the required shear-angle solution.
Case 1: Zero rake angle
If þ = 45° and a = 0°, $ = 0°
High friction and low rake angle leads to formation of built-up edge.
Case 2: Negative rake angle
If þ = 35° and a = −10°, $ = 0°.
This solution is again impracticable.

2.7 STRESS DISTRIBUTION ON RAKE FACE

In the analysis of orthogonal cutting as per theory of Lee and Shaffer, shear and
normal stresses are uniformly distributed in the plastic region and also there is
uniform distribution of stress on the rake face. However, it is found that this
assumption is not true. Both the stresses are found experimentally to vary along
the contact length.
Photo-elastic apparatus was used and stress distribution pattern on the rake
face were determined by the analysis of fringe patterns observed. The forces were
measured by dynamometers. The distribution of normal and shear stresses on the
rake face found out experimentally are shown in Fig. 2.13.

2.7.1 Idealized Stress Distribution

Idealized stress distribution of normal stress (CB) along the rake face is shown by
an exponential curve in Fig. 2.14. The shear stress is shown constant upto a
portion of contact length from tool tip. This zone is called “sticking zone”. The
shear stress exponentially decreases to zero beyond sticking zone. This constant
stress zone is called “slipping zone” and Coulomb’s laws of friction are applicable.
52 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

Normal and shear stresses

Normal stress

Tangential (shear)
stress

Distance along rake face

Fig. 2.13 Normal and shear stress distribution on rake face.

C
on
omax

E
D K = µon

K
A B
Sticking F
zone Slipping zone
l2
l1
ln

Tool

Fig. 2.14 Idealized stress distribution on rake face.

2.7.2 Stress Relationships

The distribution function of normal stress
on = Axm
where, A = constant
m = constant
x = distance from end of chip-tool contact.
If on is the normal stress on the rake face at a distance x from the end of
contact length.

xy
m
J
on = omax ¡ ¡
y ln J
where, omax = max. normal stress at the cutting edge
ln = natural contact length between tool and chip.
54 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

Average coefficient of friction,

Ft ( Ft + Ft )
µ = tan þ = = 1 2

Fn Fn
Substituting the values of Ft , Ft and Fn,
1 2

K.(l – l ) (m + 1) + µo (l )m+1
n 2 max 2
µ=
o (l n)m+1
max

2.8 PLOUGHING FORCE

The resultant tool force in metal cutting is distributed over the areas of the tool that
contact the chip and workpiece. No cutting tool is perfectly sharp and the cutting
edge can be represented by a cylindrical surface joining the tool flank and the tool
face. For a freshly ground high-speed steel tool, the radius of the edge varies from
0.005 to 0.03 mm. Deformation of tool material occurs in this region due to high
stresses on the cutting edge. There is contact between the tool and the new
workpiece surface over a small area of tool flank. A frictional force may act in the
tool flank region. This force does not contribute to the removal of the chip. This
force is called ploughing force.
The total resultant tool force,
R = F c + Fp
where, Fc = force required to remove the chip
Fp = ploughing force acting on the tool edge and work-tool interface
region.
The specific cutting energy increases especially at low values of undeformed
chip thickness.

Chip-tool Chip Face

interface
Flank
Tool
Fc
R
t
Fp
Fp Workpiece
Fc

Cylindrical Work-tool interface

tool edge

Fig. 2.15 Contact regions in a cutting tool.

 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 55

2.9 CHIP VELOCITY

The chip velocity along the tool rake face, Vc is the vector sum of velocity of uncut
chip V and the velocity discontinuity along the shear plane.
. . .
Vc = Vt + Vs
The velocity of the uncut chip is the velocity of workpiece with respect to
cutting tool. The surface layer shears across the shear plane AC and becomes a
part of the chip. Therefore, surface layer suffers a velocity discontinuity parallel to
shear plane as shown in Fig. 2.16.
Vc

Chip C
Vc Vs
a
Tool
tc
C (90° + a – $)
Vs
a
t$
V
A 90° – a $
Workpiece B A
Velocity diagram V

Fig. 2.16 Velocity relationship in orthogonal cutting.

From velocity triangle BAC, using Lami’s theorem,

V Vs V
= = c
sin (90° + α – $) sin (90°– a) sin $
The chip velocity,
V sin $ V sin $
Vc = =
sin (90° + α – $) cos ($ – α)
The shear velocity,
V sin (90° – α) V cos α
Vs = = .
sin (90° + α – $) cos ($ – α)

2.10 MACHINING WITH VARIABLE UNCUT CHIP THICKNESS

In most machining processes such as milling, grinding, gear cutting, etc., the chip
thickness varies during cutting. The uncut chip thickness may change from
maximum to zero or zero to maximum. The vibration and chatter of machine tools
also lead to chip thickness variation.
The following two cases are shown in Fig. 2.17.
1. The workpiece with positive surface slope. The uncut chip thickness
varies from maximum to zero.
56 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools
E
F
Chip
6 a
6c Tool tc Tool
6A
A a
6
$
$ B B
V Workpiece V
Workpiece
(a) Positive slope (b) Negative slope

Fig. 2.17 Variable uncut chip thickness.

2. The workpiece with negative surface slope. The thickness of uncut chip
varies from zero to maximum.
Following relationship may be used to find shear plane angle $ in case of
variable or unsteady chip thickness cutting. The instantaneous shear plane angle.
$ = $0 + c6
where, $0 = shear plane angle when slope of work surface is zero, i.e., 6 = 0
6 = slope of workpiece surface ahead of tool edge.
c = constant
= 0.50 Merchant
= 1.00 Shaw and Sanghoni
= 0.75 Wallace and Andrew
= 0.20 Oxleg
= 1.00 Kebayashi and Shabaik.
In most cases, c can be taken to unity. From so many values of c by various
authors, it can be suggested that it is not a constant and may be a function of a, 6
and $0.

2.11 OBLIQUE CUTTING

The rake and other tool angles required for ideal orthogonal cutting cannot be
achieved due to practical considerations. Therefore, most machining processes
approach oblique cutting with orthogonal cutting as a particular case.

2.11.1 Chip Flow Direction

The angle between the normal to the cutting edge and chip velocity vector is
called chip flow angle. In orthogonal cutting, chip flows in a direction normal to
the cutting edge and chip flow angle is zero.
60 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools
b
Chip width ratio, rb =
bc

1
rt =
rb .rL

2.11.4 Velocity Relationships

The velocity diagram for oblique cutting is shown in Fig. 2.19.

C
Vc
Vs ae
Vc Tool
tc
(90° – $e + ae) C
Vs
$e
(90° – ae) V A
$e Workpiece
B A
Velocity diagram V

Fig. 2.19 Velocity relationship.

V = uncut chip velocity

Vc = chip velocity
Vs = shear velocity
$e = effective shear plane angle
ae = effective rake angle
. . .
Vc = V + Vs
From properties of triangle ABC,
Vc sin $e
=
V cos ($e – α e )

Vs cos $e
=
V cos ($e – α e )
Expressing the relationship in terms of chip flow angle ;, angle of obliquity
I and normal rake angle an,
Vc sin $n cos I
=
V cos ($n – α n ). cos ;

Vs cos I cos α n
and, = .
V cos ; cos ($n – α n )
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 59

2.11.5 Shear Plane Angle

The angle between shear velocity vector, Vs and the cutting edge is called shear
plane angle. Similar to rake angle, shear angle can be measured in different planes.
Refer to Fig. 2.19.

Vc/V cos $c
tan $e =
1 – Vc/ V sin αe
Normal shear angle is measured in a plane normal to cutting edge.
t J y
cos α
¡y t ¡J n
tan $ =
n
Jtyc
1 – ¡ ¡ sin α
yt J c
n

2.12 MECHANICS OF TURNING PROCESS

A turning tool has complex geometry with the following important angles which
affect the chip flow direction.
1. Rake angle (a)
2. Back rake angle (ab)
3. Side rake angle (as)
4. Side cutting edge angle (ys)
5. End cutting edge angle (ye)
6. Nose radius
The chip flow direction becomes complex due to the presence of nose radius
and for mathematical analysis, the presence of nose radius is neglected.
The top view of a turning tool is shown in Fig. 2.20, where

ye

d R
T
ys C Chip flow
direction
Tool feed ;
Q
B A
f R. H. Turning
S ;
Tool

P
rs

Fig. 2.20 Chip flow direction in turning.

60 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools

Fa

Fr

Ft

Fig. 2.21 Forces in turning.

where, Ft = tangential force component [N].

V = cutting velocity [m/min].
The cutting force components can be expressed by the following equations.
Ft = R1 ƒ m1 d n1 [N]

Fa = R2 ƒ m2 d n2 [N]
mn
Fr = R3 ƒ 3 d 3 [N]
where, ƒ = feed
d = depth of cut
R1, R2, R3 = material coefficients
m1, m2, m3 and n1, n2, n3 are exponents.
Various values of coefficients and exponents are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Coefficients and exponents for turning forces

Material Coefficients Exponents

R1 R2 R3 m1 m2 m3 n1 n2 n3

0.2% carbon steel 1590 337 397 0.85 0.8 0.67 0.98 1.46 0.47
Brass 1210 220 558 0.81 0.91 0.97 0.96 1.43 0.38
18-8 stainless steel 1930 368 876 0.85 0.48 0.71 0.96 1.26 0.69

2.12.3 Specific Energy

Specific energy is the power consumption per unit volume of material removed.
62 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools Mechanics of Metal Cutting 63
Ft
P =
s
( f .d )
The metal removal rate,
1000
Zw = f.d.V. × [mm3/s]
60
where, f = feed (mm)
d = depth of cut [mm]
V = cutting speed [m/min]
Power consumption,
V
P=F× [W]
t 60
Ft
P = [kW/cm3/sec].
s
1000 × f × d
Example 2.5 Calculate the specific energy and unit power in a turning process.
The machining data are:
Diameter of workpiece = 50 mm
Cutting speed = 40 m/min
Feed = 0.24 mm/sec
Depth of cut = 1.8 mm
Tangential component of force = 800 N
Axial component of force = 290 N
Solution: Metal removal rate,
V
Z = fd [cm3/s]
w
60
0.24 1.8 40 ×
100 = 0.288 cm3/sec.
= × ×
10 10 60
Power consumed,
Ft × V
P= [W]
60
40
= 800 × [W].
60
Assume that power consumped by feed force is negligible.
 P 800 × 40
Unit power, Ps = = = 1.5 kW/cm3/sec
Zw 60 × 0.288

2.13 MECHANICS OF MILLING PROCESS

Slab milling and end milling processes are the most versatile milling processes for
producing flat and formed surfaces. The cutter can move in both directions and the
processes are called up-milling and down-milling. The average chip thickness is
higher in down-milling as compound to up-milling. The power consumption is
less in down-milling.
Cutter Cutter

Workpiece Workpiece

Table feed Table feed

(a) Up-milling (b) Down-milling

Fig. 2.22 Types of milling processes.

2.13.1 Chip Thickness in Slab Milling

The two positions of milling cutter are shown as C and C’ during the distance
travelled equal to feed per tooth, ft.
The uncut chip thickness,
t = ft sin 0
where, 0 = angle of a radius with the vertical.
a = contact angle of cutter with workpiece.

C C’

a a
0
Rc – d

A B D E

90° – 0 d

ft

Fig. 2.23 Chip thickness in slab milling.