302530 A- Machining Science

and Technology
Unit Number: 1
Unit Name: Mechanics of Metal Cutting
Unit Outcomes: CO1
ANALYZE cutting forces in turning and learn problem
solving skills in both analytical and graphical methods.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Theory of Metal Cutting
Theory of Metal Cutting
 Metal cutting or machining is the process of producing a work piece by removing
unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of chips.
 This process is most important since almost all the products get their final shape
and the size by metal removal, either directly or indirectly.

Figure (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process,

(b) Tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
Theory of Metal Cutting
Different machining processes may be classified into two categories:
Orthogonal and oblique cutting
• Orthogonal cutting
• The cutting edge of the tool is straight and perpendicular to the direction of motion.
• Oblique cutting
• The cutting edge of the tool is set at an angle to the direction of motion.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Difference between Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Difference between Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Difference between Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

The Mechanism of Cutting
• Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip. As chip is removed, new
surface is exposed

• Orthogonal Cutting - assumes that the cutting edge of the tool is set in a position that is perpendicular
to the direction of relative work or tool motion. This allows us to deal with forces that act only in one
plane.

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process,

(b) Tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
The Mechanism of Cutting
Orthogonal Cutting
 Ideal Orthogonal Cutting is when the cutting edge of the tool is straight and perpendicular to the

direction of motion.

 During machining, the material is removed in form of chips, which are generated by shear

deformation along a plane called the shear plane.

• The surface the chip flows across is called the face or rake face.

• The surface that forms the other boundary of the wedge is called the flank.

• The rake angle is the angle between the tool face and a line perpendicular to the cutting point of the
work piece surface.
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
The Mechanism of Cutting
The relief or clearance angle is the angle between the tool flank and the newly formed surface of the
work piece angle.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

The Mechanism of Cutting
• In turning, w = depth of cut and t1= feed

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

The Mechanism of Cutting
Orthogonal cutting model:
• t1 = un deformed chip thickness
• t2 = deformed chip thickness (usually t2 > t1)
• α = rake angle
• If we are using a lathe,
t1 is the feed per revolution.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

The Mechanism of Cutting
Chip thickness ratio (or) cutting ratio
t1
C u ttin g ra tio  r 
where t2
 r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
 t1 = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
 t2 = chip thickness after separation
Which one is more correct?
• r≥1
• r ≤1
• Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0 .
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
Determination of shear plane angle
Shear Plane Angle

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Determination of shear plane angle
Shear Plane Angle
 Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear plane angle ө can be
determined as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin 
where
 r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
  = Rake angle
 ө = Shear angle

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Shear Strain in chip formation

(a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and

(c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
Shear Strain in chip formation
• From the shear strain triangle

  = AC/DB= (AD+DC)/DB

  = AD/DB + DC/DB

 AD/DB = Cot θ

 DC/DB = tan (θ - )

 Therefore  = Cot θ + tan (θ - )

•  = tan(θ - ) + cot θ
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
Shear Strain in chip formation
Shear Strain in chip formation
• Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following equation, based on
the preceding parallel plate model:

•  = tan(θ - ) + cot θ
where
•  = shear strain
• θ = shear angle
•  = rake angle of cutting tool

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Chip Formation
 Figure shows a schematic diagram of material
deformation during cutting, and subsequently
removal of the deformed material from the
workpiece by a single point cutting tool.
Because of the relative motion between the tool
and the workpiece, material ahead of the tool
face (rake face) is compressed (elastically and
More realistic view of chip formation,
then plastically). showing shear zone rather than shear plane.
Also shown is the secondary shear zone
resulting from tool chip friction.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Chip Formation
 Further, movement of the tool into the
workpiece deforms the work material plastically
and finally separates the deformed material
from the workpiece.
 This separated material flows on the rake face
of the tool called as chip.
 The chip near the end of the rake face is lifted
More realistic view of chip formation,
away from the tool, and the resultant curvature showing shear zone rather than shear plane.
of the chip is called chip curl. Also shown is the secondary shear zone
resulting from tool chip friction.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Classification of chips-
Four Basic Type of Chips in Machining are

• Discontinuous chip

• Continuous chip

• Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

• Serrated chip

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

1. Discontinuous chip
• When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed material gets fractured very
easily and thus the Chip produced is in the form of discontinuous segments.
Reasons
• Brittle work materials
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of cut
• High tool chip friction

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

2. Continuous chip
• Continuous chips are normally produced when machining steel or ductile materials at
high cutting speeds. The continuous chip which is like a ribbon flows along the rake
face.
Reasons
• Ductile work materials
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths
• Sharp cutting edge
• Low tool chip friction

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
 When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining ductile materials, some particles
of chip adhere to the tool rake face near the tool tip. When such sizeable material piles upon the
rake face, it acts as a cutting edge in place of the actual cutting edge is termed as built up edge
(BUE). By virtue of work hardening, BUE is harder than the parent work material

Reasons

• Ductile materials
• Low to medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face

• BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
4. Serrated chip (Segmented Chip)
• Semi Continuous ( saw tooth appearance) chips produced when machining tool steels or
Harden materials at high cutting speeds.

• During machining of most engineering materials, segmented chips are produced which are
a combination of continuous chips and discontinuous chips.

Reasons
• Ductile materials
• Low - to - medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
• BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
THEORY OF ERNST AND MERCHANT
• Merchant's model for orthogonal cutting is based on the assumption that shear
plane angle ф should minimize the work done during cutting.
• Following assumptions are made
• The tool edge is sharp.
• The shear plane is thin.
• The deformation is in two dimensions only.
• The normal and shear stresses are distributed uniformly on the shear plane.
• The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

THEORY OF ERNST AND MERCHANT
From Fig., following relations were obtained:
Fh = R cos (β − α)
Fs = R cos (ф + β − α)
Let yield stress of material in shear = k Fs = Area × k
= (AC) × b × k

……..Eq. 01

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

THEORY OF ERNST AND MERCHANT
• The energy consumption during machining.
• Pm = Fh.v
• Assume that ф and β are not functions of cutting velocity v.

Differentiating equation (1) w.r.t ф and putting equal to zero for minimization of Fh.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

THEORY OF ERNST AND MERCHANT

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Example 01

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Example 02

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Example 03

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Example 03

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Example 04

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Example 04

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Effect of cutting parameters on tool geometry
Cutting speed:
• It is defined as the rate at which cutting edge of the tool passes over the surface of the
work piece in unit time.
• Generally, it is expressed in m/min.
• If the cutting speed is too high, then the tool gets over heated and the cutting point/edge
may fail, which requires regrinding of the tool.
• If the cutting speed is too low, then machining time is more hence productivity decreases,
and production cost increases.
• Cutting speed is the major factor for affecting the tool life.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Effect of cutting parameters on tool geometry
Cutting speed:
• It varies inversely with the tool life which leads to the generation of a parabolic curve as
shown in Fig.
• The relation between the tool life and cutting speed is invented by F.W. Taylor, hence
sometimes that equation is called as Taylor's tool life equation.
• The relation is, VTn = C
Where, V = Cutting speed in m/min,
T = Tool life in minutes,
n = Tool life index, which depends on tool material,
C= Machining constant.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Effect of cutting parameters on tool geometry
Feed:
• It is defined as the distance travelled by the tool along or into the workpiece, for each pass of
tool point in unit time.
• Consider an example of lathe machine, in which tool feed is advancement of the tool
corresponding to each work revolution.
• The cutting speed and feed of a cutting tool, is mostly affected by workpiece material,
cutting tool material and geometry, etc.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Effect of cutting parameters on tool geometry
Depth of cut:
• Following is the empirical relation between the cutting speed, tool life, feed rate and depth of
cut:

• V= Cutting speed in m/min,

• T= Tool life in min,
• F= Feed rate in mm/min,
• t = Depth of cut in mm.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Effect of cutting parameters on tool geometry
Metal removal rate (MRR):
• MRR is defined as the volume of material (metal) removed in unit time.
• It indicates the time required to remove the specific amount of material from the workpiece.
• Generally, MRR is expressed in mm/min, Mathematically,
MRR= f X t X Vc
Where,
F = Feed in mm/rev.
t = Depth of cut in mm.
Vc = Cutting velocity in mm/min.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Effect of cutting parameters on tool geometry
Tool material:
• Tool material which can withstand maximum cutting temperature without losing its
mechanical properties and geometry will ensure maximum tool life.
• Hence, higher the mechanical properties (mostly, hardness and toughness) in the tool
materials longer be the tool life.
Work materials:
• Higher the hardness of the work materials greater will be the tool wear and hence shorter
At high temperature, metals have tendency to stick to the tool face which results in more
tool life.
• Friction, high amount of wear on the tool and hence shorter tool life.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Effect of cutting parameters on tool geometry
Nature of cutting:
Tool life is also affected by cutting nature i.e. whether it is continuous or intermittent.
In continuous cutting, tool life is more than intermittent cutting.
Rigidity of machine tool and work:
Machine tool and workpiece both should remain rigid while machining operation.
If they are not rigid then vibrations are developed and hence cutting tool will be subjected
to intermittent cutting instead of continuous cutting.

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Force & Velocity Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Forces Acting on Chip
• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
The Mechanism of Cutting

Cutting force (Fc) is tangential and Thrust force is axial (Ft)

Cutting forces in a turning operation
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
Force & Velocity Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Forces Acting on Chip
• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal cutting: forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
Force & Velocity Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Cutting Force and Thrust Force

• F, N, Fs and Fn cannot be measured directly, in order to measure these forces the forces acting on
the tool to be measured initially

• Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces in metal cutting: forces acting on the tool that can be measured
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology
Force & Velocity Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Resultant Forces

• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'

• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

• R' must be equal in magnitude to R

• R’ must be opposite in direction to R

• R’ must be collinear with R

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Force & Velocity Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Shear Stress
 Shear stress acting along the shear plane
F
S  s
A s
 where As = area of the shear plane

t1 w
As 
s in 
 Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Force Calculations
• The forces and angles involved in cutting are
drawn here,
• Having seen the vector based determination of
the cutting forces, we can now look at
equivalent calculations:

F
 tan   
N
Where   The coefficient of friction

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Force Calculations

Where the Resultant force R is Given by

R  F  Ft  F  F  F  N
c
2 2
s
2
n
2 2 2

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Force Calculations
• We can write the cutting and thrust
forces in terms of the shear force:

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Velocity Calculations
• Having seen the vector based determination of the cutting
forces, we can now look at equivalent calculations:
• Vc= Cutting velocity (ft/min) as set or measured on the
machine
• Vs= Shearing velocity
• Vf= Frictional velocity
Using the sign rules:
Vs Vc

sin  90   sin  90o   
o
A ls o ,
Vc sin  90o  Vc cos V 
V c s in 
Vs   c o s    
sin  90    cos   
f
o

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Cutting Force Vs Rake Angle α
• The effects of rake angle on cutting force are shown in the graph below,

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology

Cutting Force Vs Rake Angle α
• The effects of rake angle on cutting force are shown in the graph below,

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology