What is a Diode?

A diode is a device which only allows unidirectional flow of current if

operated within a rated specified voltage level.
A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction while the reverse voltage
is within a limited range otherwise reverse barrier breaks and the voltage at
which this breakdown occurs is called reverse breakdown voltage.
The diode acts as a valve in the electronic and electrical circuit. A P-N
junction is the simplest form of the diode which behaves as ideally short circuit
when it is in forward biased and behaves as ideally open circuit when it is in
the reverse biased. Beside simple PN junction diodes, there are
different types of diodesalthough the fundamental principles are more or less
same. So a particular arrangement of diodes can convert AC to pulsating DC,
and hence, it is sometimes also called as a rectifier.

Symbol of Diode
The symbol of a diode is shown below, the arrowhead points in the direction
of conventional current flow.

We can create
a simple PN junction diode by doping donor impurity in one portion and
acceptor impurity in other portion of silicon or germanium crystal block. These
make a p n junction at the middle part of the block beside which one portion is
p-type (doped with trivalent or acceptor impurity), and another portion is n-
type (doped with pentavalent or donor impurity). It can also be formed by
joining a p-type (intrinsic semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity) and n-
type semiconductor (intrinsic semiconductor doped with a pentavalent
impurity) together with a special fabrication technique such that a p-n junction
is formed. Hence, it is a device with two elements, the p-type forms anode and
the n-type forms the cathode. These terminals are brought out to make the
external connections.
Working Principle of Diode
Unbiased Diode
N-side will have a significant number of electrons, and very few holes (due to
thermal excitation) whereas the p side will have a high concentration of holes
and very few electrons. Due to this, a process called diffusion takes place. In
this process free electrons from n side will diffuse (spread) into the p side and
recombine with holes present there, leaving positive immobile (not moveable)
ions in n side and creating negative immobile ions in p side of the diode.
Hence, there will be uncovered positive donor ions in n-type side near the
junction edge. Similarly, there will be uncovered negative acceptor ions in p-
type side near the junction edge. Due to this, numbers of positive ions and
negative ions will accumulate on n-side and p-side respectively. This region
so formed is called as depletion region due to the “depletion” of free carriers in
the region. Due to the presence of these positive and negative ions a static
electric field called as barrier potential is created across the pn junction of the
diode. It is called as "barrier potential" because it acts as a barrier and
opposes the further migration of holes and electrons across the junction.
Forward Biased Diode
In a PN junction diode when the forward voltage is applied i.e. positive
terminal of a source is connected to the p-type side, and the negative terminal
of the source is connected to the n-type side, the diode is said to be in forward
biased condition. We know that there is a barrier potential across the junction.
This barrier potential is directed in the opposite of the forward applied voltage.
So a diode can only allow current to flow in the forward direction when forward
applied voltage is more than barrier potential of the junction. This voltage is
called forward biased voltage. For silicon diode, it is 0.7 volts. For germanium
diode, it is 0.3 volts. When forward applied voltage is more than this forward
biased voltage, there will be forward current in the diode, and the diode will
become short circuited. Hence, there will be no more voltage drop across the
diode beyond this forward biased voltage, and forward current is only limited
by the external resistance connected in series with the diode. Thus, if forward
applied voltage increases from zero, the diode will start conducting only after
this voltage reaches just above the barrier potential or forward biased voltage
of the junction. The time, taken by this input voltage to reach that value or in
other words, the time, taken by this input voltage to overcome the forward
biased voltage is called recovery time.
Reverse Biased Diode
Now if the diode is reverse biased i.e. positive terminal of the source is
connected to the n-type end, and the negative terminal of the source is
connected to the p-type end of the diode, there will be no current
through the diode except reverse saturation current. This is because at
the reverse biased condition the depilation layer of the junction
becomes wider with increasing reverse biased voltage. Although there is
a tiny current flowing from n-type end to p-type end in the diode due to
minority carriers. This tiny current is called reverse saturation current.
Minority carriers are mainly thermally generated electrons and holes
in p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor respectively. Now if
reverse applied voltage across the diode is continually increased, then
after certain applied voltage the depletion layer will destroy which will
cause a huge reverse current to flow through the diode. If this current is
not externally limited and it reaches beyond the safe value,
the diode may be permanently destroyed. This is because, as the
magnitude of the reverse voltage increases, the kinetic energy of the
minority charge carriers also increase. These fast moving electrons
collide with the other atoms in the device to knock-off some more
electrons from them. The electrons so released further release much
more electrons from the atoms by breaking the covalent bonds. This
process is termed as carrier multiplication and leads to a considerable
increase in the flow of current through the p-n junction. The associated
phenomenon is called Avalanche Breakdown. Types of Diode
The types of diode are as follow-

1. Zener diode
2. P-N junction diode
3. Tunnel diode
4. Varactor diode
5. Schottky diode
6. Photo diode
7. PIN diode
8. Laser diode
9. Avalanche diode
10. Light emitting diode

Application of Zener Diode

We know what is Zener diode and what is the basic principle of operation of it.
Now the question arises where this type of diodes are used. The main
application of this type of diodes are as voltage regulator. Over voltage
protector, as voltage reference. We will discussed what is the application of
zener diode as voltage regulator, now we will discuss the other two points
briefly. Overvoltage protection is done by using Zener diodes because there
is current flowing through the diode after the reverse bias voltage exceeds a
certain value.

This circuit provides safety for the equipment connected at the terminals.
Normally the current should not exceed normal valve but if due to any fault in
the circuit the current exceeds the maximum allowable limit, the equipment of
the system can be damaged permanently. A SCR is used, by it the output
voltage is quickly cut down and a fuse blows which disconnects the input
source power. The circuit arrangement is shown below for better
understanding,
 Voltage
references determine the constant supply of power, current or voltage as the
zener voltage works if the supply of current is constant. That’s why to avoid
unstable performance, zener diodes are used where voltage reference is
required like ohmmeters, ammeters and voltmeters.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
The term regulator means which regulates or controls. Zener diode can work
as a voltage regulator if it is introduced in a circuit. The output across the
diode will be constant. It is driven by a current source. As we know if the
voltage across the diode exceeds a certain value it would draw excessive
current from the supply. The basic diagram of zener diode as voltage
regulator is given below,
 To limit the current
through the Zener diode series resistance R is introduced whose value can be
chosen from the following equation

The above diagram is

of a shunt regulators because the regulating element is parallel to the load.
The Zener diode produce a stable reference voltage across the load which
fulfills the criteria of regulator.

PN Junction Diode and its Characteristics

P-N junction diode is the most fundamental and the simplest electronics
device. When one side of an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with acceptor
i.e, one side is made p-type by doping with n-type material, a p-n junction
diode is formed. This is a two terminal device. It appeared in 1950’s.
P-N junction can be step graded or linearly graded. In step graded the
concentration of dopants both, in n-side and in p-side are constant up to the
junction. But in linearly graded junction, the doping concentration varies
almost linearly with the distance from the junction. When the P-N diode is in
unbiased condition that is no voltage is applied across it, electrons will defuse
through the junction to p-side and holes will defuse through the junction to n-
side and they combine with each other.

If, we apply forwards bias to the p-n junction diode. That means if positive
side of the battery is connected to the p-side, then the depletion regions width
decreases and carriers flow across the junction. If the bias is reversed the
depletion width increases and no charge can flow across the junction.

P-N Junction Diode Characteristics

Let's a voltage V is applied across a p-n junction and total current I, flows
through the junction. It is given as.

Here, IS = reverse saturation current

e = charge of electron
ɳ = emission co-efficient
KB = Boltzmann constant
T = temperature The current voltage characteristics plot is given below.
The current voltage characteristics.
When, V is positive the junction is forward biased and when V is negative, the
junction is reversing biased. When V is negative and less than VTH, the current
is very small. But when V exceeds VTH, the current suddenly becomes very
high. The voltage VTH is known as threshold or cut in voltage. For
Silicon diode VTH = 0.6 V. At a reverse voltage corresponding to the point P,
there is abrupt increment in reverse current. The PQ portion of the
characteristics is known as breakdown region.

P-N Junction Band Diagram

For an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level EF lies near the conduction band
edge. EC but for an p-type semiconductor, EF lies near the valance band edge
EV. Now,
when a p-n junction is built, the Fermi energy EF attains a constant value. In
this scenario the p-sides conduction band edge. Similarly n–side valance
band edge will be at higher level than Ecn, n-sides conduction band edge of p-
side. This energy difference is known as barrier energy. The barrier energy is

If we
apply forward bias voltage V, across junction then the barrier energy
decreases by an amount of eV and if V is reverse bias is applied the barrier
energy increases by eV.
P-N Junction Diode Equation
The p-n junction diode equation for an ideal diode is given below

Here, IS = reverse saturation current

e = charge of electron
KB = Boltzmann constant
T = temperature
For a normal p-n junction diode, the equation becomes
 Here, ɳ = emission co-efficient, which is a number
between 1 and 2, which typically increases as the current increases.

Tunnel Diode and its Applications

The application of transistors is very high in frequency range are hampered
due to the transit time and other effects. Many devices use the
negative conductance property of semiconductors for high frequency
applications. Tunnel diode is one of the most commonly used negative
conductance devices. It is also known as Esaki diode after L. Esaki for his
work on this effect. This diode is a two terminal device. The concentration of
dopants in both p and n region is very high. It is about 1024 - 1025 m-3 the pn
junction is also abrupt. For this reasons, the depletion layer width is very
small. In the current voltage characteristics of tunnel diode, we can find a
negative slope region when forward bias is applied. Quantum mechanical
tunneling is responsible for the phenomenon and thus this device is named
as tunnel diode.

The doping is very high so at absolute zero temperature the Fermi levels lies
within the bias of the semiconductors. When no bias is applied
any current flows through the junction.
Characteristics of Tunnel Diode
When reverse bias is applied the Fermi level of p-side becomes higher than
the Fermi level of n-side. Hence, the tunneling of electrons from the balance
band of p-side to the conduction band of n-side takes place. With the
interments of the reverse bias the tunnel current also increases. When
forward junction is a applied the Fermi level of n-side becomes higher that the
Fermi level of p-side thus the tunneling of electrons from the n-side to p-side
takes place. The amount of the tunnel current is very large than the normal
junction current. When the forward bias is increased, the tunnel current is
increased up to certain limit. When the band edge of n-side is same with the
Fermi level in p-side the tunnel current is maximum with the further increment
in the forward bias the tunnel current decreases and we get the desired
negative conduction region. When the forward bias is raised further, normal p-
n junction current is obtained which is exponentially proportional to the
applied voltage. The V-I characteristics of the tunnel diode is given,

The
negative resistance is used to achieve oscillation and often Ck+ function is of
very high frequency frequencies.

Tunnel Diode Symbol

Tunnel Diode Applications

Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very fast and in
microwave frequency range. It was the quantum mechanical effect which is
known as tunneling. It is ideal for fast oscillators and receivers for its negative
slope characteristics. But it cannot be used in large integrated circuits – that’s
why it’s an applications are limited.

When the voltage is first applied current stars flowing through it. The current
increases with the increase of voltage. Once the voltage rises high enough
suddenly the current again starts increasing and tunnel diode stars behaving
like a normal diode. Because of this unusual behavior, it can be used in
number of special applications started below.
Oscillator Circuits:
Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators as the transition
between the high electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be used to
create oscillation as high as 5Gz. Even they are capable of creativity
oscillation up to 100 GHz in a appropriate digital circuits. Used in Microwave
Circuits:
Normal diode transistors do not perform well in microwave operation. So, for
microwave generators and amplifiers tunnel diode are. In microwave waves
and satellite communication equipments they were used widely, but now a
day’s their uses is decreasing rapidly as transistor for working in wave
frequency area available in market. Resistant to Nuclear Radiation:
Tunnel diodes are resistant to the effects of magnetic fields, high temperature
and radioactivity. That’s why these can be used in modern military equipment.
These are used in nuclear magnetic resource machine also. But the most
important field of its use satellite communication equipments.
Tunnel Diode Oscillator
Tunnel diode can make a very stable oscillator circuit when they are coupled
to a tuned circuit or cavity, biased at the centre point of negative resistance
region. Here is an example of tunnel diode oscillatory circuit.
The tunnel diode is losing coupled to a tunable cavity. By using a short,
antenna feed probe placed in the cavity off center loose coupling is achieved.
To increase the stability of oscillation and achieve o/p power over wider
bandwidth loose coupling is used. The range of the output power produced is
few hundred micro-watts. This is useful for many microwave application. The
physical position of the tuner determining the frequency of operation. If the
frequency of operation is changed by this method, that is called mechanical
tuning. Tunnel diode oscillators can be tuned electronically also.
Tunnel diode oscillators which are meant to be operated at microwave
frequencies, generally used some form of transmission lines as tunnel circuit.
These oscillators are useful in application that requires a few millwatts of
power, example- local oscillators for microwave super electrodyne receiver.

Varactor Diode
Varactor Diode is a reverse biased p-n junction diode,
whose capacitance can be varied electrically. As a result these diodes are
also referred to as varicaps, tuning diodes, voltage variable capacitor diodes,
parametric diodes and variable capacitor diodes. It is well known that the
operation of the p-n junction depends on the bias applied which can be either
forward or reverse in characteristic. It is also observed that the span of the
depletion region in the p-n junction decreases as the voltage increases in
case of forward bias. On the other hand, the width of the depletion region is
seen to increase with an increase in the applied voltage for the reverse bias
scenario. Under such condition, the p-n junction can be considered to be
analogous to a capacitor (Figure 1) where the p and n layers represent the
two plates of the capacitor while the depletion region acts as a dielectric
separating them.

Thus one can apply the formula used to compute the capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor even to the varactor diode.

Hence, mathematical expression for the capacitance of varactor diode is given

by Where,
Cj is the total capacitance of the junction.
ε is the permittivity of the semiconductor material.
A is the cross-sectional area of the junction.
d is the width of the depletion region.
Further the relationship between the capacitance and the reverse bias voltage

is given as Where,
Cj is the capacitance of the varactor diode.
C is the capacitance of the varactor diode when unbiased.
K is the constant, often considered to be 1.
Vb is the barrier potential.
VR is the applied reverse voltage.
m is the material dependent constant.
In addition, the electrical circuit equivalent of a varactor diode and its symbol
are shown by Figure 2. This indicates that the maximum operating frequency
of the circuit is dependent on the series resistance (Rs) and the diode

capacitance, which can be mathematically given as In addition,

the quality factor of the varactor diode is given by the equation Where,
F and f represent the cut-off frequency and the operating frequency,
respectively.

As a result, one can conclude that the capacitance of the varactor diode can
be varied by varying the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage as it varies the
width of the depletion region, d. Also it is evident from the capacitance
equation that d is inversely proportional to C. This means that the junction
capacitance of the varactor diode decreases with an increase in the
depletion region width caused to due to an increase in the reverse bias
voltage (VR), as shown by the graph in Figure 3. Meanwhile it is important to
note that although all the diodes exhibit the similar property, varactor diodes
are specially manufactured to achieve the objective. In other words varactor
diodes are manufactured with an intention to obtain a definite C-V curve which
can be accomplished by controlling the level of doping during the process of
manufacture. Depending on this, varactor diodes can be classified into two
types viz., abrupt varactor diodes and hyper-abrupt varactor diodes,
depending on whether the p-n junction diode is linearly or non-linearly doped
(respectively).
These varactor diodes are advantageous as they are compact in size,
economical, reliable and less prone to noise when compared to other diodes.
Hence, they are used in
1. Tuning circuits to replace the old style variable capacitor tuning of FM radio
2. Small remote control circuits
3. Tank circuits of receiver or transmitter for auto-tuning as in case of TV
4. Signal modulation and demodulation.
5. Microwave frequency multipliers as a component of LC resonant circuit
6. Very low noise microwave parametric amplifiers
7. AFC circuits
8. Adjusting bridge circuits
9. Adjustable bandpass filters
10. Voltage Controlled Oscillators (VCOs)
11. RF phase shifters
12. Frequency multipliers

Schottky Diode
The name of this diode is given after the German physicist Walter.H.Schottky.
Other than the name Schottky diode, it is also referred to as Schottky barrier
diode or as hot carrier diode. This is a diode with semiconductor-metal
junction. This device can simply rectify frequencies greater than 300 MHz. Its
forward voltage drop is also very low (0.15 to 0.45 V). This results in higher
switching speed and improved system efficiency. The junction in the diode is
formed by the metal (such as gold, tungsten, chromium, platinum,
molybdenum or certain silicides) and N-type doped silicon semiconductor.
Here, anode is the metal side and cathode is the semiconductor side.
The symbol of Schottky diode is in figure below.

Construction of Schottky Diode

At one ending, there is a junction formed between the metal and lightly
doped n-type semiconductor. This is unilateral junction. At the other ending,
the metal and heavily doped semiconductor contact is present. It is
called Ohmic bilateral contact (see Figure 2 and Figure 3). In this contact,
no potential is present and is non-rectifying.
If the doping of semiconductor is increased, the depletion layer width
decreases. When the width is decreased to a certain level, the charge carriers
will tunnel easily through the depletion region. When the doping is very high,
the junction can never act as a rectifier and it will become an ohmic contact.
This diode can be a diode and an ohmic contact simultaneously.
When a Schottky diode is in unbiased condition, the electrons lying on the
semiconductor side have very low energy level when compared to the
electrons present in metal. Thus, the electrons cannot flow through the
junction barrier which is called Schottky barrier. If the diode is forward
biased, electrons present in the N-side gets sufficient energy to cross the
junction barrier and enters into the metal. These electrons enter into the metal
with tremendous energy. Consequently these electrons are known as hot
carrier. Thus the diode is so called as hot-carrier diode.

The equivalent circuit of the

device (Schottky diode) with typical values of the components is shown
below.

The above circuit can be approximated as shown below. This approximated

circuit is used in many applications.

The Schottky diode has some unique features when compared to normal P-
N junction diode.
 It is a unipolar device. This is due to the absence of significant current flow
from metal to N-type semiconductor (minority carriers in the reverse
direction is absent). But P-N junction diode is a bipolar device.
 No stored charge due to the absence of holes in the metal. As a result,
schottky diode can quickly switch than other diodes and noise is also
relatively low.
 Lower barrier potential (0.2 - 0.25 V) compared to P-N diode (0.7 V)
Comparison of V-I characteristics of Schottky Diode, P-N Junction Diode and Point
Contact Diode

Current Components in Schottky Doide

The current condition in this diode is through electrons (majority carriers) in N-
type semiconductor. IDiffusion →

Diffusion current (result of concentration gradient and diffusion current

density of electrons)
Dn → Diffusion constant of electrons.
q → Electronic charge =1.6 ×1019 C.
ITunneling → Tunneling current
IThermonic emission → As a result of electron ejection due to thermal energy
(thermionic emission), this current will be produced across the electrodes.

Advantages of Schottky Diode

Advantages of Schottky diode are showing below-

 It has fast recovery time due to very low quantity of stored charge. So this
diode is used for high speed switching application.
 It has low turn on voltage.
 It has low junction capacitance.
 Voltage drop is low.
Disadvantages of Schottky Diode
Disadvantages of Schottky diode are showing below-

 Reverse leakage current.

 Low reverse voltage rating.
Application of Schottky Diode
 Used in Switched-mode power supplies.
 Used in reverse current protection.
 Used in discharge protection.
 Used in voltage clamping application.
 Used in RF mixer and Detector diode.
 Used in solar cell application

Photodiode
I-V characteristic of a photodiode. The linear load linesrepresent the response of the external circuit: I=(Applied
bias voltage-Diode voltage)/Total resistance. The points of intersection with the curves represent the actual
current and voltage for a given bias, resistance and illumination.

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current. The current is
generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. Photodiodes may contain optical filters,
built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas. Photodiodes usually have a slower
response time as their surface area increases. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate
electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode
use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is
designed to operate in reverse bias.[1]

Principle of operation[edit]
A photodiode is a p–n junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode,
it creates an electron-hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. If the
absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these
carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus holes
move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The
total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that is generated in the
absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to maximize the
sensitivity of the device.[2]

Photovoltaic mode[edit]
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is
restricted and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis
for solar cells – a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.

Photoconductive mode[edit]
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased (with the cathode driven positive with respect to the
anode). This reduces the response time because the additional reverse bias increases the width of
the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance. The reverse bias also increases
the dark current without much change in the photocurrent. For a given spectral distribution, the
photocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance (and to the irradiance).[3]
Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more electronic noise. [4] The
leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (<1 nA) that the Johnson–Nyquist noise of the load
resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.

Other modes of operation[edit]

Avalanche photodiodes are photodiodes with structure optimized for operating with high reverse
bias, approaching the reverse breakdown voltage. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be
multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases
the effective responsivity of the device.
Electronic symbol for a phototransistor

A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor. A common type of phototransistor, called a

photobipolar transistor, is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so
that light can reach the base–collector junction. It was invented by Dr. John N. Shive (more famous
for his wave machine) at Bell Labs in 1948,[5]:205 but it was not announced until 1950.[6] The electrons
that are generated by photons in the base–collector junction are injected into the base, and this
photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain β (or hfe). If the base and collector
leads are used and the emitter is left unconnected, the phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While
phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they are not able to detect low levels of light any
better than photodiodes.[citation needed] Phototransistors also have significantly longer response times.
Field-effect phototransistors, also known as photoFETs, are light-sensitive field-effect transistors.
Unlike photobipolar transistors, photoFETs control drain-source current by creating a gate voltage.

Materials[edit]
The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because
only photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce
significant photocurrents.
Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes include: [7]

Electromagnetic spectrum
Material
wavelength range (nm)

Silicon 190–1100

Germanium 400–1700

Indium gallium arsenide 800–2600

Lead(II) sulfide <1000–3500

Mercury cadmium telluride 400–14000

Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-
based photodiodes.

Unwanted photodiode effects[edit]

Any p–n junction, if illuminated, is potentially a photodiode. Semiconductor devices such as diodes,
transistors and ICs contain p–n junctions, and will not function correctly if they are illuminated by
unwanted electromagnetic radiation (light) of wavelength suitable to produce a photocurrent; [8][9] this
is avoided by encapsulating devices in opaque housings. If these housings are not completely
opaque to high-energy radiation (ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays), diodes, transistors and ICs can
malfunction[10] due to induced photo-currents. Background radiation from the packaging is also
significant.[11] Radiation hardening mitigates these effects.
In some cases, the effect is actually wanted, for example to use LEDs as light-sensitive devices
(see LED as light sensor) or even for energy harvesting, then sometimes called light-emitting and -
absorbing diodes (LEADs).[12]

Features[edit]

Response of a silicon photo diode vs wavelength of the incident light

Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

Responsivity
The Spectral responsivity is a ratio of the generated photocurrent to incident light power,
expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The wavelength-dependence may
also be expressed as a Quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photogenerated
carriers to incident photons, a unitless quantity.
Dark current
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background
radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be
accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical
communication system.
Response time
A photon absorbed by the semiconducting material will generate an electron-hole pair which
will in turn start moving in the material under the effect of the electric field and thus generate
a current. The finite duration of this current is known as the transit-time spread and can be
evaluated by using Ramo's theorem. One can also show with this theorem that the total
charge generated in the external circuit is well e and not 2e as might seem by the presence
of the two carriers. Indeed, the integral of the current due to both electron and hole over time
must be equal to e. The resistance and capacitance of the photodiode and the external

circuitry give rise to another response time known as RC time constant . This
combination of R and C integrates the photoresponse over time and thus lengthens
the impulse response of the photodiode. When used in an optical communication system, the
response time determines the bandwidth available for signal modulation and thus data
transmission.
Noise-equivalent power
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise
current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. NEP is essentially the minimum detectable power. The

related characteristic detectivity ( ) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP. There is also

the specific detectivity ( ) which is the detectivity multiplied by the square root of the area

( ) of the photodetector, ( ) for a 1 Hz bandwidth. The specific detectivity allows

different systems to be compared independent of sensor area and system bandwidth; a
higher detectivity value indicates a low-noise device or system.[13] Although it is traditional to

give ( ) in many catalogues as a measure of the diode's quality, in practice, it is hardly

ever the key parameter.
When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, all these
parameters contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum
input power required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error rate.

Applications[edit]
P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such
as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. They may
be used to generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog; for
measurement and the like), or to change the state of circuitry (digital; either for
control and switching, or digital signal processing).
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact
disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for infrared remote control
devices used to control equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many
applications either photodiodes or photoconductors may be used. Either type of
photosensor may be used for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to
respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.
Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light, or to a source of
light which is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into
a single component with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED),
either to detect the presence of a mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted
optical switch), or to couple two digital or analog circuits while maintaining extremely
high electrical isolation between them, often for safety (optocoupler). The
combination of LED and photodiode is also used in many sensor systems to
characterize different types of products based on their optical absorbance.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science
and industry. They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors
for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze
samples (immunoassay), and pulse oximeters.
PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p–n junction diodes, and hence
are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.
P–n photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if
high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled
devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such
as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.
Pinned photodiode is not a PIN photodiode, it has p+/n/p regions in it. It has a
shallow P+ implant in N type diffusion layer over a P-type epitaxial substrate layer. It
is used in CMOS Active pixel sensor.[14]
Comparison with photomultipliers[edit]
Advantages compared to photomultipliers:[15]

1. Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light

2. Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon),
longer wavelengths with other semiconductor materials
3. Low noise
4. Ruggedized to mechanical stress
5. Low cost
6. Compact and light weight
7. Long lifetime
8. High quantum efficiency, typically 60–80% [16]
9. No high voltage required
Disadvantages compared to photomultipliers:

1. Small area
2. No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically
102–103 compared to 105-108 for the photomultiplier)
3. Much lower overall sensitivity
4. Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled
photodiodes, with special electronic circuits
5. Response time for many designs is slower
6. latent effect

Photodiode array[edit]
 A 2 x 2 cm photodiode array chip with more than 200 diodes

A one-dimensional array of hundreds or thousands of photodiodes can be used as

a position sensor, for example as part of an angle sensor.[17] One advantage of
photodiode arrays (PDAs) is that they allow for high speed parallel read out since
the driving electronics may not be built in like a traditional CMOS or CCD sensor.

PIN Photodiode | Avalanche Photodiode

PIN Diode
PIN photodiode is a kind of photo detector, it can convert optical signals into
electrical signals.
This technology was invented in the latest of 1950’s. There are three regions
in this type of diode. There is a p-region an intrinsic region and an n-region.
The p-region and n-region are comparatively heavily doped than the p-region
and n-region of usual p-n diodes. The width of the intrinsic region should be
larger than the space charge width of a normal pn junction. The PIN photo
diode operates with an applied reverse bias voltage and when the reverse
bias is applied, the space charge region must cover the intrinsic region
completely. Electron hole pairs are generated in the space charge region by
photon absorption. The switching speed of frequency response of photo diode
is inversely proportional to the life time. The switching speed can be enhanced
by a small minority carrier lifetime. For the photo detector applications where
the speed of response is important, the depletion region width should be
made as large as possible for small minority carrier lifetime as a result the
switch speed also increases.

This can be achieved PIN photodiode as the insertion of intrinsic region the
space charge width larger. The diagram of a normal PIN photodiode is given
below.

Avalanche Photo Diode

Avalanche photo diode is a kind of photo detector which can convert signals
into electrical signals pioneering research work in the development of
avalanche diode was done mainly in 1960’s.

Avalanche photodiode structural configuration is very similar to the PIN

photodiode. A PIN photodiode consists of three regions-
1. p-region,
2. intrinsic region,
3. n-region.
The difference is that reverse bias applied is very large to cause impact
ionization. For silicon as the sc material, a diode will need between 100 to 200
volts. Firstly electron- hole pairs are generated by photon absorption in the
depletion region. These generate more electron hole pairs through impact
ionization. These are swept out of the depletion region quickly, i.e, the transit
time is very less.

Laser Diode
Laser diodes are the semiconductor lasers which generate highly intense
coherent beam of light. These were developed by Robert N. Hall in early
1960s and are also referred to as injection lasers. It is well known that an
incident photon can interact with the atom to release a photon which will be
identical to the impinging photon in all respects viz., phase,
frequency, polarization and direction of travel. This phenomenon is referred to
as stimulated emission and forms the basis of working for Lasers (Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiations). Further, if this event
occurs in case of a p-n junction, then the diode is referred to as Laser diode.
Laser Diodes are usually made of three layers (sometimes even two) where
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) like materials are doped with aluminium or silicon or
selenium to produce p and n layers while the central, undoped, active layer is
intrinsic in nature (Figure 1).

When a large forward bias is applied for such an arrangement, heavy current
flows through the junction due to which electrons will gain more energy when
compared to holes. This extra energy is released in the form of photons when
electrons combine with the holes (during recombination process). All these
photons oscillate with a particular frequency and bounce back and forth
between the reflective walls of the active layer. During this process, a few of
them collide with the other atoms to produce more number of photons. This
process continues and thus there will be an increase in the number of excited
electrons when compared with those in the non-excited state. This
phenomenon is termed as population inversion and at this instant a constant
highly coherent beam of light will be emitted from the central layer, in the
direction parallel to it, through the partially reflecting surface as shown in
Figure 1.

Further
it is to be noted that inorder to obtain laser light, the end surfaces of the
semiconductor material should be parallel to each other, and are to be cut and
polished carefully. Among these, one is to be made fully-reflective in nature
while the other should be partially-reflective. Also, the wavelength of the light
emitted by the laser diode depends on the distance between these two
reflecting surfaces and will usually lie in either visible or IR spectrum. This
wavelength decides the size of the spot the laser light can be confined to i.e.
shorter the wavelength smaller will be spot size. Laser diodes are compact in
size and use little power and are thus preferred over lasers when the question
will be of space and power consumption. Moreover laser diodes can be
characterized in terms of their threshold current, Ith which indicates the value
of current at which stimulated emission overcomes the spontaneous emission
as shown by the L-I curve in Figure 2.

Laser diodes are available in

wide variety of forms. If the active layer is narrow and if it can support only
single optical mode of operation, resulting in a highly-focused beam, then
such laser diodes are referred to as Single Mode Laser Diodes. On the other
hand, Multi Mode Laser Diodes have broader active region which supports
multiple lateral optical modes and thus have high output power. However it is
possible to obtain the output power greater than that of a single-mode laser
diode without compromising on its confinement to narrow spectral range by
using Master Oscillator Power Amplifier (MOPA) Laser Diodes, as they use an
integrated power amplifier to increase the output power without affecting the
narrow spectral output produced by the oscillator section. Further the laser
diodes can either be Edge-emitting/Surface emitting depending on whether
the laser light is emitted in the direction parallel or perpendicular to the
material. Apart from these, there also exist many other variations of laser
diodes like Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser Diodes (VCSEL Diodes),
High Power Laser Diodes, Stacked Laser Diodes, Distributed Feedback (DFB)
Lasers or Distributed Bragg Reflector Lasers, External Cavity Diode Lasers,
Broad Area Laser Diodes, Slab-Coupled Optical Waveguide Lasers
(SCOWLs), etc.
Applications of Laser Diode
1. CD and DVD players
2. Barcode scanners
3. Cable and High Definition (HD) TV transmission
4. Medical applications including surgical instruments and to heal retina and
brain.
5. Intrusion detection systems
6. Remote control applications
7. Industrial applications including welding, precision cutting of metals, heat
treating, cladding, etc.
8. Fibre Optic Communication
9. High speed, Long distance communication
10. Spectroscopic sensing
11. Range finders
12. Laser pointers
13. Printing
14. Integrated Circuits

LED or Light Emitting Diode

What is light emitting diode?
The pn junction diode, which is specially doped and made of special type of
semiconductor, emits light when it is forward biased is called light emitting
diode.

Working principle of light emitting diode

To understand the working principle of light emitting diode, we first have
to understand a basic of quantum theory. According to this theory, when an
electron comes down from its higher energy level to lower energy level, it
emits energy in form of a photon. The energy of this photon is equal to the
energy gap between these two energy levels. When a pn junction diode is
forward biased, current flows through the diode. Flow of current through
the semiconductor is caused by both flow of free electrons in opposite
direction of current and flow of holes in the direction of current.

Hence during flow of these charge carriers, there will be recombinations.

Recombination mean electrons in condition band jump down to the valence
band. During this jump electron will emit electromagnetic energy in form of
photons whose energy is equal to forbidden energy gap Eg. Again according
to quantum theory, energy of a photon is the product of frequency of

electromagnetic radiation and Planck constant. Where, h

is Planck constant. Again velocity of electromagnetic radiation is fixed and it is
equal to the speed of light i.e. c. The frequency of radiation f is related to
velocity of light as f = c / λ. Where λ is wavelength of the electromagnetic
radiation.

Hence from equation (1) So we have seen that wavelength of

electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to the forbidden energy
gap. In normal silicon, germanium semiconductor this forbidden energy gaps
between condition and valence band are such that entire radiation of
electromagnetic wave during recombinations is in the form of inferred
radiation. The wavelengths of the inferred are out of our visible range so we
can not see it. Inferred electromagnetic radiation is nothing but heat. This is
because, silicon and germanium semiconductor are not direct gap
semiconductor rather these are indirect gap semiconductor. In indirect gap
semiconductor the maximum energy level of valence band and minimum
energy level of conduction band do not occur at same momenta of electrons.
Hence during recombinations of electrons and holes that is migration of
electrons from conduction band to valence band the momentum of electrons

would be changed. The photons

originated from these electrons will be mostly utilized for the electron
momentum. In direct gap semiconductor the maximum of valence band and
minimum of conduction band occur at same electron momenta. Hence, there
will be no change of momentum of electrons during migration from conduction
band to valence band so the photons originated due that migration have not to
provide momentum to electrons. As a result, the photons are emitted from the
surface of semiconductor crystal. There are some special type of specially
alloyed direct energy gap semiconductors whose energy gap between
condition and valence band are such that the electromagnetic radiation
emitted during recombinations has wavelengths within our visible range. That
means in these special semiconductors when recombinations between
electrons and holes occur, there will be emissions of light. This is how a light
emitting diode works.
The wave length of output optical signals depends upon the band gap energy.
The output wave length can be engineered within certain limits by using
compound semiconductors, so that a particular color can be observed,

provided the output is in visible range.

Application of LED or Light Emitting Diode
Today almost everywhere LEDs lights are used and the application of
LED is huge. First we are going to see through the list, then we will categorize
the application of these.

 In motorcycle and bicycle lights.

 In traffic lights and signals.
 In message displaying boards.
 In light bulbs and many more.
Now, practically if we sit to list all the applications it will be a non-ending list.
So, here we are classifying the use in to some parts.

1. Indicators and Signs:-

These are mainly used in traffic signals, exit signs, light weight message,
displaying box etc
2. Lighting:-
Light Emitting Diode lamps have become highly popular and as the
energy consumption is very low for them, they are also being made by LED
s. In 2001, the Italian village Torraca was the first place to convert all its
lighting to LED. In television and computer/laptop displaying, LEDs are
used.
3. Non Visual Application:-
Communication, sensor are the main area of non visual application of
LEDs.

Advantages of LED or Light Emitting Diode

If anybody compares LEDs to other illumination methods present in the
market now days it will be found that LED lighting in by far the most saving
solution. In modern era of technology, there is an up gradation from analog to
digital. You can say LED is digital light which has huge advantages over
conventional analog lights. The main advantages are briefly described below.

1. Size :-
Sizes of Light Emitting Diodes are from 3 mm to 8 mm long. The small
size allows them to be used in small spaces where tube lights cannot be
used. Because of its small size, various designs can be made very simply.
2. Larger lifetime :-
This is the number one benefit of LEDs lights. As an example a high power
white LEDs life time is projected to be 35,000 to 50,000 hours. Where as
an incandescent bulbs life time is 750 to 2,000 hours. For
compact fluorescent bulbs, the life time is 8,000 to 10,000 hours. Actually
unlike standard lighting LEDs do not burn out. They just gradually fade.
3. Lower Temperature :-
LED's mechanism does not consists of any step to produce heat. In
conventional lights, the production of heat are very common fact. They
waste most of their energy as heat. They remain cool.
4. Energy Efficiency :-
Light Emitting Diode is today’s most energy efficient way of lighting its
energy efficiency is nearly 80% to 90% whereas traditional lights have 20%
energy efficiency, 80% is lost, as heat. More over the quality of lighting is
very good.
5. Design Flexibility :-
LEDs can be merged in any shape or combination. They can be used in
singly as an irony. Single LED can be operated, resulting in a dynamic
control of light. Superb lighting effects of different colors can be achieved
by well designed LED illumination system.
6. Ecologically Friendly:-
LED lights do not contain any toxic chemical. They do not leave any toxic
material and 100% recyclable. Their illuminations are close to no UV
emission. The solid package of it can be designed to focus its light also.
7. Color:-
LEDs can be emit light of intended color this is done by charging the
compositions of the solid state materials doping without using any color
filter.
8. On/Off Time:-
Light Emitting Diodes can be operated very quickly. They can be used in
frequent on/off operation in communication devices.