P1 Chapter 2 :: Quadratics

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Last modified: 26th August 2017

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Chapter Overview
Again, most of the content in this chapter is not new, but brings together a variety of
algebraic and graph sketching GCSE skills regarding quadratic equations.

1:: Solving quadratic equations 2:: Completing the square

Solve Write 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 5 in the
𝑥+1 2
−3 𝑥+1 +2= 0 form 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐

4:: Quadratic Graphs

3:: Quadratics as functions Sketch 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5,
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥, find the indicating the coordinate of the
roots of 𝑓(𝑥). turning point and any intercepts
with the axes.

5:: The Discriminant

6:: Modelling with Quadratics
Find the range of values of 𝑘 for
which 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 has NEW! (since GCSE)
two distinct real solutions. This subtopic is
completely new.
Why do we care about quadratics…
Good question!
There are a number of practical scenarios where a quadratic relationship
arises between variables…

Projectile Motion
Summations
1 1
The sum of 1 to 𝑛 is 2 𝑛2 + 2 𝑛. I recently
had to make a Sports Day spreadsheet
which took the number of competing A projected object, acting only under
school ‘houses’ and worked out the total gravity, follows a parabolic trajectory,
points allocated for an event by finding i.e. its path can be described using a
the formula of the resulting quadratic quadratic equation.
sequence. In Mechanics you will see the formula:
1
1 competitor: 𝟖 points 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
2 competitors: 𝟖 + 𝟕 = 𝟏𝟓 Where 𝑠 is distance/displacement, 𝑢 is
3 competitors: 𝟖 + 𝟕 + 𝟔 = 𝟐𝟏 initial speed/velocity, 𝑡 is time and 𝑎 is
𝟏𝟕 𝟏 acceleration (in this case gravitational
𝒏 competitors: 𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟐
acceleration).
This equation is quadratic in 𝑡.
Why do we care about quadratics…

Hannah’s sweets

Quadratic expressions also regularly emerge when there’s

a product of two expressions involving the same variable
(in this case because Hannah ate two orange sweets).
1 :: Solving Quadratic Equations

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 6
There are three ways of solving a quadratic equation.
One is by completing the square, which we’ll do later.
What are the other two ways?

By factorisation Using the quadratic formula.

If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 then
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 = 0 Put in form.
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
𝑥+6 𝑥−1 =0 with 0 on one side 2𝑎
𝑥 = −6, 𝑥 = 1 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 = 0
Factorise. If the
product of two 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = −6
things is 0, at least −5 ± 25 + 24
one must be 0. 𝑥=
2
−5 ± 7
=
2
= 1 𝑜𝑟 − 6
1 :: Solving Quadratic Equations
Solving without factorising

If the subject only appears once however, it might be easier not

to expand out/factorise:

𝑥−1 2 =5 If you can’t see why the ± is required,

think about the solutions to: 𝑥 2 = 4.
𝑥−1=± 5 22 = 4, but −2 2 = 4 as well!
So 𝑥 = ±2.
𝑥 =1± 5

Quadratics ‘in disguise’

When we have an expression like say 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2, we say it is “quadratic in 𝑥”.
In trigonometry you will have to solve equations like sin 𝑥 2 + 3 sin 𝑥 + 2. We
say that the expression is “quadratic in sin 𝑥”.
Either use a suitable substitution so that you have a ‘normal’ quadratic, or go
straight for the factorisation if you’re feeling more confident (recommended!).

Solve 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 + 8 = 0
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥, then:
𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 8 = 0 𝑥−2 𝑥−4 =0
𝑦−2 𝑦−4 =0 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4
𝑦 = 2, 𝑦 = 4 → 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 4 𝑥 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 16
𝑥 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 16
 Test Your Understanding
1 Solve 𝑥 + 3 2 = 𝑥 + 5 using 2 Solve 2𝑥 + 1 2
=5
factorisation.
2𝑥 + 1 = ± 5
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = 𝑥 + 5
2𝑥 = −1 ± 5
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4 = 0 1 1
𝑥+4 𝑥+1 =0 𝑥=− ± 5
𝑥 = −4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1 2 2

3 Solve 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 − 3 4 Solve 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0

Squaring both sides: 2 𝑥−1 𝑥+1 =0

𝑥+3= 𝑥−3 2 1
𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
2
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = 0 1
𝑥−6 𝑥−1 =0 𝑥=
4
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 6 The latter gives no solution because the
However, squaring both sides of an square root of a number can’t give a
equation can generate false solutions. negative number.
e.g. If 𝑥 = −2, squaring gives 𝑥 2 = 4,
which falsely creates the extra solution “Use of Technology” Monkey says:
𝑥 = 2! We therefore need to check by The ‘equation’ mode on your calculator will solve
substituting into the original equation, quadratics in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. When you’re
asked for the ‘order’, use 2 (we’ll see why later).
where we find only 𝑥 = 6 works.
 Exercise 2A/2B
Pearson Pure Mathematics Year 1/AS
Pages 20-22

Extension: (Full Database: http://www.drfrostmaths.com/resources/resource.php?rid=268 )

1
𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 −
=0
2
2𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 − 1 = 0
−6 ± 36 + 8
𝑦=
4
3 11
𝑥=− ±
(ii)(a) 2 2
Use 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2, thus 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 − 2 Since 𝑥 > 0:
→ 𝑦 2 − 2 + 10𝑦 − 22 = 0 3 11
𝑥=− +
… → 𝑥=2 2 2
3
(ii)(b): 𝑥 = 2 ± 10 𝑥 = 5− 11
2
2 :: Completing the Square
2
“Completing the square” means putting a quadratic in the form 𝑥 + 𝑎 +𝑏
or 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐

The underlying reason we do this is because 𝒙 only appears once in the

expression (e.g. in 𝑥 + 2 2 + 3 vs 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7), which makes it algebraically
easier to handle. This has a number of consequences:

a. Solving Quadratics b. Sketching Quadratics

If we have a completed square: We’ll see later that if 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑎 2 + 𝑏,

𝑥+4 2−7=0 then the minimum point is −𝑎, 𝑏
we saw at the start of the chapter
how we could rearrange to make 𝑥 c. In integration
the subject.
Indeed using the quadratic formula In Further Maths, completing the square
is actually solving the quadratic by allows us to ‘integrate’ expressions like:
completing the square – it’s just 1
someone has done the work for us න 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5
already!
(you will cover integration later this module)
Completing the Square Recap
Textbook Note:
Expand: The textbook uses the formula
2 2
𝑥+𝟗 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝟏𝟖𝑥 + 81 𝑏 𝑏
𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑥 + −
2 2 2
𝑥−𝟓 = 𝑥 2 − 𝟏𝟎𝑥 + 25 and similarly
What do you notice about the relationship 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
between the bold numbers? 𝑏
2
𝑏2
The 𝒂 in 𝒙 + 𝒂 𝟐 is half the coefficient of 𝒙 in the =𝑎 𝑥+ + 𝑐−
2𝑎 4𝑎
expansion. My personal judgement is that it’s
not worth memorising these and
you should instead think through the
Therefore if we had 𝑥 2 + 12𝑥, how could we
steps. Even the textbook agrees!
write it in the form 𝑥 + 𝑎 2 + 𝑏?
𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 = 𝒙 + 𝟔 𝟐 − 𝟑𝟔 Since 𝑥 + 6 2 = 𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 36, we
want to discard the 36, so ‘throw it
away’ by subtracting.
Further Examples:
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 = 𝒙 + 𝟒 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟔 Notice that despite the 𝑎 being
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟏 negative, we still subtract after the
bracket as −1 2 is positive.
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7 = 𝒙 − 𝟑 𝟐 − 𝟗 + 𝟕
= 𝒙−𝟑 𝟐−𝟐
Completing the Square

Express 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 7 in the form 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 2 +𝑐

Factorise out coefficient of 𝑥 2 .

=2 𝑥2
+ 6𝑥 + 7 You can leave the constant
=2 𝑥+3 2−9 +7 term outside the bracket.

= 2 𝑥 + 3 2 − 18 + 14 Complete the square inside

=2 𝑥+3 2−4 the bracket (you should
have two sets of brackets)

Expand out outer bracket.

Express 5 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 in the form 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 2

= −3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5
= −3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 It may help to write in the
form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 first.
= −3 𝑥 − 1 2 − 1 + 5
= −3 𝑥 − 1 2 + 3 + 5
=8−3 𝑥−1 2
Test Your Understanding

Express 3𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 4 in the form 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 2 +𝑐

=3 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 4
=3 𝑥−3 2−9 +4
=3 𝑥 − 3 2 − 27 + 4
=3 𝑥 − 3 2 − 23

Express 20𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 + 3 in the form 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 2

= −5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 3
= −5 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
= −5 𝑥 − 2 2 − 4 + 3
= −5 𝑥 − 2 2 + 20 + 3
= 23 − 5 𝑥 − 2 2
Solving by Completing the Square

Solve the equation:

3𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 4 = 0

4 Froflections: Previously we
𝑥2 − 6𝑥 + = 0 factorised out the 3. This is
3
4 because 3𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 4 on its
2
𝑥−3 −9+ =0 own is an expression, so dividing
3 by 3 (instead of factorising)
2
23 would change the expression.
𝑥−3 =
3
However, in an equation, we can
23 divide both sides by 3 without
𝑥−3=± affecting the solutions.
3

23
𝑥 =3±
3
Exercise 2C/2D
Pearson Pure Mathematics Year 1/AS
Page 23-24
Proving the Quadratic Formula
−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, prove that 𝑥 =
2𝑎

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 Just use exactly the same

2
𝑏 𝑐 method as you usually would!
𝑥 + 𝑥+ =0
𝑎 𝑎
2
𝑏 𝑏2 𝑐
𝑥+ − 2+ =0
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
2
𝑏 𝑏2 𝑐
𝑥+ = 2−
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
2
𝑏 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =
2𝑎 4𝑎2
𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
!
3 :: Functions
A function is something which provides a rule on how to map inputs to outputs.
We saw at GCSE that functions were a formal way of describing a ‘number
machine’:

Input Output

𝑥 𝑓 2𝑥

Input Output
Name of the function
(often 𝑓 or 𝑔)

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
3 :: Functions
You’ll cover functions extensively in future chapters, but for now, you need to
understand the following concepts:
The domain of a function
Inputs Outputs could potentially be any real
number. If so, we’d write:
-1 1
𝑥∈ℝ
0 0 The input 𝑥… the set of real numbers
is a member of…
1.7 𝑓 𝑥 2.89
= 𝑥2 We might be interested in
2 4 what inputs 𝑥 give an output
3.1 9.61 of 0. These are known as the
roots of the function.
... ...
! The roots/zeroes of a
function are the values of
! The domain of a ! The range of a function 𝑥 for which 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.
function is the set of is the set of possible
possible inputs. outputs.
Examples
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ Fro Note: The domain is
a) Find 𝑓(−4) usually stated for you.
b) Find the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)
c) Find the roots of 𝑓(𝑥).
d) Find the roots of 𝑔(𝑥).

a 𝑓 −4 = −4 2 − 3 −4 c The roots are the inputs which give an

= 28 output of 0. So set output expression
to 0.
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 0
b Conceptually, we’re looking for the 𝑥 𝑥−3 =0
inputs of the functions which give the 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
same outputs. We can just equate the
output expressions. d 𝑥+5=0
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 5
𝑥 = −5
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 = 0
𝑥−5 𝑥+1 =0
𝑥 = 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
Examples
Determine the minimum value of the function This means we want to
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2, and state the value of 𝑥 for minimise the output of
which this minimum occurs. the function.

You might try a (clumsy) approach of trying a few values of 𝑥

and try to see what makes the output as small as possible…
𝑓 1 = 1 − 6 + 2 = −3
𝑓 2 = 4 − 12 + 2 = −6 This looks like the
𝑓 3 = 9 − 18 + 2 = −7 minimum as the value
starts going up after.
𝑓 4 = 16 − 24 + 2 = −6

But the best way to find the minimum/maximum value of a

quadratic is to complete the square:
Since anything squared is at
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−3 2−7 least 0, the smallest we can
make the bracket is 0, which
𝑓 1 2
= −2 − 7 = −3 occurs when 𝑥 = 3.
𝑓 2 = −1 2 − 7 = −6
𝑓 3 = 02 − 7 = −7 ! If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑎 2 + 𝑏, the
𝑓 4 = 12 − 7 = −6 minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝑏,
which occurs when 𝑥 = −𝑎.
Quickfire Questions

𝒇(𝒙) Completed square Min/max value of 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 for which this

min/max occurs
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 9 𝑥+2 2 +5 5 −2

𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 21 𝑥−5 2
−4 −4 5

10 − 𝑥 2 Already completed 10 0

8 − 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 17 − 𝑥 − 3 2 17 3
Test Your Understanding
1 Find the minimum value of 2 Find the roots of the function
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 5 and 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1
state the value of 𝑥 for
which this occurs. 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 5 1
=2 𝑥+3 2−9 −5 𝑥 = − 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
2
=2 𝑥 + 3 2 − 18 − 5
=2 𝑥 + 3 2 − 23
3 Find the roots of the function
Minimum value is -23.
𝑥 at which this occurs is -3. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥4 − 𝑥2 + 6

𝑥4 − 𝑥2 + 6 = 0
𝑥2 + 2 𝑥2 − 3 = 0
𝑥 2 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 3
𝑥=± 3
Exercise 2E
Pearson Pure Mathematics Year 1/AS
Page 26-27
4 :: Quadratic Graphs
Recall that 𝑥 refers to the input of a function, and the expression 𝑓(𝑥) refers to the
output. For graph sketches, we often write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), i.e. we set the 𝑦 values to be the
output of the function.
𝑦 A ‘sketch’ in maths has a clearly
defined meaning:
Features needed in • We care about the general
sketch of quadratic? shape of the graph, not exact
points.
• The axes should have no scale.
• Generally the only coordinates
Recall a root of a indicated are intercepts with
function is where the axis or other points of
the output, in Roots interest (e.g. intersections of
multiple graphs)
this case the 𝑦
value, is 0.

General shape: 𝑦-intercept

Smiley face or hill?
Turning point
Example
Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 and find the
coordinates of the turning point.
𝑦

Roots: 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒 = 𝟎
𝒙+𝟒 𝒙−𝟏 =𝟎
𝒙 = −𝟒 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟏

𝑦-intercept: When 𝒙 = 𝟎,
𝒚 = 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟑 𝟎 − 𝟒 = −𝟒
𝟐
Turning point: 𝟑 𝟗
𝒚= 𝒙+ − −𝟒
𝟐 𝟒
𝟐 𝑥
𝟑 𝟐𝟓 -4 1
𝒚= 𝒙+ −
𝟐 𝟒
𝟑 𝟐𝟓 3 25 -4
Min point: −𝟐,− 𝟒 − ,−
2 4

Recall that if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑎 2 + 𝑏, the

minimum output is 𝑏 and −𝑎 is the 𝑥 value
which minimises it. i.e. Turning point is (−𝑎, 𝑏)
 Example
Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 − 3 and find the coordinates of the
turning point. Write down the equation of the line of symmetry.
𝑦
Roots: −𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 = 𝟎
𝒂 = −𝟐, 𝒃 = 𝟒, 𝒄 = −𝟑
−𝟒 ± 𝟒𝟐 − 𝟒 × −𝟐 × −𝟑
𝒙=
−𝟒 𝑥=1
−𝟒 ± −𝟖
=
−𝟒
This has no solutions, so the 𝒚 value
can never be 0, i.e. the parabola
does not touch the 𝒙-axis.
𝑥
𝑦-intercept: -3 (by inspection)
1, −1
-3
Turning point: 𝒚 = −𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑
= −𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑
𝟐
= −𝟐 𝒙−𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟑
= −𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟐 + 𝟐 − 𝟑
= −𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟏
Max point is (𝟏, −𝟏) Line of reflection: 𝒙=𝟏
Test Your Understanding
Sketch the following, indicating any intercepts with the axis, the turning point
and the equation of the line of symmetry.

a 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 4 c 𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 3 − 2𝑥 2
𝑦
5 49
,
4 8
3

0,4
𝑥 1 𝑥
− 3
2
𝑥=0 5
𝑥=
4
b 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10 d 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 11
7
𝑥=
2
11
10
−2,7

2 5 𝑥
𝑥
7 9
,−
2 4 𝑥 = −2
Exercise 2F
Pearson Pure Mathematics Year 1/AS
Page 30

Extension Question:
[MAT 2003 1H] Into how many regions is the plane divided when
the following three parabolas are drawn?
𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2
𝑦

Completing the square: 2 5

3
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 6
𝒚= 𝒙−𝟏 𝟐−𝟏 7
𝒚= 𝒙+𝟏 𝟐+𝟏 1
4
𝑥
Starter

How many distinct real solutions do each of the following have?

𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 36 = 0 𝒙 = 𝟔 (1 distinct solution)

2 −1± −11
𝑥 +𝑥+3=0 𝑥=
2
We can’t square root -11,
Therefore no real solutions.
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 𝒙 = 𝟏 ± 𝟐 (2 distinct solutions)
5 :: The Discriminant
Fro Note: Roots of a
function 𝑓 are the
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 values of 𝑥 such that
𝑓 𝑥 = 0.
−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 Similarly the roots of an
𝑥= equation are solutions
2𝑎 to an equation in the
form 𝑓 𝑥 = 0

Looking at this formula, when in general do you think we have:

• No real roots? 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎
• Equal roots? 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎 !
• Two distinct roots? 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 > 𝟎
Because adding 0 or subtracting 0 in the
quadratic formula gives the same value.

𝑏2 – 4𝑎𝑐 is known as the discriminant.

5 :: The Discriminant
𝑦 𝑦
We say the graph
“touches” the axis.
𝑥

Distinct real roots Equal roots

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 > 𝟎 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎

No real roots
𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎
 Just for your interest…
Why do we say “Equal Roots” not “One root”?
𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 36 = 0
It is due to the Fundamental
Using the quadratic formula gives us the
Theorem of Algebra:
same value in both + and − cases: 𝑥 = 6.
You might wonder why we say “it has one “Every polynomial of order 𝑛
repeated root” or “it has equal roots”, i.e. has exactly 𝑛 roots.”
indicating we have 2 roots (but with the
same value). Why not say it has 1 root?
These roots might be
A polynomial is an
The order of a repeated or might not be
Despite the theorem being a simple statement, it was only expression with
polynomial is ‘real’ roots. −1 is known
until 1806 that it was first proven by Argand. Clearly by using non-negative integer
its highest as a complex number,
the quadratic formula we can show a quadratic equation has powers of 𝑥, i.e.
power of 𝑥. So which you will encounter if
2 roots. We can use similar formulas to show that a cubic 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 3 + ⋯
the order of a you do FM. But it is still a
has 3 roots and a quartic 4 roots. But there is provably no All linear, quadratic and
quadratic is 2, value!
such formulae for order 5 (quintics) and beyond. So we have cubic expressions are
and a cubic 3. The theorem means that a
to prove for example that 5 roots exist for a quintic, despite examples of polynomials.
us having no way to find these exact roots! quadratic (order 2) will
always have 2 roots. This is
One side result of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is why you should say “no real
There are various other ‘Fundamental
that every polynomial can be written as a product of linear roots” when 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0
Laws’. The ‘FL of Arithmetic’ you
and/or quadratic expressions. rather than “no roots”,
encountered at KS3, which states that
Leibniz claimed in 1702 that a polynomial of the form “every positive integer > 1 can be because there are still roots
𝑥 4 + 𝑎4 cannot be written in this way. He then got written as a product of primes in one – it’s just they’re not ‘real’!
completely burned by Euler in 1742 who managed to do so: way only”. You will encounter the ‘FL Similarly we must say “equal
𝑥 4 + 𝑎4 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑎 2 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎 2 𝑥 + 𝑎2 of Calculus’ in Chapter 13. roots” because there are
still 2 roots.
 Quickfire Questions
Number of Distinct
Equation Discriminant Real Roots

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 −7 0

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 12 2

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 0 0 1

2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 3 = 0 60 2

𝑥 − 4 − 3𝑥 2 = 0 −47 0
1 − 𝑥2 = 0 4 2
Problems involving the discriminant

a) 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2𝑝, 𝑐 = 3𝑝 + 4 Fro Tip: Always start by

writing out 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐
2𝑝 2 − 4 1 3𝑝 + 4 = 0 explicitly.
4𝑝2 − 12𝑝 − 16 = 0
𝑝2 − 3𝑝 − 4 = 0
𝑝+1 𝑝−4 =0
𝑝=4
b) When 𝑝 = 4: 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 16 = 0
𝑥 + 4 2 = 0, 𝑥 = −4
Test Your Understanding
𝑥 2 + 5𝑘𝑥 + 10𝑘 + 5 = 0
where 𝑘 is a constant.
Given that this equation has equal roots, determine the value of 𝑘.

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5𝑘, 𝑐 = 10𝑘 + 5
5𝑘 2 − 4 1 10𝑘 + 5 = 0
25𝑘 2 − 40𝑘 − 20 = 0
5𝑘 2 − 8𝑘 − 4 = 0
5𝑘 + 2 𝑘 − 2 = 0
𝑘=2
Find the range of values of 𝑘 for which 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 has two distinct
real solutions.

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 6, 𝑐 = 𝑘
36 − 4 1 𝑘 = 36 − 4𝑘 > 0
36 > 4𝑘
𝑘<9
 Exercise 2G
Pearson Pure Mathematics Year 1/AS
Page 32

Extension Questions:
1 [MAT 2009 1C] Given a real constant 2 [MAT 2006 1B] The 3 [MAT 2011 1B] A rectangle has
𝑐, the equation equation perimeter 𝑃 and area 𝐴. The
𝑥4 = 𝑥 − 𝑐 2 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 2 = 16 has values 𝑃 and 𝐴 must satisfy:
Has four real solutions (including how many real root(s)? A) 𝑃3 > 𝐴
possible repeated roots) for: B) 𝐴2 > 2𝑃 + 1
A) 𝑐 ≤
1
𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = ±𝟒 C) 𝑃2 ≥ 16𝐴
4 D) 𝑃𝐴 > 𝐴 + 𝑃
1 1 First case:
B) − ≤𝑐≤
4
1
4 𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒
C) 𝑐 ≤ − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟎 Let 𝒙 and 𝒚 be the width and height.
4 Then 𝑨 = 𝒙𝒚, 𝑷 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚.
D) all values of 𝑐 As 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎 no real Substituting:
roots. 𝑨
Square rooting: 𝒙𝟐 = ±(𝒙 − 𝒄) 𝑷 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐
𝒙
Case 1: Second case: 𝑷𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝑨
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = −𝟒 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝑷𝒙 + 𝟐𝑨 = 𝟎
𝟏
Discriminant: 𝟏 − 𝟒𝒄 ≥ 𝟎 ∴ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟔 = 𝟎 Discriminant: 𝒂 = 𝟐, 𝒃 = −𝑷, 𝒄 = 𝟐𝑨
𝟒
Case 2: −𝑷 𝟐 − 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐𝑨 ≥ 𝟎
𝒙+𝟐 𝒙−𝟑 =𝟎
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝒄 = 𝟎 𝑷𝟐 − 𝟏𝟔𝑨 ≥ 𝟎
𝟏
𝒙 = −𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟑 𝑷𝟐 ≥ 𝟏𝟔𝑨
Discriminant: 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒄 ≥ 𝟎 ∴ 𝒄 ≥ −
𝟒
Answer is B. So 2 distinct real roots.
Modelling
The new A Level has a particular emphasis of the application of theory to real-life
situations. A mathematical model is the maths used to model such a situation,
possibly with some simplifying assumptions.

Example (from textbook): A spear is thrown over level ground from the top of a tower.
The height, in metres, of the spear above the ground after 𝑡 seconds is modelled by the
function: ℎ 𝑡 = 12.25 + 14.7𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 , 𝑡 ≥ 0
a) Interpret the meaning of the constant term 12.25 in the model.
b) After how many seconds does the spear hit the ground?
c) Write ℎ(𝑡) in the form 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑡 − 𝐶 2 , where 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are constants to be found.
d) Using your answer to part c or otherwise, find the maximum height of the spear
above the ground, and the time at which this maximum height is reached?

a When the time is 0, clearly ℎ 0 = 12.25. So the 12.25m is the height of the tower.
(In general, the constant term of an expression is often the ‘initial value’.

b When it hits the ground, ℎ 𝑡 = 0, thus: 12.25 + 14.7𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2

Solving gives 𝑡 = −0.679 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 3.68 (to 3sf) but as 𝑡 ≥ 0, 𝑡 = 3.68 (to 3sf)

c By completing the square: 23.275 − 4.9 𝑡 − 1.5 2

d The maximum height of the spear is 23.275m, 1.5 seconds after spear is thrown.
Exercise 2H

Pearson Pure Mathematics Year 1/AS

Page 34
Would you like $1,000,000 for finding roots?
We saw earlier that the roots of a function 𝑓 are the values 𝑥 such that 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.

The Riemann Zeta Function

is a function that allows you
to do the infinite sum of
powers of reciprocals, e.g.

1 1 1
𝜁 2 = + + +⋯
12 22 32
1 1 1
𝜁 3 = 3+ 3+ 3+⋯
1 2 3

One of the 8 ‘Clay

Millennium Problems’ (for
which solving any attracts a
$1,000,000 prize) is to
showing all roots of this
function have some
particular from, i.e. the form
of 𝑥 such that 𝜁 𝑥 = 0.