Study guide for G11 HL Analysis and Approaches - Regina Kim

Unit Lesson Content

Unit 1 A: Sequence: a list of numbers arranged in a particular order which follow a certain pattern
Sequences
What - Recursive: depends on the value of the previous term
Comes - Explicit: depends on the position of the term
Next?
● Arithmetic: increase or decrease by a constant value
- Recursive:

- Explicit:

● Geometric: multiplying the previous term by a constant value

- Recursive:

- Explicit:

B: Series Series: a sum of the terms of a sequence

- Finite series: a partial sum until ​nt​ h terms

● Arithmetic series

● Geometric series

- Infinite series: a sum of infinite # of terms

● Convergent: the partial sums get closer to a specific value as n increases

lrl<1

● Divergent: the partial sums tend toward infinity as n increases

 lrl>1

SL Quiz A-B Blank copy

Answer key

HL Quiz A-B Blank copy

Answer key

C: Interest: the amount of money earned by investment

Applications
of Compound Interest → an example of geometric sequences
Sequences
and Series

FV: future value

PV: present value
n: number of years
k: number of compounding periods per year
r: annual rate of interest

D: Binomial
Expansion

Pascal’s triangle = Combinatorial numbers

Binomial Theorem:

→ Find term

Test A-D Blank copy

Answer key

E: Counting The fundamental principle of counting :

Principles If there are m ways an event can occur followed by n ways a second event can occur,
then there are a total of (m)x(n) ways that the two events can occur
→ multiplication principle
 ● Permutation: arrangement, ordering of objects
The order of occurrence of objects is important

● Combination: unordered selection of objects

The order of occurrence of objects is NOT important

F: Proof Mathematical proof:

a series of logical steps that validates the truth of a general statement beyond any doubt

1) Algebraic proof
Transform one side of a mathematical statement until it is equivalent to another side
You canNOT move terms from one side to the other
→ LHS (left hand side) = RHS (right hand side) ​∴ QED

2) Deductive proof
Identify the given statement and assume it is true
Use theorems, given facts, etc to make deductions that arrive at the conclusion
and prove it to be true → If P is true, then Q is true

3) Proof by mathematical induction

If the result is true for an initial value, then it is true for all values
→ domino analogy

1. The proposition: P(n)

Define mathematical statement in terms of n

2. The basis step: P(1)

Show that the proposition is true for n=1
Plugin 1 into n and state ​∴ ​P(1) is true

3. The assumption: P(k)

Replace n by k and assume P(k) is true - be specific!

4. The inductive step: P(k+1)

Consider P(k+1) by plugging in k+1 into the assumption and state ​∴ ​P(k+1) is true

5. The conclusion:
Since P(1) is true and P(k) is true → P(k+1) is true,
​ ​∈Z​+
by mathematical induction P(n) is true for all n

4) Proof by contradiction
If a statement P is not false, then it must be true
Instead of proving that P is true, we can prove that P is not false by showing that
P being false contradicts something we know to be true
= assume that the implication is false and prove the assumption is incorrect

5) Proof by counterexample
an example that proves the fact that a given statement is false

Quiz E-F Blank copy

Answer key

Unit 2 A: Functions Function: mapping that assigns to each value of the independent variable to one and only value of
- notation, the dependent value → f (input) = output
Functional terminology,
Foundatio representatio ● Domain: all possible values of independent values
ns ns ● Range: all possible values of dependent values

Types of mapping
- One to one
- Many to one
- One to many
- Many to many

Line test
- Vertical line: is it a function?
If the line cuts the function more than once, it is not a function

- Horizontal line: is it one to one function?

If the line cuts the function more than once, it is not a one to one function

Onto function: every element in y is an image of an element in x

→ range = codomain

Even function: symmetrical about the y-axis

→ f(x) = f(-x)

Odd function: rotational symmetry of 180​° about the origin

→ f(-x) = - f(x)

Operations
- Addition: f(x) + g(x) = (f+g)(x)
- Subtraction: f(x) - g(x) = (f-g)(x)
- Multiplication: f(x) * g(x) = (f*g)(x)
- Division: f(x)/ g(x) = (f/g)(x)

B: Functions Graph: set of all points of the form (x,y) that satisfy the equation of the function
& our GDC’s
x-intercept: (x,0) ​→ GDC - graph - 2nd calc - 2 zero - boundaries
y-intercept: (0,y) ​→ GDC - graph - 2nd calc - 1 value - x=0

Minimum
- Global: the smallest value of the function on the entire domain
- Local: the least possible value from a subset of the domain
​→ GDC - graph - 3 minimum - boundaries

Maximum
- Global: the biggest value of the function on the entire domain
- Local: the largest possible value from a subset of the domain
→ GDC - graph - 4 maximum - boundaries

C: Composite Composite function: combining two component functions in succession

Functions f (g (x) ) = f ∘ g (x)

the output of the first function becomes the input of the second function
→ range of f(x) = domain of g(x)
 D: Inverse Inverse function: f​-1​(x)
Functions the function which undoes or reverses the action of original function f
Domain of f(x) = Range of f​-1​(x)​ ​& Range of f(x) = Domain of f​-1​(x)

In order for a function to have an inverse function,

the original function f must be one to one function

Proving two functions are inverses of each other using composite functions
f(g(x)) = x and g(f(x)) = x

How to find a function’s inverse

- Numerically:
switch the x and y coordinates of the ordered pairs of the original function

- Algebraically:
Switch x and y in the original equation and then solve for y

- Graphically:
graph the original function and reflect it over the line y=x
Or switch the x and y coordinates of the original function

Identity function: f(x) = x

each input is mapped to itself

If the reflection of f(x) over the identity line overlaps with f(x) itself
→ Self-inverse function: f(x) = f​-1​(x)

Test A-D Blank copy

Answer key

Unit 3 A: Transformation: manipulating or changing the shape and/or position of a graph of a function
Transformati
Power to ons ● Reflection (rigid transformation)
Predict y = - f(x) : reflected across the x-axis
y = f (-x) : reflected across the y-axis

● Stretch (non-rigid transformation)

y = a f(x) : vertically stretched by a factor of “a”
y = f (bx) : horizontally stretched by a factor of “1/b”
 ● Translation (rigid transformation)
y = f (x - c) : horizontally shifted by “c” units
y = f(x) + d : vertically shifted by “d” units

● Composite transformation
y = A f (B(x + C)) + D
A - vertical stretch
B - horizontal stretch
C - horizontal translation
D - vertical translation

● Reciprocate: y = f(x) VS y = 1 / f(x)

- If the ordered pair (a,b) belongs to y=f(x),

then (a, 1/b) belongs to y = 1 / f(x)

- As f(x) → ±​∞, 1 ​ /f(x) → 0

As f(x) → 0​, ​1 /f(x) → ±​∞

- The reciprocal of 0 is undefined, therefore the zeroes of f(x) become the vertical
asymptotes of the reciprocal function

- The reciprocal of ±1 is still ±1

therefore the reciprocal function shares the points on the original function where y
= ±1

- The reciprocals of positive #s are still positive

The reciprocals of negative #s are still negative

- The minimum values of f(x) will occur at the same x-values as the
minimum values of 1 / f(x)
The maximum values of f(x) will occur at the same x-values as the
maximum values of 1 / f(x)

● Absolute value: y = l f(x) l VS y = f(lxl)

y = l f(x) l
- The graph of y = l f(x) l is always above the x-axis
- The negative part of y = l f(x) l is reflected across the x-axis
- x-intercept remains the same for y = f(x)
- y-intercept changes its sign only when it is negative for y = f(x)

y = f(lxl)
- The graph of y = f(lxl) is symmetrical about the y-axis
- It is always an even function
- y-intercept remains the same for y = f(x)
- The positive x part is reflected across the y-axis
because negative x values and positive x values generate same outputs

● Squaring:

B: Linear Linear function: a polynomial function of degree 1

Functions → first differences are constant

● Slope: m = ∆y/ ∆x
- Parallel lines: same slope m1 = m2
- Perpendicular lines: negative reciprocal slope m1 = -1 / m2
i.e. m1 x m2 = -1
 ● X-intercept: let y=0 and solve for x
All linear functions have one x-intercept

● Y-intercept: let x=0 and solve for y

All linear functions have one y-intercept

● Domain: ​x​∈R
● Range: ​y​∈R

● Horizontal line: y = #
Slope = 0, no x-intercept

● Vertical line: x = #
Slope = undefined, no y-intercept

● Formula

- Slope intercept form: y = mx + b

slope = m , y-intercept = b

- Point slope form: y - y1 = m (x - x1)

given point (x1, y1)

- General form: ax + by + c = 0
a, b, c ​∈ Z
slope = - a/b , y-intercept = - c/b

C: Quadratic Quadratic function: a polynomial function of degree 2

Functions → second differences are constant

● Opening
- a > 0 : parabola opens upward = concave up
- a < 0 : parabola opens downward = concave down

● X-intercept: let y=0 and solve for x

Parabolas have zero or one or two x-intercepts

● Y-intercept: let x=0 and solve for y

All quadratic functions have one y-intercept

● Domain: ​x​∈R

● Range: y ≤ maximum or y ≥ minimum

● Interval: increasing or decreasing or stationary

● Formula
- Standard form: y = ax​2 ​+ bx + c
Axis of symmetry: x = - b/2a , y-intercept: (0,c)

- Vertex / Completed square form: y = a (x - h)​2 ​+ k

Vertex: (h,k) , Axis of symmetry: x = h

- Factored / Intercept form: y = a (x - p)(x - q)

X-intercepts: (p,0) & (q,0)
Axis of symmetry: x = (p+q) / 2

● Discriminant: ∆ = b​2 ​- 4ac

- ∆ > 0 : 2 real roots
 - ∆ = 0 : repeated real roots
- ∆ < 0 : no real roots = 2 complex conjugate roots

● Sum of roots = - b/a

● Product of roots = c/a

Solving quadratic equations

- Factor: write an expression as a product of factors

& zero product principle: if A x B = 0, A = 0 or B = 0
- Complete the squre: rewrite in (a+b)​2 ​form by adding and subtracting (½ b)​2
& squre root principle: if x​2​ = A, x = ​±√A

- Quadratic formula:

- Graphing

- Polyroot finder: GDC - Apps - #2 PlySmlt2

Solving quadratic inequalities

- Graphing
- Sign analysis

D: Polynomial function: a function with many terms

Polynomial → for a polynomial of degree n, ​n​th differences are constant
Functions
All of the powers of variables must be positive integers
All of the coefficients must be real numbers

Even powered:
- U shaped
- Same end behavior

Odd powered:
- Flex shaped
- Opposite end behavior

Algebra
- Adding: add like terms
- Subtracting: distribute (-1) to each term

- Multiplying:
distributive property, associative property, commutative property

- Dividing:
- long division
- synthetic division
- reverse tabula

● Remainder theorem
P (x) / (x - a) ​→ remainder = P (a)

● Factor theorem
(x - a) is a factor only if P (a) = 0

● Rational roots theorem

If a root is rational,
Root = p/q = factor of​ a​0​ (last term) / factor of ​a​n​ (first term)
Test A-D Blank copy
Answer key

E: Roots of a polynomial equation

Polynomial - Real: appear as x-intercepts on the graph
Equations - Complex: always occur in conjugate pairs
and
Inequalities
How to solve polynomial equations
1) Factor - zero product principle
2) Rational roots theorem

How to solve polynomial inequalities

1) Factor
2) Find critical values
3) Sign analysis or Graph

Sum & Product of roots

● Quadratic: ax​2 ​+ bx + c = a (x - p)(x - q)

x=p,x=q
- Sum: - b / a
- Product: c / a

● Cubic: ax​3 ​+ bx​2 ​+ cx + d = a (x - p)(x - q)(x - r)

x = p , x = q , x =r
- Sum: - b / a
- Product: - d / a

● Polynomial:

- Sum:

- Product:

F: Rational Rational function: a function formed by ratio/division of two polynomials

Functions R(x) = f(x) / g(x) , g(x) ≠ 0

● Vertical asymptote: a graphical representation which shows the outputs get infinitely
positive or negative as the inputs approach a given x value
Let denominator = 0, then solve for x

● Horizontal asymptote: a graphical representation which shows the outputs approaching a

value as the inputs go towards positive or negative infinity
→ degree of numerator ≤ degree of denominator

Find by plugging in a very big number in x

*horizontal asymptotes can be crossed or touched since they only describe x​→ ±​∞

● Oblique asymptote: asymptote of improper functions

→ degree of numerator > degree of denominator
rewrite the improper function as ‘mixed’ function through long division

and then find

 ● x-intercept: let numerator = 0, then solve for x

● y-intercept: let x=0, then solve for y

● Algebra
- Equation: cross-multiply and simplify
- Inequality: solve for the range
make one side = 0
Find critical values
Do sign analysis

Test A-E

Unit 4 A: Limits and Limit: description of the behavior of a function f(x) as x gets very close to a value c
Continuity
The
Changing B: The
Face of Derivative of
Math a Function

C:
Differentiatio
n Rules

D: Tangents
and Normals

E: Graphical
Interpretation
of Derivatives

F:
Optimization
Problems

G: Implicit
Differentiatio
n