AUDIO/SOUND PRODUCTION

You’ve recorded and mixed the perfect song, but now it’s time to transform your music from a

PRACTICAL MASTERING
raw two-track final mix into a professional, release-quality master. Mastering is an essential part
of the recording process, giving your tracks punch, loudness, and clarity. In short, it’s your last
chance to get it right!

Taking a hands-on approach to the mastering process, Practical Mastering shows you how to
create a polished, professional sound with the tools already at your disposal. You’ll learn to deliver
your music to its audience as effectively as possible with techniques informed by professional

PRACTICAL MASTERING
mastering practices.

• Understand the goals of mastering – what you can expect mastering to achieve and what
makes a “perfect” recording
• Learn to shape and control dynamics, giving your music more energy without sacrificing
sonic details
A Guide to Mastering in the Modern Studio
• Refine the timbre and colour of your music so that it has a balanced spectral profile
• Create true loudness and impact through a variety of different techniques and approaches
• Craft and deliver a flawless product, ready for replication or internet delivery
• Get videos and audio examples to reinforce the skills in the book at www.masteringcourse.com

Mark Cousins works as a composer, programmer and engineer (www.cousins-saunders.co.uk),

as well as being a long-serving contributor to Music Tech magazine. His professional work
involves composing music for some of the world’s largest production music companies, including
Universal Publishing Production Music. His music has been used in advertising campaigns for
brands such as Strongbow, McDonald’s, Stella Artois, Hershey’s and Lipton, and on hit shows like
The Apprentice, Top Gear and CSI:NY.

Russ Hepworth-Sawyer is a sound engineer and producer with two decades’ experience and
is a member of the Association of Professional Recording Services; a fellow of the Institute for
Learning (UK); and a board member of the Music Producer’s Guild, whose Mastering Group

COUSINS & HEPWORTH-SAWYER

he helped form. Through MOTTOsound (www.mottosound.co.uk), Russ works as a mastering
engineer, writer and consultant. Russ currently lectures part-time for York St John University and
has taught extensively at institutions including Leeds College of Music, London College of Music
and Rose Bruford College. He currently writes for Music Tech magazine and has contributed to
Pro Sound News Europe and Sound On Sound, and has written many titles for Focal Press.

MARK COUSINS AND RUSS HEPWORTH-SAWYER

www.focalpress.com
 Practical Mastering
A Guide to Mastering in the Modern Studio
This page intentionally left blank
 Practical Mastering
A Guide to Mastering in the Modern Studio

Mark Cousins
Russ Hepworth-Sawyer
www.masteringcourse.com
First published 2013
by Focal Press
70 Blanchard Rd Suite 402, Burlington, MA 01803
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Focal Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Focal Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2013 Mark Cousins and Russ Hepworth-Sawyer.
The right of Mark Cousins and Russ Hepworth-Sawyer to be identified as authors of
this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge
in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments
described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful
of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Cousins, Mark.
Practical mastering / Mark Cousins, Russ Hepworth-Sawyer.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-240-52370-5 (pbk.)
1. Mastering (Sound recordings) 2. Digital audio editors.
I. Hepworth-Sawyer, Russ. II. Title.
TK7881.4.C686 2013
781.49--dc23
2012037208
ISBN: 978-0-240-52370-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-240-52371-2 (ebk)
Typeset in ITC Giovanni Std
By MPS Limited, Chennai, India
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ................................................................................................................. xiii

DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................................... xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................................... xv

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 An introduction to Mastering ..............................................................................................................1
1.2 The role of this book ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Can I master in [insert your DAW name here]? .............................................................................. 3
Knowledgebase .....................................................................................................................................4
1.4 The history and development of mastering .................................................................................... 5
1.5 The early days ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.6 Cutting and the need for control........................................................................................................ 6
1.7 Creative mastering................................................................................................................................8
1.8 The CD age..............................................................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 2 Mastering Tools ................................................................................................ 11

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 12 vii
2.2 The digital audio workstation (DAW)............................................................................................. 12
2.3 A/D and D/A converters and the importance of detail .............................................................. 13
2.4 Monitoring............................................................................................................................................. 16
2.5 Mastering consoles ............................................................................................................................. 17
A – Series of input sources ............................................................................................................... 18
B – Input and output level controls ................................................................................................ 18
C – Signal processing – including cut filters, M/S and stereo adjustment ............................ 18
D – Switchable insert processing .................................................................................................... 19
E – Monitoring sources ...................................................................................................................... 19
2.6 Project studio mastering ................................................................................................................... 19
2.7 Project studio mastering software ................................................................................................ 20
Apple WaveBurner ............................................................................................................................. 21
soundBlade LE.................................................................................................................................... 22
Steinberg wavelab ............................................................................................................................. 24
2.8 Mastering plug-ins ............................................................................................................................. 24
iZotope Ozone .................................................................................................................................... 24
Universal audio precision series ..................................................................................................... 26
IK multimedia T-RackS 3 ................................................................................................................. 27
Waves L-316 ....................................................................................................................................... 28
2.9 An introduction to M/S processing................................................................................................ 29
2.10 M/S tools.............................................................................................................................................. 30
viii CONTENTS

Using stereo plug-ins in M/S format ............................................................................................. 30

Dedicated M/S plug-ins..................................................................................................................... 31
2.11 Essential improvements for project studio mastering .............................................................. 33
Acoustic treatment ............................................................................................................................ 34
Monitoring............................................................................................................................................ 34
Conversion ........................................................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER 3 Mastering Objectives ..................................................................................... 37

3.1 Introductory concepts....................................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Flow ....................................................................................................................................................... 39
3.3 Shaping .................................................................................................................................................40
3.4 Listening ................................................................................................................................................41
Listening interface and quality benchmark...................................................................................41
Knowledgebase .................................................................................................................................. 42
Listening subjectivity versus objectivity ...................................................................................... 43
Holistic, micro and macro foci in listening ....................................................................................44
Listening switches ............................................................................................................................. 45
3.5 Confidence ........................................................................................................................................... 47
3.6 Making an assessment and planning action ................................................................................ 48
3.7 Assessing frequency ......................................................................................................................... 48
3.8 Assessing dynamics........................................................................................................................... 49
3.9 Assessing stereo width..................................................................................................................... 49
3.10 Assessing perceived quality ............................................................................................................ 50
3.11 The mastering process....................................................................................................................... 51
3.12 Capture ................................................................................................................................................. 53
3.13 Processing ........................................................................................................................................... 53
3.14 Sequencing .......................................................................................................................................... 54
3.15 Delivery................................................................................................................................................. 55

CHAPTER 4 Controlling Dynamics...................................................................................... 57

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 58
4.2 Basics of compression ...................................................................................................................... 59
Threshold ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Ratio ...................................................................................................................................................... 59
Attack and release ............................................................................................................................. 60
‘Auto’ settings ..................................................................................................................................... 62
Knee ...................................................................................................................................................... 63
Gain makeup ........................................................................................................................................ 64
Beyond the basics .............................................................................................................................. 64
4.3 Types of compressor ......................................................................................................................... 65
Optical ................................................................................................................................................... 65
Variable-MU ........................................................................................................................................ 66
FET ........................................................................................................................................................ 67
VCA ........................................................................................................................................................ 68
 CONTENTS ix

4.4 Compression techniques .................................................................................................................. 69

Gentle mastering compression ....................................................................................................... 69
Over-easy ............................................................................................................................................ 70
Heavy compression ............................................................................................................................ 71
Peak slicing .......................................................................................................................................... 72
Glue........................................................................................................................................................ 74
Classical parallel compression ........................................................................................................ 74
New York parallel compression ...................................................................................................... 76
Multiple stages ................................................................................................................................... 76
4.5 Using side-chain filtering .................................................................................................................. 78
4.6 From broadband to multiband ........................................................................................................ 79
4.7 Setting up a multiband compressor...............................................................................................80
Step 1: Setting the crossover points and the amount of bands..............................................80
Step 2: Apply compression on all bands to see what happens ................................................ 81
Step 3: Controlling bass.................................................................................................................... 82
Step 4: Controlling highs .................................................................................................................. 83
Step 5: Controlling mids ................................................................................................................... 84
Step 6: Gain makeup ......................................................................................................................... 84
4.8 Compression in the M/S dimension ............................................................................................... 85
Compressing the mid signal ............................................................................................................. 86
Compressing the sides of the mix .................................................................................................. 86
4.9 Other dynamic tools – expansion................................................................................................... 86
Downwards expansion...................................................................................................................... 86
Upwards expansion ........................................................................................................................... 89

CHAPTER 5 Refining Timbre................................................................................................ 91

5.1 An introduction to timbre ................................................................................................................. 92
5.2 Decoding frequency problems ........................................................................................................ 94
Broad colours – the balance of LF, MF and HF ......................................................................... 94
Balance of instruments ..................................................................................................................... 94
Unwanted resonances ...................................................................................................................... 94
Technical problems ............................................................................................................................ 95
5.3 Notions of balance – every action having an equal and opposite reaction ......................... 95
5.4 Types of equalizer.............................................................................................................................. 97
Shelving equalization ........................................................................................................................ 97
Parametric equalization ................................................................................................................... 98
Filtering ................................................................................................................................................ 99
Graphic equalization .......................................................................................................................... 99
Phase-linear equalizers ..................................................................................................................100
Non-symmetrical EQ .......................................................................................................................100
5.5 A Journey through the audio spectrum .......................................................................................101
10–60 Hertz – the subsonic region ............................................................................................ 102
60–150 Hz – the ‘root notes’ of bass......................................................................................... 103
200–500 Hz – low mids ...............................................................................................................104
x CONTENTS

500 Hz–1 kHz – mids: tone ........................................................................................................... 105

2–6 khz – Hi mids: bite, definition and the beginning of treble ............................................ 106
7–12 kHz – treble ............................................................................................................................. 107
12–20 kHz – air ................................................................................................................................ 108
5.6 Strategies for equalization ............................................................................................................ 109
High-pass filtering............................................................................................................................ 109
Using shelving equalization ............................................................................................................. 111
Understanding the curve of EQ ..................................................................................................... 112
Combined boost and attenuation .................................................................................................. 114
Controlled mids using parametric EQ........................................................................................... 115
Cut narrow, boost wide .................................................................................................................... 117
Fundamental v. second harmonic ................................................................................................. 118
Removing sibilance ........................................................................................................................... 119
5.7 Selective equalization – the left/right and M/S dimension .................................................... 121
Equalizing the side channel ........................................................................................................... 122
Equalizing the mid channel ............................................................................................................ 124
5.8 Subtle colouration tools ................................................................................................................. 125
Non-linearity...................................................................................................................................... 125
The ‘Sound’ of components ........................................................................................................... 127
Phase shifts ....................................................................................................................................... 127
Converters ......................................................................................................................................... 128
5.9 Extreme colour – the multiband compressor ............................................................................ 128
5.10 Exciters and enhancers................................................................................................................... 130
Aphex Aural Exciter......................................................................................................................... 130
Waves Maxx Bass ............................................................................................................................. 131

CHAPTER 6 Creating and Managing Loudness ............................................................. 133

6.1 Introduction: A lust for loudness .................................................................................................. 134
6.2 Dynamic range in the real world ................................................................................................... 135
6.3 All things equal? The principles of loudness perception......................................................... 136
6.4 Loudness, duration and transients .............................................................................................. 138
6.5 Loudness and frequency ................................................................................................................140
6.6 The excitement theory .................................................................................................................... 143
6.7 The law of diminishing returns ...................................................................................................... 145
6.8 Practical loudness Part 1: What you can do before mastering ............................................. 147
Simple, strong productions always master louder ................................................................... 147
Don’t kill the dynamics – shape them!......................................................................................... 148
Understand the power of mono .................................................................................................... 148
Control your bass ............................................................................................................................. 149
6.9 Practical loudness Part 2: Controlling dynamics before you limit them ............................. 149
Classic mastering mistakes No. 1: The ‘Over-Limited’ chorus .............................................. 150
Moderating the overall song dynamic .......................................................................................... 151
Moderating transients with analogue peak limiting ................................................................ 152
Controlling the frequency balance with multiband compression.......................................... 153
 CONTENTS xi

6.10 Practical loudness Part 3: Equalizing for loudness ................................................................. 154

Rolling Off the sub ........................................................................................................................... 154
The ‘smiling’ EQ ................................................................................................................................ 155
Controlling excessive mids............................................................................................................. 156
Harmonic balancing ......................................................................................................................... 156
6.11 Practical loudness Part 4: Stereo width and loudness........................................................... 158
Compress the mid channel ............................................................................................................. 159
Attenuate bass in the side channel .............................................................................................. 159
6.12 Practical loudness Part 5: The brick-wall limiter ...................................................................... 159
How much limiting can I add? ........................................................................................................ 159
Knowledgebase ................................................................................................................................. 161
Setting the output levels ................................................................................................................ 162
Multiband limiting............................................................................................................................. 163
6.13 The secret tools of loudness – Inflation, excitement and distortion ................................... 163
Sonnox Inflator ................................................................................................................................. 165
Slate Digital Virtual Tape Machines ............................................................................................ 166
Universal Audio Precision Maximizer ......................................................................................... 167

CHAPTER 7 Controlling Width and Depth ......................................................................169

7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 169
7.2 Width ................................................................................................................................................... 170
7.3 Surround or no surround? That is the question ......................................................................... 171
Surround-Sound formats and current mastering practices.................................................... 171
7.4 Stereo width ...................................................................................................................................... 172
7.5 Phase .................................................................................................................................................. 172
7.6 M/S manipulation for width ............................................................................................................175
7.7 Other techniques for width ............................................................................................................ 176
7.8 Depth................................................................................................................................................... 178
7.9 Mastering reverb .............................................................................................................................. 179

CHAPTER 8 Crafting a Product ......................................................................................... 181

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 181
8.2 Sequencing ........................................................................................................................................ 182
8.3 Topping and tailing .......................................................................................................................... 183
8.4 Gaps between tracks and ‘sonic memory’ .................................................................................. 184
8.5 Fades on tracks ................................................................................................................................ 187
8.6 Types of fades .................................................................................................................................. 189
8.7 Segues ................................................................................................................................................ 190
8.8 Level automation .............................................................................................................................. 191
Knowledgebase ................................................................................................................................ 192
8.9 Other automation and snapshots ................................................................................................ 193
8.10 Stem mastering ................................................................................................................................ 194
8.11 Markers, track iDs and finishing the audio product ................................................................. 196
8.12 Hidden tracks .................................................................................................................................... 199
xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 9 Delivering a Product .....................................................................................201

9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 201
9.2 Preparation....................................................................................................................................... 202
9.3 International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ...................................................................... 202
Knowledgebase ............................................................................................................................... 204
9.4 The PQ sheet ................................................................................................................................... 205
9.5 Barcodes (UPC/Ean) ..................................................................................................................... 208
9.6 Catalog numbers ............................................................................................................................. 209
9.7 Other encoded information .......................................................................................................... 209
9.8 CD-Text ............................................................................................................................................... 211
9.9 Pre-emphasis .................................................................................................................................... 212
9.10 SCMS .................................................................................................................................................. 212
9.11 Delivery file formats ........................................................................................................................ 214
9.12 DDPi and MD5 checksums ............................................................................................................ 215
9.13 CDA as master? Duplication v. replication ................................................................................. 216
9.14 Mastering for MP3 and AAC ......................................................................................................... 218
9.15 Delivery.............................................................................................................................................. 220
9.16 Final checks .......................................................................................................................................223

CHAPTER 10 DAW Workflow ............................................................................................. 225

10.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................225
10.2 Method 1: Track-based mastering in a conventional DAW ................................................... 226
Importing audio................................................................................................................................ 226
Songs to tracks ................................................................................................................................ 226
Instantiating mastering plug-ins.................................................................................................. 229
Rendering pre-master files and applying fades ....................................................................... 230
Final delivery ..................................................................................................................................... 231
10.3 Method 2: Stereo buss mastering in an unconventional DAW .............................................232
MClass Equalizer .............................................................................................................................. 233
MClass Compressor ......................................................................................................................... 233
MClass Stereo Imager.................................................................................................................... 234
MClass Maximizer ............................................................................................................................ 235
A Word of Caution ............................................................................................................................ 235

CHAPTER 11 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 237

11.1 The art of mastering ........................................................................................................................ 237
11.2 Technology as a conduit ................................................................................................................. 237
11.3 Head and heart .................................................................................................................................239
11.4 An evolving art form ........................................................................................................................239

INDEX ................................................................................................................................................ 241

 About the Authors

Mark Cousins
Mark Cousins works as a composer, programmer and sound engi-
neer (www.cousins-saunders.co.uk), as well as being a long-serv-
ing contributor to Music Tech magazine. His professional work
involves composing music for some of the world’s largest produc-
tion music companies – including Universal Publishing Production
Music, among others – and he has had his music placed on major
campaigns for brands such as Strongbow, McDonalds, Stella Artois,
Hershey, BT and Liptons as well as being used on hit shows such as
The Apprentice, Top Gear and CSI:NY. He has also had works per-
formed for the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the East of England
Orchestra, City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra and the Brighton
Festival Chorus.
Mark has been an active contributor to Music Tech magazine since
issue one. He has been responsible for the majority of cover fea- xiii
tures, as well as the magazine’s regular Logic Pro coverage. As a senior
writer, he has also had a strong editorial input on the development of
the magazine, helping it become one of the leading brands in its field.
Russ Hepworth-Sawyer
Russ Hepworth-Sawyer is a sound engineer and producer with
over two decades’ experience of all things audio and is a mem-
ber of the Association of Professional Recording Services, a Fellow
of the Institute For Learning, and a board member of the Music
Producer’s Guild where he helped form their Mastering Group.
Through MOTTOsound (www.mottosound.co.uk), Russ works free-
lance in the industry as a mastering engineer, writer and consultant.
Russ currently lectures part time for York St John University and
has taught extensively in Higher Education at institutions including
Leeds College of Music, London College of Music and Rose Bruford
College. He currently writes for Music Tech Magazine, has contrib-
uted to Pro Sound News Europe and Sound On Sound, and has written
many titles for Focal Press.
“Dedicated to Joan Margaret Sawyer (1935–2012).”
 Acknowledgements

Mark would like to thank…

Thanks to my family – Hannah, Josie and Fred – for their support,
patience and amusement over the years, and for keeping me com-
pany in the studio from time to time! I am also eternally grateful
to my parents for encouraging me to pursue my love of music all
those years ago (and for buying me my first synthesizer!). Thanks
also to Russ, for his ability to listen to my long ramblings, but most
importantly as a long-standing friend – from those early days driving
around Sherwood in his Ford Capri, through to the process of writ-
ing two books together! I would also like to thank Neil Worley, for
taking me on at Music Tech and nurturing me though my early days
of professional writing, Adam Saunders, for putting up with a fluc-
tuating musical output over several months, and Johnny, for being
such a great brother!
Russ would like to thank... xv
Thanks must first go to my wife Jackie and sons for allowing me to
embark on yet another book – thank you for your love and encour-
agement! Thanks too must go to my parents-in-law Ann and John
for all their help and support during the writing. Thanks to Max
Wilson for his friendship, honesty and sincere support over the years
... thanks boss! Continual thanks owed to: Iain Hodge at London
College of Music; Craig Golding at Leeds College of Music; Ben
Burrows and Rob Wilsmore at York St John University.
Thanks must be mentioned to the following for their friendship
and guidance in the world of audio and mastering (they have not
contributed directly to this book, but indirectly from years of con-
versations over cups of tea and beers!). Sincere thanks must be pro-
vided to the mastering friends in the industry namely: John Blamire,
Dave Aston, Ray Staff, Paul Baily, Bob Katz plus all the mix engi-
neers and clients I’ve had the pleasure to work with. Specific thanks
are extended to Barkley McKay, Rob Orton, Tom Bailey, Adrian
Breakspear, Iain Hodge, Craig Golding and so many others for
xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

helping me think about the process over many years. Also a quick
shout out to Catherine ‘Parsonage’ Tackley, Tony Whyton and Ray,
Sue, Toto and Billy Sawyer.
Finally I’d like to thank Mark for his long-standing friendship and
support. It was a long time ago when we started all this music stuff
professionally hey?
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

In this chapter
1.1 An introduction to Mastering .................................................................... 1
1.2 The role of this book .................................................................................. 2
1.3 Can I master in [insert your DAW name here]? ....................................... 3
Knowledgebase .......................................................................................... 4
1.4 The history and development of mastering .............................................. 5
1.5 The early days ............................................................................................. 5
1.6 Cutting and the need for control .............................................................. 6
1.7 Creative mastering...................................................................................... 8 1
1.8 The CD age ................................................................................................. 8

1.1 An introduction to Mastering

Compared to all other parts of the production process, mastering is
surrounded by the greatest amount of miscomprehension and mys-
tery. ‘What makes a finished master sound like a “record”?’ ‘How
do professional mastering engineers create such loud masters?’ and
‘Can mastering really turn my lackluster demo into something lis-
tenable?’ – the list of questions about possibilities and skills of
mastering are almost endless. In truth, few of us can ignore the
important role mastering plays – whether you’re demoing songs in
a home studio, or working as a professional musician/engineer – so
it’s well worth separating fact from fiction.
In its broadest sense, mastering forms the final part of the pro-
duction process – the last opportunity to finesse the sound of a
recording and the point at which we deliver a product ready to be
replicated and delivered to the consumer. Over time, and with the
2 PRACTICAL MASTERING

rapid changes in technology over the last 40 years, the exact role
and function of mastering has changed. Where mastering engineers
might have once dealt with a cutting lathe and a vintage valve com-
pressor, today’s engineer might be delivering internet-ready content
mastered through a range of cutting-edge plug-ins. Either way, mas-
tering is most effective when the music is conveyed as effectively as
possible.
Arguably the most important development in mastering is that all
musicians and engineers, to a lesser or greater extent, have to actively
engage in the mastering process. The record industry of old – where
just a handful of mastering engineers acted as gatekeepers to the out-
side world – has long gone, and instead, musicians and recording
engineers have any number of avenues through which their music
can be released. With budgets being stretched, release dates loom-
ing and ‘off-the-shelf’ recording technology delivering high-quality
results, it’s a logical conclusion that the mastering process slowly
becomes part of everyone’s recording workflow, just like the tasks of
tracking or mixing.
Of course, there’s still a role for a professional mastering engineer –
principally as a means of bringing some ‘fresh ears’ to a project, but
also in utilizing some well-honed experience in the final stages of
the production process. There’s also a wealth of specialist equipment
that they can bring into the equation, most of which isn’t appropri-
ate for conventional music production activities, or is simply too
expensive for most of us to afford. That said, few people can choose
to ignore the role mastering plays, and everyone can benefit from a
greater understanding of the contribution that mastering makes to
the record-making process.

1.2 The role of this book

Given a need to ‘self master’, this book is designed to equip you
with all the skills relevant to working in today’s music industry. It
recognizes the fact that a majority of engineers choose to mix and
master ‘in-the-box’, but that there’s still a role for specialized mas-
tering hardware, and indeed, a dedicated mastering engineer where
appropriate. Most importantly, it illustrates what all of us can realis-
tically expect to achieve with access to a reasonable set of production
tools (in other words, a DAW and a small, well-chosen collection of
 Introduction CHAPTER 1 3

plug-ins), as well as defining the limitations and potential pitfalls

that such an approach can deliver.
If you’re starting out in music production, therefore, this book is a
ideal way of understanding how mastering can improve your music
and how you can best integrate your output with the rest of the
audio world. Starting from the basics, we’ll look at the key processes
and techniques behind mastering – whether you’re using a compres-
sor to better control the dynamics of a piece of music, or assembling
a finished DDP (Disc Description Protocol) master ready for replica-
tion. We’ll also guide you through the key issues of the day, includ-
ing the ever-present loudness war and what this means to audio
quality and music in general.
For the more experienced user, the book illustrates a more refined
understanding of the tools you have at your disposal – understand-
ing how equalization, compression and limiting interact to transform a
basic mix into a finished master. Rather than just skipping through
presets, you’ll gain better understanding about the role and rele-
vance of each individual parameter, and how you can tweak these
controls in a meaningful way to achieve a defined objective. You’ll
also form a better understanding of the wider principles of mas-
tering – from the ethos and thinking behind ‘professional quality’
audio, through to the technical details, like delivery formats and so
on, that are so important to how you interact with the wider audio
industry.

1.3 Can I master in [insert your DAW name here]?

In writing this book we’ve tried to strike a balance between univer-
sal information (in other words, good audio mastering practice that
can be applied in almost any digital audio workstation, or DAW), and
advice and guidance that relates to specific applications and plug-ins.
The majority of the book deals with what we consider to be the key
skills of mastering – focussing on areas such as dynamics and tim-
bre as well the mechanics of putting together a finished product.
Although the precise nature of what you can achieve will vary from
DAW to DAW, it’s interesting to note the universality of many of
these skills. At the end of the day, all DAWs offer some way of editing,
equalizing and compressing an audio file, which means that you can
at least start to practice and apply some of the principles of mastering.
4 PRACTICAL MASTERING

Knowledgebase

Mastering: a step-by-step guide

The first stage of mastering is generally concerned with the sound of the finished master, using tools
such as compression, equalization and limiting to create a balanced and homogenous listening
experience. Deficiencies in the mix (such as a weak bass or an over-aggressive snare drum) can often
be refined by the considered application of signal processing, and a good engineer can also ensure
that the track has a suitable dynamic range and timbral balance so that it translates across a range of
listening environments. It’s also important that the album as a whole sounds balanced – that tracks
have an even loudness, for example, and that they share a similar tonal colour.

Once the sound of the masters is established, an engineer can look towards editing and ordering the
final playlist for the tracks. The beginnings and ends of tracks will often need some attention – removing
unwanted noise at the track’s start, for example, or applying a fade-out over the last chorus. Assuming
you’re mastering an audio CD, it’s also important to consider the gaps between tracks and additional
factors such as ID markers that might help the listener navigate the music that’s presented to them.

The final stage is delivery: ensuring that the final product is suitable for the next stage of production.
If you’re creating a CD, for example, you might need to deliver the master in DDP format (Disc
Description Protocol), or you might simply be delivering audio files (in a given format) if the material is

The process of mastering is predominantly focused on the task of assembling a finished product ready for replication.
 Introduction CHAPTER 1 5

going to be used on the Internet. Either way, it might also be important to embed additional metadata
– such as ISRC codes, composers’ names and so on – so that your music can be tracked and
monitored correctly in the digital universe.

Towards the end of the book, though, we’ve also included a chapter
that looks at a number of specific applications – highlighting the key
operational points you need to be aware of, as well as the principle
differences that exist between the different working methodologies.
To keep the information succinct it isn’t an exhaustive explanation,
but instead offers an illustration of how the various techniques we’ve
described can be applied in a number of leading DAWs and plug-ins.
Given the flexibility inherent in most platforms, and the growing
number of new plug-ins released on a daily basis, it’s well worth you
exploring beyond this and seeing just how much you can achieve!

1.4 The history and development of mastering

Arguably the best way of understanding mastering today is to look
at how the role of mastering has changed and evolved over the years.
Accepted practices that we assume to be de rigueur have developed
over many years to become the art form we now appreciate. Of
course, to adequately provide a proper and detailed history of mas-
tering would necessitate a book in its own right, so hopefully this
provides an insight into the changes that have happened rather than
being an exhaustive exploration.
Mastering as we know it today has been borne out of a number of
technological and aesthetic developments which, to the untrained
eye, seem to be far removed from the origins of the role. Yet over
time these developments in technology, distribution and listening
habits have resulted in a set of changes in the world of mastering.
We now pause to take a concise look at the history of mastering,
hoping to bring context to an already misunderstood art form.

1.5 The early days

Back in the earliest days of recording, a sound engineer principally
worked as a ‘jack-of-all-trades’, being both the ‘recording engineer’
and the ‘cutting engineer’ as part of the same process. Equipment
6 PRACTICAL MASTERING

was limited, with often just a single microphone to capture a full

ensemble, which was then used as the sound source to cut the per-
formance direct-to-disc. The recordings were imbued with energy
and plenty of imperfections, but engineers still tried their best to
ensure that they captured the true spirit of the original lineup and
performance.
A significant shift came with the invention of magnetic tape, which
meant that the recording process could be separated into two dis-
tinct stages – that of capturing the performance, and secondly, the
process of cutting the performance to disc. In effect, what we now
know of as a mastering engineer started life as a transfer engineer,
ensuring that the music recorded to tape was transferred to a subse-
quent format as effectively as possible. Their concerns weren’t nec-
essarily artistic, but instead were to ensure the transfer retained the
sonic qualities of the original source recording as effectively as pos-
sible. Even at this stage, you can see why high-quality monitoring is
so important to a transfer engineer (latterly to become a mastering
engineer) as their job relied on a near-flawless transition!
The revolution offered by magnetic tape culminated in the develop-
ment of multi-track recording, which led to a further demarcation
of the recording process – this time creating a distinct third role of
a mixing engineer. Over the 1970 s and 1980 s, therefore, the art of
the sound engineer evolved in completely distinct and separate ways,
with recording engineers concentrating on capture, mixing engi-
neers concentrating on balance and mastering engineers becoming
highly skilled at the process of cutting music to vinyl. Technical stan-
dards were understandably high and engineers honed their skills
in a defined part of the production process, arguably creating a real
‘golden age’ of recording.

1.6 Cutting and the need for control

The skillset that evolved in line with the procedures and practices of
vinyl cutting were born both from technical limitations of the for-
mat, and, latterly, the desire to exploit the creative potential of the
mastering process (which we’ll return to later on). To ensure these
limitations were avoided, cutting engineers would be responsible for
transferring the master tape to an acetate without it causing issues
with later playback. For example, too much bass could cause many
 Introduction CHAPTER 1 7

What is loudness?
One of the biggest differences between a finished mix and a commercial release is its perceived
loudness. Put simply, there’s a big difference between the electrical measurement of a signal’s
amplitude (the peak level a mix might meter at, in other words) and our perception of its volume,
otherwise known as loudness. For example, two different audio files might both peak at 0dBFS, yet
our ears will often perceive them as being radically different from each other in respect to loudness.

Given that a mix’s loudness is directly linked to how excited we feel about a piece of music, it’s no
surprise to find that mastering engineers actively manipulate loudness to make a master sound
‘better’ to the listener’s ears. By reducing short transient peaks, limiters can raise the average level
of a master and thereby fool our ears into thinking that they’re hearing ‘louder’ music. The harder the
limiter is pushed, the greater the perceived loudness becomes.

However, like all good things, there’s a cost to the manipulation of loudness. First and foremost,
restraint often seems to get pushed out of the equation, with many artists and record companies
aggressively limiting masters so that they appear to be louder than the competition. As the limiter
works harder, audio quality quickly starts to be eroded, restricting the dynamic range, reducing
transient detail, and even worse, adding distortion. In truth, therefore, loudness is a phenomenon that
needs to be exploited in a balanced and considered way.

An increasing demand for loudness has meant the sound of recorded music has changed over the last 20 years.

styli to leave the comfort of the correct groove, and cutting engineers
might use high-quality filters to soften the bass load on a track, or at
a specific point, to ensure that a decent level could still be achieved
without causing a jump.
8 PRACTICAL MASTERING

Interestingly, these limitations have somewhat embedded them-

selves into what we commonly accept as ‘good practice’ within audio
production, arguably informing processing such as recording and
mixing as well as mastering. With the fall of vinyl sales, though, the
process of cutting records is now the truly specialist end of the mar-
ket, and the proof is that there are fewer than 100 lathes in the UK
working today. The problem is that the coveted cutting machines –
mainly the Neumann VMS series – have not been made for many
decades, and as far as we know there’s only one person in the UK
able to keep them going.
The concept behind the lathe is to cut a record from a lacquer disc
from which a pressing master is made. For this medium, the mastering
engineer (or cutting engineer to use the older term) will likely make
some additional changes to the audio to ensure that it works best on
the vinyl medium. If you’re after vinyl mastering or duplication then
you will need to liaise with someone who has access to a cutting lathe,
and have a master cut by an experienced mastering engineer.

1.7 Creative mastering

The introduction of much needed processing, such as simple EQ,
began a slow trend towards the transfer engineer moving from
repairing issues with the material for the medium, to slowly fulfill-
ing a creative role in the process of making records. Similarly, the
term changed from the simple ‘transfer engineer’ to the ‘mastering
engineer’. Over time, these engineers would gain a reputation for
making records sound the way they do and pick up business based
on recommendations or from ‘fans’ of records cut before.
Concurrently, new techniques and possibilities were being devel-
oped based on new equipment that would enhance the audio
coming from the studio. The idea that the cutting engineer was
a potential meddler regarding the quality of the studio mix was set
aside as people began to appreciate the improvements and repairs
that could be made in the last step of the creative process.

1.8 The CD age

By the early 1980s, at the dawn of the CD age, mastering had a new
set of limitations and sonic challenges to overcome. Early CD play-
ers were sonically cruder than now (conversion technology has
 Introduction CHAPTER 1 9

improved over the years), so once again engineers would need to

ensure the audio was ‘ready for the medium’.
Ironically, digital audio was lauded as the final solution to the hiss
that we were commonly used to with cassettes, and to stop the arte-
facts common to the humble turntable. However, digital audio pre-
sented a whole new range of issues, such as quantization errors at
quiet levels and a fixed top level. In analogue recording we’d become
used to keeping levels as hot as would be sensible to avoid the inher-
ent noise floor. The odd peak was not detrimental as harmonic
distortion would occur and become a welcome part of many record-
ings. Digital on the other hand presented us with a very fixed upper
limit of 0dBu and exceeding this had disastrous sonic qualities.
This should have led to slightly new techniques being adopted and
a new management of dynamic limitations. It could be said that the
introduction of this maximum limit began ‘loudness war 2’ (the first
war was the permanent challenge of making a louder record without
a maximum limit).
A new set of skills in preparing masters intended for CD using U-Matic
tape and Sony 1610 (later 1630) converters developed and remained
the mainstay of transferring to a glass master. Eventually mastering
was done using digital audio workstations such as Sonic Solutions,
later ditching the 1630 for DDP (Doug Carson & Associates’ Disc
Description Protocol) sent to the pressing plant on exabyte tape.
For many years CD Mastering has remained largely based around
the DAW, with constant development and flavours of software, all of
which we will introduce later in this book. New practices and ways
of working have developed in tandem with the complex and fasci-
nating world of mastering we now experience.
For further information, please consult the accompanying website:
www.masteringcourse.com

Pre-mastering
What we engage with in the mastering studio today is more typically what many should perhaps call
pre-mastering. Technically ‘mastering’ as a term relates to the physical creation of the replicated
copy intended for sale in the shops. Hence the activity of preparing the audio for this medium is more
accurately pre-mastering. Commonly pre-mastering is only ever referred to as mastering.
This page intentionally left blank