GENERAL CHEMISTRY   3.

Isotopes  
  - Same element, diff mass/neutrons  
Phases of Matter   4. Isotones​ → same neutrons  
1. Solid, liquid, gas, plasma (v hot), bose-einstein  5. Isobars​ → same mass but diff atomic # // Same 
condensate (BEC) (v cold/super atom)  pressure  
6. Isoelectronic​ → same no. of electrons  
7. Metals, nonmetals, metalloids   
 
Terms  
1. Saturated → max quantity of solutes that is 
  possible (max dissolve)  
States of Matter Dependents   2. Unsaturated → less solute than solvent 
1. KE   (dissolvable)  
2. Strength of attraction   3. Supersaturated → more solute than normal (can’t 
  dissolve anymore)  
Types of Properties    
1. Intensive (II)   Diatomic Molecules  
- Independent on amount of substance   1. Hydrogen  
- BP, FP, MP, Density, Temp, pressure, buoyancy,  2. Oxygen  
ductility, malleability, elasticity, viscosity   3. Chlorine  
  4. Bromine  
2. Extensive (E - D)   5. Iodine  
- Dependent on amount of substance   6. Fluorine  
- Mass, volume, energy, force, entropy, electrical  7. Nitrogen  
charge, enthalpy    
  Ions  
3. Physical   1. Cations (+) , Anions (-) 
- Doesnt have to be changed to another substance to   
be observed   NOMENCLATURE (Detailed in Notebook)  
- BP, density, volume, mass, dissociation   
 
4. Chemical  
- Has to be changed to another substance to be 
observed  
- Flammability, reactivity w acid, corrosion  
 
Types of Changes  
1. Physical → reversible    
2. Chemical → irreversible    
  Electromagnetic Structure of Atoms  
Laws that support Dalton’s Atomic Theory   1. Waves → color of light changes w changing temp 
1. Law of conservation of mass   due to change in energy  
2. Law of definite (or constant) composition   2. Electromagnetic radiation → c = λ
​ v (wavelength x 
3. Law of multiple proportions   frequency)  
  - Inversely proportional  
Periodic Table Terms   - Wavelength → distance bet 2 points in a wave  
1. Proton, neutron, electron   - Frequency → # of waves passing a given point per 
- Protons and electrons same #   unit time  
- Neutrons depends on mass #   Niels Bohr’s Phenomena  
2. Groups (HAN CAN)  
- Alkali metals  
- Alkaline Earth metals  
- Chalcogens  
- Halogens  
- Noble gas   

 
 
   
Quantum Mechanics  
1. Electron closer to nucleus more stable than further 
aways  
2. Electrons dont follow a well defined path  
3. Probability of finding electrons gets lower as it goes 
away from the nucleus  
 
4 Quantum Numbers  
1. Principle quantum # (n) 
- n ↑ size ↑ ; n ↑ energy ↓ 
- n can never be 0  
- n is always ≥ 1  
    
2. Angular momentum quantum # (l)    
- n - 1 values   PERIODIC TRENDS  
- Thus, can be 0   Size of Atom / Polarizability 
- Describes the shape of the orbital (s 0, p 1, d 2, f 3)   1. ↑ Down the group  
- S → spherical   2. ↓ Across period  
- P → 2 lobes    
- D → 4 lobes or 5 types   Size of Ions  
- F → 7 types  1. ↑+ ↓ Size  
  2. ↑- ↑ Size  
3. Magnetic quantum # (ml)   3. ↑ down a column  
- Range from -l ≤ ml ≤ l    
- A whole number   Metals  
  1. ↑ Down the group  
4. Spin quantum # (ms)   2. ↓ Across period  
- +½ (clockwise ↑) or -½ (counterclockwise ↓)    
  Ionization Energy  
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle   1. Amount of energy needed to remove an electron  
2. ↓ Down the group  
3. ↑ Across period  
 
Electron Affinity  
1. Energy released when electron is added  
2. ↓ Down the group  
  3. ↑ Across period  
1. Numbers    
- S → 2   Electron Negativity  
- P → 6   1. Attract an electron  
- D → 10   2. ↓ Down the group  
  3. ↑ Across period  
2. Groups  
- S → 1-2  
- P → 3-8 
- D → middle group  
- F → Transition Ce/Th 
 
3. ANOMALIES  
- It is better to be half-filled and full-filled orbitals  
- Example: C ​ u​ → [​ Ar] 4s1 3d5​ instead of 4s2 3d4  
 
4. Properties  
- S block metals → r​ emove​ all electrons w the   
highest n value    
- P block metals → r​ emove​ ​np​ electrons before ns   Polar Covalent Bonds  
- D block metals → r​ emove​ n​ s​ before (n-1)d  1. 2 atoms share electrons unequally  
electrons   2. The more electronegative diff → the more polar the 
- Non-metals → a ​ dd​ electrons to ​p​ w the highest n  bond  
value  
Bond Energy   Acids and Bases  
1. Bond length → bet 2 nuclei   1. Arrhenius → Acid H+ prod, Base OH- prod 
2. Bond order → # of shared electrons   2. Bronsted-Lowry → Acid H+ donor, base H+ acc 
  3. Lewis → acid: electron-pair acceptor; base: donor 
3. Trends   4. Acids lose H+ to be conjugate base  
- ↑ bond strength, ↑ EN, ↓ bond length   5. Base → gains H+ → conjugate acid  
- ↑ bond order, ↑ bond energy, ↓ bond length    
- ↑ bond length, ↓ bond energy  Solubility  
- ↑ bond order   1. Dissolve in H2O → soluble  
  2. Doesnt → insoluble / generates precipitate  
VSEPR    
1. Best arrangement where electron repulsion is least   GENERAL SOLUBILITY RULES  
  1. SOLUBLE  
AX​m   a. Compounds of G1A  
1. AX​2​ → Linear → 180   b. All nitrates (NO3-), acetates (CH3COO-), 
2. AX​3​ → Trigonal Planar → 120  perchlorates (CIO4-) 
3. AX​4​ → Tetrahedral → 109.5  c. Chlorides, bromides, iodides  
4. AX​5​ → Trigonal bipyramidal → 90/120   d. All sulfates (not w G2A)  
5. AX​6​ → Octahedral → 90    
6. AX​2​E ​→ Bent/V shaped   2. INSOLUBLE 
7. AX​3​E ​→ Trigonal Pyramidal   a. Common metal hydroxides (except G1A)   
8. AX​2​E​2​ → Bent/V shaped   b. All carbonates, phosphates, NH4+ (except 
  G1A)  
Polarity   c. All sulfides (except G1A G2A)  
1. Mirrored = non-polar    
  REDOX  
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions   1. Neutralization  
1. Dissociation   - Only for strong acids/bases  
- Ionic substance dissolves in water    
- Electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into ions  2. Redox  
when dissolved in water   - OIL, RIG 
- Non-electrolyte may dissolve in water but doesn’t  - LEORA → loses electron, Oxidation, reducing agent  
dissociate ions when it does   - GEROA​ → g ​ ains electron, reduction, oxidating agent  
   
2. Ionic   3. Oxidation number  
- Ionic compounds are STRONG ELECTROLYTES   - Elemental form → 0 
  - Sum = 0  
3. Molecular   - Monoatomic ion → ionic charge  
- Strong aids/bases are STRONG ELECTROLYTES  - Group 1 → +1 
- Weak → WEAK ELECTROLYTES (partially  - Group 2 → +2 
dissociates)   - Hydrogen → +1 
- All other compounds → nonelectrolytes  - Fluorine → -1  
  - Oxygen → -1 (peroxides)  
4. Strong Acids   - -2 for all other compounds (except w F)  
- HCl  - Other Group 7 → -1  
- HBr   
- HI    
- HCIO​3   
- HCIO​4     
- HNO​3 
- H​2​SO​4 
 
5. Strong Bases  
- All G1A metal h ​ ydroxide   
- 1st 3 Group 2A metal hydroxides (Ca, Sr, Ba)  
 
 
   
Energy → A ​ bility to do work or transfer heat / cannot be  Specific Heat Capacity  
created nor destroyed / transfered only   1. The amount of energy needed to raise the temp of 
Work → E ​ nergy used to cause an obj to move   1g of a substance by 1ºC or 1K  
Heat → ​Energy used to cause temp of obj to rise   
  Colligative Properties of Solution  
Types of Energy   1. Properties of a sol that depend on the ratio of the 
1. Kinetic → energy in motion   NUMBER OF SOLUTES to the no. of solvent present  
2. Potential → not moving   2. DO NOT DEPEND ON THE NATURE OF CHEMICALS  
   
S.I. UNIT of Energy ​→ J   TYPES OF COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES  
- 1 cal → 4 J  **Mostly 3 words each** 
  1. Osmotic Pressure  
Endothermic / Endergonic   - Pressure needed to prevent osmosis  
1. ΔE > 0  2. Vapor Pressure Lowering  
2. Absorb heat (+ ΔH)  - Add of nonvolatile solute to volatile solvent  
  3. Boiling Point Elevation  
Exothermic / Exergonic   - Add of nonvolatile solute and elevation measured 
1. ΔE < 0  by Ebullioscopy  
2. Released heat (- ΔH)  4. Freezing Point Depression 
- Add of an insoluble solute to solid solvent  
- Measurement of diff → cryoscopy  
 
Heterogeneous Solutions  
1. Suspensions  
- Suspended particles too large and heavy to flow in 
   the solution → therefore settles  
Energy    
1. Q  2. Colloids  
- + → system g ​ ains​ heat   - Suspended particles small and light → can be 
- - → system ​loses​ heat   carried by the motion of the particles  
  - Example: agar, gelatin, smoke, paint, blood, fog, hair 
2. W  spray, shaving, whipped cream  
- + → work done ​ON​ system   
- - → work done ​BY​ system  Le Chatelier’s Principle  
  1. Equilibrium changed by pressure, temp, conc 
3. ΔE  2. Pressure/volume/Amount → shift to fewer moles 
- + → Net g ​ ain​ of energy by system   side 
- - → Net ​loss​ of energy by system   3. Temp → inc temp, shift to endothermic side  
  4. Catalyst → no effect in reversible reaction  
Intermolecular Forces    
1. Ion-dipole   Titration  
2. H bond → N, O, F   1. To calculate conc of a solute in a solution  
3. Dipole-dipole   2. Standard solution → known conc  
4. Ion-induced dipole   3. Equivalence point → point where acid/base conc 
5. Dipole-induced dipole   are equal  
6. London dispersion   4. End point → color change observed  
  5. Analyte/Titrate → unknown  
Viscosity   6. Titrant → known  
1. Resistance for liquid to flow    
2. Inc viscosity → inc intermolecular forces 
 
Surface Tension  
1. Energy required to inc the SA by a unit amount  
 
Enthalpy  
1. ΔH → q → heat gained or lost  
 
2. ΔH + → Endothermic  
3. ΔH - → exothermic  
4. Measured through a ​calorimeter  
 
   
Saturated Hydrocarbons  
Scientist   Discovery  
1. Colorless, tasteless, odorless  
Democritus   Atom → basic unit of matter   2. BP MP inc as MW inc and london dispersion forces 
inc  
John Dalton   Billiard Ball Model   3. Non polar; Insoluble in water  
4. Stable  
J.J. Thomson   Plum pudding model; electron  
5. Tetrahedral  
Ernest Rutherford  Gold foil experiment; Protons    
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons  
James Chadwick  Neutrons   1. Nonpolar  
2. Stable  
Niels Bohr   Planetary Model   3. Trigonal planar  
 
Erwin Schrodinger   Quantum Theory  
4. Alkyl Halide Reaction  
  - HC + halogen → substitution  
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY  - Might be accompanied w a hydride shift or methyl 
Isomers   shift  
1. Diff compounds w same molecular formula   5. Pyrolysis / Cracking  
  - HC w higher molecular weight → breaks down w 
Structural Isomers   heat  
1. Chain isomers → arrangement of C atoms    
2. Functional isomers → diff functional grps, same  Alkyne Reactions  
molecular formula   1. Oxidation  
3. Positional isomers → position of unsaturated  - Produces glycol  
bonds/functional grps    
  2. Reduction  
Stereoisomers   - Hydrogen replaces a bond  
1. Same mol formula and sequence of bonded atoms   
→ differ in the 3D orientations of their atoms   3. Addition  
2. Cis (same side) / Trans (opp side)  - Acid replaces a bond  
 
4. Polymerization  
- Unsaturated molecules combine to form polymers  
 
 
Naming  
3. E-Z Isomerism  
- E → higher priority grps are on opp sides of double  1. Meth  7. Oct 
bond ​[E-PPISITE]   2. Eth  8. Non 
- Z → higher priority grps are on the same side of the  3. Prop  9. Dec  
double bond ​[Z-AME]   4. But  10. Unde 
  5. Pent 
Diastereomers   6. Hex 
1. Not mirror images  
Branches  
 
1. iso -  
Enantiomers  
2. Tert -  
1. Non-super impossible   3. Sec -  
2. Mirror images  
 
 
Cyclo-  
Racemic  
1. Cyclopropane  
1. 50:50 → optically inactive  
2. Cyclobutane  
 
3. Cyclopentane  
Mesocompound  
4. Cyclohexane  
1. Optically inactive; symmetrical  
5. Cycloheptane  
 
6. Cycloctane  
Rotations  
 
1. Dextrorotatory (D) → (+) clockwise → R  Naming Aromatic  
2. Levatotatory (L) → (-) counter-clockwise → S   1. Ortho → 1, 2 
  2. Meta → 1, 3  
Chiral​ → several of C atoms bear 4 different substituents   3. Para → 1, 4  
Alcohol Classification   CARBOHYDRATES  
Monosaccharides (MG FG)  
1. Glucose, fructose, galactose, Mannose  
 
Disaccharides  
1. Sucrose​ → Glucose + Fructose 
  - Table sugar 
1. Soluble in water → dec as MW inc   - In plant leaves → Transports carbs for 
2. Low BP and MP when MW inc   photosynthesis 
3. Glycols​ → alcohols w 2 or more OH grps    
  2. Maltose​ → Glucose + Glucose 
4. Oxidation Reaction   3. Lactose​ → Glucose + Galactose 
- 1º Alcohols → aldehyde → COOH    
- 2º Alcohols → Ketone   Polysaccharide  
  1. Most complex → oligosaccharides  
5. Ester Formation   2. Glycogen 
- Alcohol + acids → ​ E
​ ster   - Animals store this in the form of glucose  
  3. Starch 
Aldehydes (3l side)   - Amylose in plants  
1. 1 C → ​formaldehyde // Formalin   - Iodine test for s​ tarch  
a. Very toxic to microorganisms   4. Cellulose  
2. 2 Cs → ​acetaldehyde   - In wood and plant fibers as structural elements  
a. Industrial manufacturing chemical   - For rigidity  
  5. Chitin  
Ketone (middle)   - Exoskeleton of arthropods  
1. 2 Cs → Acetone (dimethyl ketone)   - Fungi cell wall as structural element  
a. Made from o ​ xidation​ of isopropyl alcohol    
2. Methyl ethyl ketone → o ​ xidation ​of 2-butanol   Carbohydrates: Function 
  1. Energy stores, fuels, metabolic intermediates 
Esters   2. Structural framework of DNA & RNA 
1. Formed when​ COOH + OH​ are ​dehydrated   3. Structural elements in bacterial & plant cell walls 
2. Used in perfumes, flavoring extracts   4. Linked to prot & lipids  
   
Ethers   Bacterial Polysaccharides  
1. Dehydrating 2 OH   1. Function  
2. Oxygen sandwiched bet 2 org grps   - Forms biofilm 
3. Highly flammable   - Provides protective matrix for growth  
4. Resistant to biological oxidation   - In prokaryotes   
5. Highly explosive    
  2. Characteristics  
Aminds   - Attached to surface  
1. Reaction bet o ​ rganic acids and ammonia   - Harbors community of bacteria  
  - That contribute to biofilm prod & maintenance 
Amines   - Gel-like consistency  
  
Peptidoglycan 
1. Constitute cell wall of bacteria 
2. Determines shape of plasma membrane 
 
  Glycoproteins 
  1. Cell-cell, cell-mole recognition 
Dehydration ​→ removal of H (usually to form H2O)  2. Markers to identify type of cell 
Hydration ​→ adding H2O → add OH   3. Antifreeze → for fish living in subzero waters 
  4. Protein turnover → used to mark protein for age 
   
   
       
 TRIGLYCERIDES   TRIVIA  
1. Gold is the most stable metal  
2. Metal o
​ xides​ are ​basic​ → turns litmus paper blue  
3. Non-metal ​oxides​ are ​acidic​ → turns litmus paper 
red 
4. Amphoteric oxides → neutral  
5. Sigma bonds → single bonds → strongest  
6. Pi bonds → double/triple bonds  
 
7. Higher specific heat capacity = insulator  
Lipids  
8. Hydrogen → lightest element  
1. Function 
9. Mercury → only metal liquid at RT  
- Make up physical structure of membrane → lipid 
10. Bromine → only nonmetal liquid at RT  
bilayer 
11. Nitrogen → most abundant gas in air  
- Always in multiples of 2 → synthesis & digestion to 
12. Oxygen → most abundant element on earth  
form acetyl molecule  
13. Aluminum → most abundant metal on earth  
 
14. Argon → most abundant noble gas  
2. Energy source 
15. Potassium → intracellular cation  
- Fatty acids → long chain starting w carboxylic acid 
16. Sodium → extracellular cation  
- More oxygen → oxidized, more hydrocarbon → 
17. COMMON COMPOUNDS** 
reduced 
 
- Fatty acid more reduced → greatest potential to be 
 
oxidize 
   
 
Fats → F ​ A glycerides → solid in RT  
Oil → F​ A glycerides → liquid in RT  
Waxes → ​esters of long-chain acids and alcohols  
Detergents → ​has surfactant w oil soluble and water soluble 
part  
Soap ​→ derived from s ​ aponification o
​ f fats and oils  
 
INDICATORS   
Benedict’s Solution  
1. Simple Carbs  
2. (+) → Brick Red  
3. (-) → Blue  
 
Iodine Solution  
1. Complex Carbs (Starch) 
2. (+) → Black 
3. (-) → Dark Red   
 
Biuret Solution  
1. Protein  
2. (+) → Violet, Black   
3. (-) → Blue   
 
Sudan IV  
1. Lipids 
2. (+) →Reddish-orange  
3. (-) → Dark Red  
 
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS (Table in UPLINK book)   
 EQUATIONS  Molarity  
1. Density → m/v   1. Molarity = mol of solute / vol of sol in L  
a. g/mL    
2. Temperature   Molality  
a. K → C (+273)   1. m = moles of solute / kg of solvent  
3. Wave    
a. c = ​λv   Mass/Volume Percent  
- Speed of light → 3 x 10^8   1. Mass or vol of solute / mass or vol of solution x 100  
b. E = hv    
- h = planck’s constant 6.626 x 10^-34   Converting a concentrated solution into a diluted solution  
c. E = h c/​λ  1. M​1​V​1 = ​ M​2​V​2  
  - Molarity and volume  
Stoichiometry    
1. Types of reactions   Energy  
- Composition   1. ΔE = q + w  
- Decomposition    
- Combustion (w O​2​) → involves explosion   Specific Heat  
  1. q = mcΔT  
2. Balance Equations   2. c of Water → 4 J/gºC 
3. Molecular weights/Mass    
4. Percent composition   Ideal Gas Equation  
a. % Element = [(# od atoms)(Atomic weight)  PV = nRT  
/ FW of compound ] x 100    
5. Empirical formula   Boyle’s Law  
a. Simplest ratio  P​1​V​1​ = P​2​V​2 
b. Percentage / MM → mol → ratio of moles   
6. Molecular formula   Charles Law  
a. Actual amounts (balanced)  V​1​/T​1​ = V​2​/T​2 
b. Depends on the grams/weight given in   
question   Avogadro’s Law  
7. Structural formula   P​1​/T​1​=P​2​/T​2 
a. Approximate arrangement    
8. Theoretical yield → same process as limiting   The Combined Gas Law  
9. Percent yield   P​1​V​1,​/V​1​n​1​ = P​2​V​2,​/V​2​n​2 
   
Limiting Reactants   Law of Partial Pressures  
1. The smaller # is limiting   P​T​ = P​1​ +P​2​ + …. 
2. Will ask for grams of the product and give you   
equation    
3. Steps    
- Get mols    
- Mols per ratio of the products  
- Smaller mol of product is limiting  
 
Moles  
1. Avogadro’s # → 6.02 x 10^23 atoms/mol  
2. Mol = g/MM  
3. Mol = Atoms or formula units/Avog #  
 
g → MM ← MOLES ← AVOG # → FORMULA UNITS  
 
Stoichiometric Calculations  
1. Balance  
2. G of reactant  
3. Mold of reactant from (g)  
4. Mold of product from moles of reactant (using 
balanced eq.)  
5. G of product from moles of product conversion