PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC

STATISTICAL TOOLS

SUBMITTED BY: ARIAN CRISTINE MAE P. ELLAGA

SUBMITTED TO: MS. AIREEN LEAH CELESTRA MANGUHON

DATE: NOVEMBER 27, 2019

SATISTICAL TOOLS

1. CHI SQAURE

2. SPEARMAN RHO

3. T TEST

4. Z TEST

5. ANOVA

6. ONE WAY ANOVA

7. TWO WAY ANOVA

PARAMETRIC- Is a branch of statistic which assumes that sample data come

from a population that can be adequately modeled by probability distribution

that has fixed set of parameters.

NON-PARAMETRIC- Statistic refer ta a statistical method in which data is not

required to fit a normal distribution. Nonparametric statistics uses data that

often ordinal, meaning it does not rely on numbers, but rather on ranking or

order sorts
CHI SQUARE

A chi square statistic is a test that measures how expectations compare to

actual observed data (or model results). The data used in calculating a chi square

statistics must be random, raw, mutually exclusive, drawn from independent

variables, and drawn from a large enough sample. Chi square are often used in

hypothesis testing.

Chi square is used decide whether there is any difference between the

observed (experimental) value and the expected (theoretical) value.

A Chi square is design to categorical data. That means that the data has

been counted and divided into categories. It will not work with parametric or

continuous data. For example, if you want to test whether attending class influences

how students perform on exam, using test scores (from 0-1oo) as data would not be

appropriate for Chi square test. However, arranging students into the categories

“Pass” or “Fail” would. Additionally, the data in Chi square grid should not be in the

form of percentages, or anything other than frequency (count) data. Thus, by dividing

a class of 54 into groups according to whether by attended class and whether they

passed a exam, you might construct a data set like this.

PASS FAIL

ATTENDED 25 6

SKIPPED 8 15
FORMULA OF A CHI SQUARE:

The Chi square test is calculated by evaluating the cell frequencies that involve the

expected frequencies in those types of cases when there is no association between

the variables. The comparison between the expected type of frequency and the

actual observed frequency is then made in this test. The computation of the

expected frequency square test is calculated as the product of the total number of

observations in the row and the column, which is divided by the expected frequency.

The researcher should know that the greater the difference between the observed

and expected cell frequency, the larger the value of Chi square statistic in the Chi

square test. In order to determine if the association between the two variables exists,

the probability of obtaining a value of chi square test cross tabulation.

NOTE that any statistical test that uses the chi square distribution can be called chi

square.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

-Employees Satisfaction

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-If the employees were satisfied with the working conditions of the company is

increased or decreased?
A business owner had been working to improve employee relations in his company.

He predicted that he met his goal of increasing employee satisfaction from 65% to

80%. Employees from four departments were asked if they were satisfied with the

working conditions of the company. The results are shown in the following table:

Finance Sales Technology

Satisfaction 12 38 8

Dissatisfaction 7 19 1

Total 19 57 9

We can use chi square to determine whether the results support or reject the

business owner's prediction.

Our first step is to calculate the predicted values so that we can compare them to the

actual values from the survey. The predicted number of satisfied employees is 80%

of the total number of employees in each department. This leaves the remaining

20% as the number of dissatisfied employees. For example, the predicted number of

satisfied employees in the finance department is 0.80(19) = 15.2. The predicted

number of dissatisfied employees in the finance department is 0.20(19) = 3.8. The

following table shows the observed and expected values for each department. The

observed values are in bold and the expected values are in parentheses.
The next step is to use the chi square table found at the beginning of the lesson to

find the p-value. Because our data has four categories (the four departments in the

company), our degree of freedom is three. Following the row for a degree of freedom

of three, we want to find the nearest value to the chi square value of 11.6806. The

nearest value is 11.345, which corresponds to a p-value of 0.01. It is common for

statisticians to use a p-value of 0.05 to determine if the hypothesis should be

accepted or refused. Since our p-value is less than 0.05, the hypothesis should be

refused. In other words, the data does not support the business manager's prediction

that approximately 80% of the employees are satisfied.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

-Fair Gamble

Many casinos use card-dealing machines to deal cards at random. Occasionally, the

machine is tested to ensure an equal likelihood of dealing for each suit. To conduct

the test, 1,500 cards are dealt from the machine, while the number of cards in each

suit is counted. Theoretically, 375 cards should be dealt from each suit. As you can

see from the results in our table, this is not the case:

Discrepancies are significant. If the discrepancies are significant, then the game

would not be fair. Measures would need to be taken to ensure that the game is fair.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-Do these machines results would be fair or not?

Spades Diamonds clubs Hearts

Observed 402 358 273 467

Expected 375 375 375 375

We can use chi square to determine if the discrepancies are significant. If the

discrepancies are significant, then the game would not be fair. Measures would need

to be taken to ensure that the game is fair. ,

Calculation of chi square for example 2

Is a technique used to summarize the strength and direction (negative or positive) of

a relationship between two variables. The result always be between 1 and minus 1.

Spearman’s correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the strength of a

monotonic relationship between paired data. Spearman correlation is often used to

evaluate relationships involving variables.

is the nonparametric version of the pearson correlation coefficient. Your data must

be ordinal, interval or ratio. Spearman’s returns a value from -1 to 1, where:

+1= a perfect positive correlation between ranks

-1= a perfect negative correlation between ranks

03= no correlation between ranks

The formula for the Spearman rank correlation coefficient is

Where n is the number of the data points of the two variables and di is the difference

in the ranks of the 1th element of each random variable considered. The spearman

correlation coefficient,p, can take values from +1 + -1.

 A p of -1 indicates a perfect association of ranks

 A p of 0 indicates no association between ranks and

 p of -1 indicates a perfect negative association between the ranks.

The closer p is to zero, the weaker the association between the ranks.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A photographer has noticed that a freshly mixed batch of chemicals will develop

photographs faster than an old batch of chemicals. The photographer keeps records

of the time needed to develop a print and the chemicals:

AGE OF CHEMICALS TIME TO DEVELOP

1 9

35 44

4 12

38 49

6 14

40 52

Use this data to find the regression equation for predicting time as a function of age

of the chemicals. answer: y’ = 1.33x

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

- If a freshly mixed batch of chemicals will develop photographs faster than an old

batch of chemicals?
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

An investigator wants to arrange the 15 items on her scale of language impairment

on the basis of the order in which language skills appear in development. Not being

entirely confident that she has selected the correct ordering of skills, she asks

another professional to rank the items from 1 to 15 in terms of the order in which he

thinks they should appear. The data are given below:

Investigator: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Consultant: 1 3 2 4 7 5 6 8 10 9 11 12 15 13 14

Use Pearson’s formula ( r) to calculate Spearman’s Γs.

answer: SP = 272; SSx = 280; SSy = 280; r = .97

a correlation is a relationship between two variables. Correlation is a statistical

technique that can show whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related. For

example, height and weight are related; taller people tend to be heavier than shorter

people. The relationship isn't perfect. People of the same height vary in weight, and

you can easily think of two people you know where the shorter one is heavier than

the taller one. Nonetheless, the average weight of people 5'5'' is less than the

average weight of people 5'6'', and their average weight is less than that of people

5'7'', etc. Correlation can tell you just how much of the variation in peoples' weights is

related to their heights.

Although this correlation is fairly obvious your data may contain unsuspected

correlations. You may also suspect there are correlations, but don't know which are

the strongest. An intelligent correlation analysis can lead to a greater understanding

of your data.

Typically, we take x to be the independent variable. We take y to be the dependent

variable. Data is represented by a collection of ordered pairs (x,y).

Mathematically, the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two

variables is represented by the correlation coefficient. Suppose that there are n

ordered pairs (x,y) that make up a sample from a population. The correlation

coefficient r is given by:

This will always be a number between -1 and 1 (inclusive).

there is likely a strong linear relationship between the two variables, with a positive

slope

. • If r is close to -1, we say that the variables are negatively correlated. This means

there is likely a strong linear relationship between the two variables, with a negative

slope

. • If r is close to 0, we say that the variables are not correlated. This means that

there is likely no linear relationship between the two variables, however, the

variables may still be related in some other way.

While correlation coefficients are normally reported as r = (a value between -1 and

+1), squaring them makes then easier to understand. The square of the coefficient

(or r square) is equal to the percent of the variation in one variable that is related to

the variation in the other. After squaring r, ignore the decimal point. An r of .5 means

25% of the variation is related (.5 squared =.25). An r value of .7 means 49% of the

variance is related (.7 squared = .49).

A correlation report can also show a second result of each test - statistical

significance. In this case, the significance level will tell you how likely it is that the

correlations reported may be due to chance in the form of random sampling error. If

you are working with small sample sizes, choose a report format that includes the

significance level. This format also reports the sample size.

scientists in China wanted to know if there was a relationship between how weedy

rice populations are different genetically. The goal was to find out the evolutionary

potential of the rice. Pearson’s correlation between the two groups was analyzed. It

showed a positive Pearson Product Moment correlation of between 0.783 and 0.895

for weedy rice populations. This figure is quite high, which suggested a fairly strong

relationship.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-What is the evolutionary potential of the rice?

SUBJECT AGE X GLUCOSE LEVEL Y

1 43 99

2 21 65

3 25 79

4 42 75

5 57 87

6 59 81

Step 1:Make a chart. Use the given data, and add three more columns: xy, x2, and

y2.
 SUBJECT AGE X GLUCOSE XY X2

LEVEL Y

1 43 99

2 21 65

3 25 79

4 42 75

5 57 87

6 59 81

Step 2: Multiply x and y together to fill the xy column. For example, row 1 would be

43 × 99 = 4,257.

SUBJECT AGE X GLUCOSE XY X2 Y2

LEVEL Y

1 43 99 4257

2 21 65 1365

3 25 79 1975

4 42 75 3150

5 57 87 4959

6 59 81 4779

Step 3: Take the square of the numbers in the x column, and put the result in the x2

column.
 SUBJECT AGE X GLUCOSE XY X2 Y2

LEVEL Y

1 43 99 4257

2 21 65 1365

3 25 79 1975

4 42 75 3150

5 57 87 4959

6 59 81 4779

Step 4: Take the square of the numbers in the y column, and put the result in the y2

column.

SUBJECT AGE X GLUCOSE XY X2 Y2

LEVEL Y

1 43 99 4257 1849

2 21 65 1365 441

3 25 79 1975 625

4 42 75 3150 1764

5 57 87 4959 3249

6 59 81 4779 3481

Step 5: Add up all of the numbers in the columns and put the result at the bottom of

the column. The Greek letter sigma (Σ) is a short way of saying “sum of.”
 SUBJECT AGE X GLUCOSE XY X2 Y2

LEVEL Y

1 43 99 4257 1849 9801

2 21 65 1365 441 4225

3 25 79 1975 625 6241

4 42 75 3150 1764 5625

5 57 87 4959 3249 7569

6 59 81 4779 3481 6561

Step 6: Use the following correlation coefficient formula Pearsons correlation

coefficient

The answer is: 2868 / 5413.27 = 0.529809

Click here if you want easy, step-by-step instructions for solving this formula.

From our table:

Σx = 247

Σy = 486

Σxy = 20,485

Σx2 = 11,409

Σy2 = 40,022

n is the sample size, in our case = 6

The correlation coefficient =

6(20,485) – (247 × 486) / [√[[6(11,409) – (2472)] × [6(40,022) – 4862]

= 0.5298
The range of the correlation coefficient is from -1 to 1. Our result is 0.5298 or

52.98%, which means the variables have a moderate positive correlation.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

This time, Olivia is talking to a friend about a new television show. She notices that

some of her classmates aren't familiar with the show, but they are carrying around a

lot of library books. She wonders if the more library books a student owns, the less

television they watch. She collects data from her friends about how many library

books they own and how much television they watch.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-Does more books students owns, the less the television they watch?
T TEST

The t test tells you how significant the differences between groups are; In other

words it lets you know if those differences (measured in means/averages) could

have happened by chance. A t-test allow us to compare the average values of two

data sets and determine if they came from the population in the above examples, if

we were take a samples of students from class A another sample of students from

class B we would not expect them to have exactly the same mean and standard

deviation. Similarly, samples taken from the placebofed control group and those

taken from the drug prescribed group should have a slightly different mean and

standard deviation.

T-test is a type of inferential test statistic used to determine if there is a significant

difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in a certain

features. It is mostly used when the data sets, like the data set recorded as the

outcome from flipping coin 100 times, would follow a normal distribution.

There are three main types of t-test:

An Independent Samples t-test compares the means for two groups.

A Paired sample t-test compares means from the same group at different times (say,

one year apart).

A One sample t-test tests the mean of a single group against a known mean.

You probably don’t want to calculate the test by hand (the math can get very messy,

but if you insist you can find the steps for an independent samples t test here.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A drug company may want to test a new cancer drug to find out if it improves life

expectancy. In an experiment, there’s always a control group (a group who are given

a placebo, or “sugar pill”). The control group may show an average life expectancy of

+5 years, while the group taking the new drug might have a life expectancy of +6

years. It would seem that the drug might work. But it could be due to a fluke. To test

this, researchers would use a Student’s t-test to find out if the results are repeatable

for an entire population.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-Did drugs can improves life expectancy?

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A researcher hypothesizes that electrical stimulation of the lateral habenula will

result in a decrease in food intake (in this case, chocolate chips) in rats. Rats

undergo stereotaxic surgery and an electrode is implanted in the right lateral

habenula. Following a ten day recovery period, rats (kept at 80 percent body weight)

are tested for the number of chocolate chips consumed during a 10 minute period of

time both with and without electrical stimulation. The testing conditions are counter

balanced.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

--Did using electrical stimulation and not using electrical stimulation can decrease

food intake in rats?

A z-score is the number of standard deviations from the mean a data point is. But

more technically it’s a measure of how many standard deviations below or above the

population mean a raw score is. A z-score is also known as a standard score and it

can be placed on a normal distribution curve. Z-scores range from -3 standard

deviations (which would fall to the far left of the normal distribution curve) up to +3

standard deviations (which would fall to the far right of the normal distribution curve).

In order to use a z-score, you need to know the mean μ and also the population

standard deviation σ.

Z-scores are a way to compare results from a test to a “normal” population. Results

from tests or surveys have thousands of possible results and units. However, those

results can often seem meaningless. For example, knowing that someone’s weight is

150 pounds might be good information, but if you want to compare it to the “average”

person’s weight, looking at a vast table of data can be overwhelming (especially if

some weights are recorded in kilograms). A z-score can tell you where that person’s

weight is compared to the average population’s mean weight.

and a standard deviation (σ) of 25. Assuming a normal distribution, your z score

would be:

z = (x – μ) / σ

= 190 – 150 / 25 = 1.6.

The z score tells you how many standard deviations from the mean your score is. In

this example, your score is 1.6 standard deviations above the mean.

alternate-z-score. You may also see the z score formula shown to the left. This is

exactly the same formula as z = x – μ / σ, except that x̄ (the sample mean) is used

instead of μ (the population mean) and s (the sample standard deviation) is used

instead of σ (the population standard deviation). However, the steps for solving it are

exactly the same.

The z-score in the center of the curve is zero. The z-scores to the right of the mean

are positive and the z-scores to the left of the mean are negative. If you look up the

score in the z-table, you can tell what percentage of the population is above or below

your score. The table below shows a z-score of 2.0 highlighted, showing .9772

(which converts to 97.72%). If you look at the same score (2.0) of the normal

distribution curve above, you’ll see it corresponds with 97.72%.

Boys of a certain age are known to have a mean weight μ=85 pounds. A complaint is

made that the boys living in municipal children’s home are underfed. As one bit of

evidence n=25 boys (at the same age) are weighed and found to have a mean

weight mean of sample=80.94 pounds. It is known that the population standard

population σ is 11.6 pounds.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-what is the weight of boys living in municipal children’s home?

SOLUTION:

The null hypothesis is μ=85, and the alternative hypothesis is μ <85. In general, we

that if weights are normally distributed then:

Follows the standard normal distribution, it is actually a bit irrelevant here whether or

not the weights are normally distributed, because the same size n= 25 is large

enough for the Central Limit Theorem to apply defined above, follows at least

approximately the standard normal distribution. At any rate, it seems reasonable to

use the z-test statistic:

-What should be conclude concerning the complain?

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

According to the U.S. Department of Education, full-time graduate students receive

an average salary of $12,800. The dean of graduate studies at a large state

university in PA claims that his graduate students earn more than this. He surveys

46 randomly selected students and finds their average salary is $13,445 with a

standard deviation of $1800. With alpha = 0.05.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-Is the dean’s claim correct?

An ANOVA test is a way to find out if survey or experiment results are

significant. In other words, they help you to figure out if you need to reject the null

hypothesis or accept the alternate hypothesis. Basically, you’re testing group to see

if there’s a difference between them. Analysis of variance is a statistical technique

that is used to check if the means of two or more groups are significantly different

from each other. ANOVA checks the impact of one or more factors by comparing the

means of different samples

We can use ANOVA to prove/disprove if all the medication were equally

effective or not.

FORMULA

Where,

F= ANOVA coefficient

MST= Mean sum of squares due to treatment

MSE= Mean sum of squares due to error

FORMULA for MST is given below

Where,

SST= Sum of squares due to treatment

p= The total number of pollution

n= The total number of samples in a population

Where,

SSE= Sum of squares due to error

S= Standard deviations of the samples

N= Total number of observations

EXAMPLE PROBLEM OF ANOVA

TYPE OF NUMBER OF AVERAGE STANDARD

ANIMALS ANIMALS DOMESTIC DEVIATION

ANIMALS

Chicken 5 20 2

Cats 7 12 1

Ducks 3 16 4

Calculate the ANOVA coefficient.

Solution:

Construct the following table

ANIMAL NAME n x s $S^{2}$

Chicken 5 20 2 4

Cats 5 12 1 1

Ducks 5 16 4 16
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A clinical psychologist has run a between-subjects experiment comparing two

treatments for depression (cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and client-centered

therapy (CCT) against a control condition. Subjects were randomly assigned to the

experimental condition. After 12 weeks, the subject’s depression scores were

measured using the CESD depression scale.

Suppose you want to determine whether the brand of laundry detergent used and

the temperature affects the amount of dirt removed from your laundry. To this end,

you buy two different brand of detergent (“ Super” and “Best”) and choose three

different temperature levels (“cold”, “warm”, and “hot”). Then you divide your laundry

randomly into 6×r piles of equal size and assign each r piles into the combination of

(“Super” and “Best”) and (”cold”,”warm”, and “hot”). In this example, we are

interested in testing Null Hypotheses

H0D: The amount of dirt removed does not depend on the type of detergent

H0T : The amount of dirt removed does not depend on the temperature

One says the experiment has two factors (Factor Detergent, Factor Temperature) at

a = 2(Super and Best) and b = 3(cold, warm and hot) levels. Thus there are ab = 3×2

= 6 different combinations of detergent and temperature. With each combination you

wash r = 4 loads. r is called the number of replicates. This sums up to n = abr = 24

loads in total. The amounts Yijk of dirt removed when washing sub pile k (k = 1,2,3,4)

with detergent i (i = 1,2) at temperature j (j = 1,2,3) are recorded in Table 1.

SUPER 4,5,6,5 7,9,8,12 10,12,11,9

BEST 6,6,4,4 13,15,12,12 12,13,10,12

Solution:

COLD WARM HOT MD

SUPER 4,5,6,5(5) 7,9,8,12(9) 10,12,11,9(10) 8

BEST 6,6,4,4(5) 13,15,12,12(13) 12,13,10,12(12) 10

Mr 5 11 11 9
ONE WAY ANOVA

A ONE WAY ANOVA is a type of statistical test that compares the variance in

the group means thin the sample whilst considering only one independent variable or

factor. It is a hypothesis-based test, meaning that it aims to evaluate multiple

mutually exclusive theories about our data. Before we can generate a hypothesis, we

need to have a question about our data that we want an answer to.

It compares three or more than three categorical groups to establish whether

there is a difference between them. Within each group there should be three or more

observations. One way ANOVA assumes that each group comes from an

approximately normal distribution and that the variability within the groups is roughly

constant. The factors are arranged so that experiments are columns and subjects

are rows, this is how you must enter your data in the StatsDirect workbook. The

overall F test is fairly robust to small deviations from these assumptions but you

could use the Kruskal-Wallis test as an alternative to one way ANOVA if there was

any doubt.

Numerically, one way ANOVA is a generalisation of the two sample t test. The F

statistic compares the variability between the groups to the variability within the

groups:

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A clinical psychologist has run a between-subjects experiment comparing two

treatments for depression (cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and client-centered

therapy (CCT) against a control condition. Subjects were randomly assigned to the

experimental condition. After 12 weeks, the subject’s depression scores were

measured using the CESD depression scale.

-What is the most effective treatment for depression?

SOLUTION

Var_1 = 4.5^2 = 20.25

Var_2 = 5.5^2 = 30.25

Var_3 = 5.8^2 = 33.64

MS_{error} = \frac{20.25 + 30.25 + 33.64}{3} = 28.05 Note: this is just the average

within-group variance; it is not sensitive to group mean differences!

Calculating the remaining error (or within) terms for the ANOVA table:

df_{error} = 120 - 3 = 117

SS_{error} = (28.05)(120 - 3) = 3281.46

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

An education researcher is comparing four different algebra curricula to know who

among four algebra curricula is difficult to understand. Eight grade students are

randomly assigned to one of the four groups. Their state achievement test scores

are compared at the end of the year. Use the ONE WAY statistical procedure to

determine whether the curricula differ with respect to math achievement.

-Who among the four algebra curricula is most difficult to understand?

SOLUTION

Var_1 = 14.5^2 = 210.25

Var_2 = 12.8^2 = 163.84

Var_3 = 17.7^2 = 313.29

Var_3 = 16.8^2 = 282.24

MS_{error} = \frac{210.25 + 163.84 + 313.29}{4} = 242.41

Note: this is just the average within-group variance; it is not sensitive to group mean

differences!

Calculating the remaining error (or within) terms for the ANOVA table:

df_{error} = 200 - 4 = 196

SS_{error} = (242.41)(200 - 4) = 47511.38

The two-way ANOVA compares the mean differences between groups that

have been split between two independent variables (called factors). The primary

purpose of a two-way ANOVA is to understand if there is an interaction between the

two independent variables on the dependent variable. For example, you may want to

determine whether there is an interaction between physical activity level(IV) and

gender(IV) on blood cholesterol concentration(DV) in children.

The interaction term in a two-way ANOVA informs you whether the effect of one of

your independent variables on the dependent variable is the same for all values of

your other independent variable (and vice versa).

The two-way ANOVA compares the mean differences between groups that have

been split on two independent variables (called factors). The primary purpose of a

two-way ANOVA is to understand if there is an interaction between the two

independent variables on the dependent variable.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

Researchers have sought to examine the effects of various types of music on

agitation levels in patients who are in the early and middle stages of Alzheimer’s

disease. Patients were selected to participate in the study based on their stage of

Alzheimer’s disease. Three forms of music were tested: Easy listening, Mozart, and

piano interludes. While listening to music, agitation levels were recorded for the

patients based on heart rate in beats per minute.

-What form of music makes the patients beat their heart per minute?

GROUP PIANO MOZART EASY

INTERLUDE LISTENING

Early Stage 103.5 69.9 95.6

Alzheimer’s 104.7 78.5 99.3

100.2 88.2 101.4

105.9 73.4 120.1

Mean: 103.6 Mean: 77.5 Mean: 104.1

Middle stage 99.7 70.8 119.5

Alzheimer’s 100.5 80.9 116.4

110.1 75.6 98.6

115.1 90.2 96.5

Mean: 106.4 Mean: 79.4 Mean: 107.8

Post means to analyze the results of your experimental data. Post hoc tests are

designed for situations in which the researcher has already obtained a significant

omnibus F-test with a factor that consists of three or more means and additional

exploration of the differences among means is needed to provide specific information

on which means are significantly different from each other. Post hoc tests are

designed for situations in which the researcher has already obtained a significant

omnibus F-test with a factor that consists of three or more means and additional

exploration of the differences among means is needed to provide specific information

on which means are significantly different from each other

A post hoc study is conducted using data that has already been collected.

Using this data, the researchers conducts new analyses for new objectives, which

were not planned before the experiment. Analyses of pooled data from previously

conducted trials could be a form of post hoc study.

http://www.Clef, T. (2013). Exploratory Data Analysis in Business and Economics:

An Introduction Using SPSS, Stata, and Excel. Springer Science and Business

Media.

Kinnear and Gray (1999). SPSS for Windows Made Simple. Taylor and Francis.

Rees, D. (2000). Essential Statistics. CRC Press.

: http://www2.webster.edu/~woolflm/8banswer.html

http://www.spearman%20&%20regression%20answers.pdf

http://www. 2way-ANOVA-Example-Problem-VK.pdf

http://www. spearman%20&%20regression%20answers.pdf