1.

Describe in your own words the conditions established by forward and reverse bias conditions on a p-n
junction diode and how the resulting current is affected

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Diode Forward Characteristics

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the "knee"point.

Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

Diode Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents
to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference
across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v
for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct
"infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are
used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current
specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

Pn Junction Diode

Reverse Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the
N- type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while
the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is
created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion

Diode Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage
current does flow through the junction which can be measured in microamperes, (μA). One final
point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough
 value, it willcause the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around
the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of
maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits
where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current
to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These
types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes

2. Explain the operation of tunnel diode with the help of energy band diagrams to explains the concept of
tunneling.

Tunnel Diode Working Phenomenon

Unbiased Tunnel Diode

In an unbiased tunnel diode, no voltage will be applied to the tunnel diode. Here, due to heavy doping
conduction band of n – type semiconductor overlaps with valence band of p – type material. Electrons from
n side and holes from p side overlap with each other and they will be at same energy level.

Some electrons tunnel from the conduction band of n-region to the valence band of p-region when
temperature increases. Similarly, holes will move from valence band of p-region to the conduction band of

3
n-region. Finally, the net current w ill be zero since equal numbers of el

Small Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

When a small voltage, that has lesser value than the built-in voltage of the depletion layer, is applied to the
tunnel diode, there is no flow of forward current through the junction. Nevertheless, a minimal number of
electrons from the conduction band of n region will start tunneling to valence band in p region.

Therefore, this movement creates a small forward biased tunnel current. When a small voltage is applied,
tunnel current starts to flow.

Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

When the amount of voltage applied is increased, the number of free electrons generated at n side and holes
at p side is also increased. Due to voltage increase, overlapping between the bands are also increased.

Maximum tunnel current flows when the energy level of n-side conduction band and the energy level of a p-
side valence band becomes equal.

Further Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

A further increase in the applied voltage will cause a slight

4 misalignment of the conduction band and valence
band. Still there will be an overlap between conduction band and valence band. The electrons move from
conduction band to valence band of p region. Therefore, this causes small current to flow. Hence, tunnel

current starts decreasing.

Largely Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

The tunneling current will be zero when applied voltage is increased more to the maximum. At this voltage
levels, the valence band and the conduction band does not overlap. This makes tunnel diode to operate same
as a PN junction diode.

V-I Characteristics of Tunnel Diode

Due to forward biasing, because of heavy doping conduction happens in the diode. The maximum current
that a diode reaches is Ip and voltage applied is Vp. The current value decreases, when more amount of
voltage is applied. Current keeps decreasing until it reaches a minimal value.

The small minimal value of current is Iv. From the above graph, it is seen that from point A to B current
reduces when voltage increases. That is the negative resistance region of diode. In this region, tunnel diode
5
produces power instead of absorbing it.
 Applications of Tunnel Diode

 Tunnel diode can be used as a switch, amplifier, and oscillator.

 Since it shows a fast response, it is used as high frequency component.
 Tunnel diode acts as logic memory storage device.
 They are used in oscillator circuits, and in FM receivers. Since it is a low current device, it is
not used more.

3. What is transition capacitance? Show that CT is inversely proportional width of depletion region.
Transition capacitance (CT):

We know that capacitors store electric charge in the form of electric field. This
charge storage is done by using two electrically conducting plates (placed close
to each other) separated by an insulating material called dielectric.

The conducting plates or electrodes of the capacitor are good conductors of

electricity. Therefore, they easily allow electric current through them. On the
other hand, dielectric material or medium is poor conductor of electricity.
Therefore, it does not allow electric current through it. However, it efficiently
allows electric field.

When voltage is applied to the capacitor, charge carriers starts flowing through the
conducting wire. When these charge carriers reach the electrodes of the capacitor, they
experience a strong opposition from the dielectric or insulating material. As a result, a
large number of charge carriers are trapped at the electrodes of the capacitor. These
charge carriers cannot move between the plates. However, they exerts electric field
between the plates. The charge carriers which are trapped near the dielectric material
will stores electric charge. The ability of the material to store electric charge is called
capacitance.
In a basic capacitor, the capacitance is directly proportional to the size of electrodes or
plates and inversely proportional to the distance between two plates.Just like the
capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction diode also stores electric charge at the
depletion region. The depletion region is made of immobile positive and negative
ions.In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low
resistance. Hence, p-type and n-type regions act like the electrodes or conducting
plates of the capacitor. The depletion region of the p-n junction diode has high
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resistance. Hence, the depletion region acts like the dielectric or insulating material.
Thus, p-n junction diode can be considered as a parallel plate capacitor.In depletion
region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not move from one place to
 another place. However, they exert electric field or electric force. Therefore, charge is
stored at the depletion region in the form of electric field. The ability of a material to
store electric charge is called capacitance. Thus, there exists a capacitance at the
depletion region.

The capacitance at the depletion region changes with the change in applied voltage.
When reverse bias voltage applied to the p-n junction diode is increased, a
large number of holes (majority carriers) from p-side and electrons (majority
carriers) from n-side are moved away from the p-n junction. As a result, the width of
depletion region increases whereas the size of p-type and n-type regions (plates)
decreases. We know that capacitance means the ability to store electric charge. The p-
n junction diode with narrow depletion width and large p- type and n-type regions will
store large amount of electric charge whereas the p-n junction diode with wide
depletion width and small p-type and n-type regions will store only a small amount of
electric charge. Therefore, the capacitance of the reverse bias p-n junction diode
decreases when voltage increases.
In a forward biased diode, the transition capacitance exist. However, the transition
capacitance is very small compared to the diffusion capacitance. Hence, transition
capacitance is neglected in forward biased diode.The amount of capacitance changed
with increase in voltage is called transition capacitance. The transition capacitance is also
known as depletion region capacitance, junction capacitance or barrier capacitance.
Transition capacitance is denoted as CT.The change of capacitance at the depletion region
can be defined as the change in electric charge per change in voltage.

CT = dQ / dV
Where,
CT = Transition
capacitance dQ =
Change in electric
charge dV = Change
in voltage
The transition capacitance can be mathematically
written as, CT = ε A / W
Where,
ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor 7
A = Area of plates or p-type and n-
type regions W = Width of depletion
region
4. What is diffusion capacitance? Derive the expression for diffusion capacitance.

Diffusion capacitance (CD)

The accumulation of holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region is separated by a
very thin depletion region or depletion layer. This depletion region acts like dielectric or
insulator of the capacitor and charge stored at both sides of the depletion layer acts like
conducting plates of the capacitor.Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the
electric current or applied voltage. If large electric current flows through the diode, a large
amount of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion
capacitance occurs. In the similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode, only
a small amount of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, small
diffusion capacitance occurs.When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion
capacitance increases. The diffusion capacitance value will be in the range of nano farads
(nF) to micro farads (μF).
CD = dQ / dV
Where,
In forward bias, the diffusion capacitance is the dominant and is
given by: CD = dQ / dV
Where,
CD = Diffusion capacitance
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the
depletion region dV = Change in voltage applied across diode
5. Explain principle of operation of LED
Definition: The LED is a PN-junction diode which emits light when an electric current passes through it in
the forward direction. In the LED, the recombination of charge carrier takes place. The electron from the N-
side and the hole from the P-side are combined and gives the energy in the form of heat and light. The LED
is made of semiconductor material which is colourless, and the light is radiated through the junction of the
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diode.
The LEDs are extensively used in segmental and dot matrix displays of numeric and alphanumeric character.
The several LEDs are used for making the single line segment while for making the decimal point single
LED is used.

Symbol:

Construction of LED
The recombination of the charge carrier occurs in the P-type material, and hence P-material is the surface of
the LED. For the maximum emission of light, the anode is deposited at the edge of the P-type material. The
cathode is made of gold film, and it is usually placed at the bottom of the N-region. This gold layer of
cathode helps in reflecting the light to the surface.

The gallium arsenide phosphide is used for the manufacturing of LED which emits red or yellow light for
emission. The LED are also available in green, yellow amber and red in colour.

Working of LED
The working of the LED depends on the quantum theory. The quantum theory states that when the energy of
electrons decreases from the higher level to lower level, it emits energy in the form of photons. The energy
of the photons is equal to the gap between the higher and lower level.

9
The LED is connected in the forward biased, which allows the current to flows in the forward direction. The
flow of current is because of the movement of electrons in the opposite direction. The recombination shows
that the electrons move from the conduction band to valence band and they emits electromagnetic energy in
the form of photons. The energy of photons is equal to the gap between the valence and the conduction band.

6. Differentiate between Avalanche and zener breakdown

When the diode is reverse biased, the kinetic energy of the electrons increases and they move at a high
velocity. The high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and give rise to free electrons. These free
electrons, in turn, give rise to a high value of reverse saturation current. This is known as Zener
breakdown. The avalanche breakdown occurs when a high reverse voltage is applied across the diode. As
we increase the applied reverse voltage, the electric field across the junction increases. This electric field
exerts a force on the electrons at the junction and frees them from covalent bonds. These free electrons
start moving with high velocity across the junction and collide the other atoms creating more free
electrons. This results in the rapid increase in net current. Both these breakdowns occur in Zener diodes.

Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

The process in which the electrons move The process of applying high voltage and
across the barrier from the valence band of p- increasing the free electrons or electric current
type material to the conduction band of n-type in semiconductors and insulating materials is
material is known as Zener breakdown. called an avalanche breakdown.

This is observed in Zener diodes having a This is observed in Zener diode having a Zener
Zener breakdown voltage breakdown voltage Vz greater than 8 volts.
Vz of 5 to 8 volts.

The valence electrons are pulled into The valence electrons are pushed to conduction
conduction due to the high electric field in the due to the energy imparted by accelerated
narrow depletion region. electrons, which gains its velocity due to its
collision with other atoms.

The increase in temperature decreases the The increase in temperature increases the
breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage.

The VI characteristics of a Zener breakdown The VI characteristic curve of the avalanche

has a sharp curve. breakdown is not as sharp as the Zener
breakdown.

It occurs in diodes that are highly doped. It occurs in diodes that are lightly doped.

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7.What is a clipping circuit?

A clipping circuit or a clipper is a device used to ‘clip’ the input voltage to prevent it from attaining a value
larger than a predefined one. As you can see in the picture below this device cuts off the positive or negative
peak value of a cycle.

The basic components required for a clipping circuit are – an ideal diode and a resistor. In order to fix the
clipping level to the desired amount, a dc battery must also be included. When the diode is forward biased,
it acts as a closed switch, and when it is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch. Different levels of clipping
can be obtained by varying the amount of voltage of the battery and also interchanging the positions of the
diode and resistor.

Depending on the features of the diode, the positive or negative region of the input signal is “clipped” off
and accordingly the diode clippers may be positive or negative clippers.

There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel (or shunt). The series configuration
is defined as one where a diode is in series with the load, while the shunt clipper has the diode in a
branch parallel to the load.

1. Positive Clipper and Negative Clipper

Positive Diode Clipper

In a positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input voltage will be removed. The circuit arrangements
for a positive clipper are illustrated in the figure given below.

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As shown in the figure, the diode is kept in series with the load. During the positive half cycle of the input
waveform, the diode ‘D’ is reverse biased, which maintains the output voltage at 0 Volts. This causes the
positive half cycle to be clipped off. During the negative half cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased
and so the negative half cycle appears across the output.

In Figure (b), the diode is kept in parallel with the load. This is the diagram of a positive shunt clipper
circuit. During the positive half cycle, the diode ‘D’ is forward biased and the diode acts as a closed switch.
This causes the diode to conduct heavily. This causes the voltage drop across the diode or across the load
resistance RL to be zero. Thus output voltage during the positive half cycles is zero, as shown in the output
waveform. During the negative half cycles of the input signal voltage, the diode D is reverse biased and
behaves as an open switch. Consequently, the entire input voltage appears across the diode or across the load
resistance RL if R is much smaller than RL

Actually the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output voltage of [RL / R+ RL] Vmax = -Vmax when
RL >> R

Negative Diode Clipper

The negative clipping circuit is almost the same as the positive clipping circuit, with only one difference. If
the diode in figures (a) and (b) is reconnected with reversed polarity, the circuits will become for a negative
series clipper and negative shunt clipper respectively. The negative series and negative shunt clippers are
shown in figures (a) and (b) as given below.

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In all the above discussions, the diode is considered to be the ideal one. In a practical diode, the breakdown
voltage will exist (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium). When this is taken into account, the output
waveforms for positive and negative clippers will be of the shape shown in the figure below.

Negative and Positive Clipping Waveforms

2. Biased Positive Clipper and Biased Negative Clipper

A biased clipper comes in handy when a small portion of positive or negative half cycles of the signal
voltage is to be removed. When a small portion of the negative half cycle is to be removed, it is called a
biased negative clipper. The circuit diagram and waveform is shown in the figure below.

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TIn a biased clipper, when the input signal voltage is positive, the diode ‘D’ is reverse-biased. This causes it
to act as an open-switch. Thus the entire positive half cycle appears across the load, as illustrated by output
waveform [figure (a)]. When the input signal voltAage is negative but does not exceed battery the voltage
‘V’, the diode ‘D’ remains reverse-biased and most of the input voltage appears across the output. When
during the negative half cycle of input signal, the signal voltage becomes more than the battery voltage V,
the diode D is forward biased and so conducts heavily. The output voltage is equal to ‘- V’ and stays at ‘- V’
as long as the magnitude of the input signal voltage is greater than the magnitude of the battery voltage, ‘V’.
Thus a biased negative clipper removes input voltage when the input signal voltage becomes greater than the
battery voltage. Clipping can be changed by reversing the battery and diode connections, as illustrated in
figure (b).

Some of
the other biased clipper circuits are given below in the figure. While drawing the wave-shape of the output

14
basic principle discussed above are followed. The diode has been considered as an ideal one.

15
8. Explain in detail full wave rectifier along with analysis

Full wave rectifier rectifies the full cycle in the waveform i.e. it rectifies both the positive and negative
cycles in the waveform. We have already seen the characteristics and working of Half Wave
Rectifier. This Full wave rectifier has an advantage over the half wave i.e. it has average output higher than
that of half wave rectifier. The number of AC components in the output is less than that of the input.
The full wave rectifier can be further divided mainly into following types.

1. Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

2. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

We have already discussed the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, which uses four diodes, arranged as a bridge, to
convert the input alternating current (AC) in both half cycles to direct current (DC).
In the case of centre-tap full wave rectifier, only two diodes are used, and are connected to the opposite ends
of a centre-tapped secondary transformer as shown in the figure below. The centre-tap is usually considered
as the ground point or the zero voltage reference point.

Working of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

As shown in the figure, an ac input is applied to the primary coils of the transformer. This input makes the
secondary ends P1 and P2 become positive and negative alternately. For the positive half of the ac signal, the
secondary point D1 is positive, GND point will have zero volt and P2 will be negative. At this instant diode
D1 will be forward biased and diode D2 will be reverse biased. As explained in the Theory Behind P-N
Junction and Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode, the diode D1 will conduct and D2 will not conduct
during during the positive half cycle. Thus the current flow will be in the direction P1-D1-C-A-B-GND.
Thus, the positive half cycle appears across the load resistance RLOAD.
During the negative half cycle, the secondary ends P1 becomes negative and P2 becomes positive. At this
instant, the diode D1 will be negative and D2 will be positive with the zero reference point being the ground,
GND. Thus, the diode D2 will be forward biased and D1 will be reverse biased. The diode D2 will conduct
and D1 will not conduct during the negative half cycle.16The current flow will be in the direction P2-D2-C-A-
B-GND.
When comparing the current flow in the positive and negative half cycles, we can conclude that the direction
of the current flow is the same (through load resistance RLOAD). When compared to the Half-Wave
Rectifier, both the half cycles are used to produce the corresponding output. The frequency of the rectified
output voltage is twice the input frequency. The output that is rectified consists of a dc component and a lot
of ac components of minute amplitudes.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

PIV is the maximum possible voltage across a diode during its reverse biased period. Let us analyze the PIV
of the centre-tapped rectifier from the circuit diagram. During the first half or the positive half of th input ac
supply, the diode D1 is positive and thus conducts and provided no resistance at all. Thus, the whole of
voltage Vs developed in the upper-half of the ac supply is provided to the load resistance RLOAD. Similar is
the case of diode D2 for the lower half of the transformer secondary. Therefore, PIV of D2 = Vm + Vm =
2Vm
PIV of D1 = 2Vm
Output Current
Since the current is the same through the load resistance RL in the two halves of the ac cycle, magnitude od
dc current Idc, which is equal to the average value of ac current, can be obtained by integrating the current i1
between 0 and pi or current i2 between pi and 2pi.

DC Output Voltage
17
Average or dc value of voltage across the load is given as

VD.C=2VM/PI
Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current

RMS or effective value of current flowing through the load resistance RL is given as

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Output Voltage

RMS value of voltage across the load is given as

Rectification Efficiency
Power delivered to load,

Ripple Factor
Form factor of the rectified output voltage of a full wave rectifier is given as

9.Working of Photodiode

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it makes a
couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption
arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric
field of the depletion region. Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move
toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of
the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent 18 current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity
of the device.
The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic mode, Photoconductive
mode and avalanche diode mode

Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is produced by the
lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range & non-linear necessity of the voltage formed.
Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more usually reverse biased.
The reverse voltage application will increase the depletion layer’s width, which in turn decreases the
response time & the junction capacitance. This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise
Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition, which permits
multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. This outcome in an
internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly increases the device response.
Applications of Photodiode
 The applications of photodiodes involve in similar applications of photodetectors like charge-coupled
devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
 These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc players, and
televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights, photoconductors are
more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science & industry.
Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to analyze samples,
detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.
 These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are frequently
used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.
V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode.

19 The characteristics of the photodiode are shown
clearly in the following figure, that the photocurrent is nearly independent of reverse bias voltage which is
applied. For zero luminance, the photocurrent is almost zero excluding for small dark current. It is of the
order of nano amperes. As optical power rises the photo current also rises linearly. The max photocurrent is
incomplete by the power dissipation of the photo diode.

10.Explain the operation of Capacitor Filter With Half wave Rectifier

20
 CapacitorFilter:

The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component. Filters are usedto minimize the
undesirable ac i.e., ripple leaving only the dc component to appear at the output.
This is the most simple form of the filter circuit and in this arrangement a high value capacitor C is placed
directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period it gets charged and stores
up energy
to it during non-conduction period. Through this process, the time duration during which Ft is to be noted here
that the capacitor C gets charged to the peak because there is no resistance in the charging path. But the
discharging
time is quite large because it discharges through load resistance RL.
The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value capacitor C offers a
low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high impedance to the dc component. Thus
ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc component flows through the load resistanceRLCapacitor
filter is very popular because of its low cost, small size, light weight and good characteristics

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