Electric Circuit I Lab Manual PDF
Electric Circuit I Lab Manual PDF
(١) ﻣﺨﺘﺒﺮ دواﺋﺮ آﻬﺮﺑﻴﺔ
Prepared by
Eng. Manhal Abu Safer
Eng. Amani Abu Reyala
IUG - 2009
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Eng. Manhal Abu Safar
Eng. Amani S. Abu Reyala
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Table of contents
Title of Experiment Page
Table of contents 3
Laboratory safety 4
Lab Syllabus 5
PSpise with OrCAD capture 7
Laboratory Instrument & Measurements 12
Exp 1 Familiarization with simple resistance measurements 19
Exp 2 Resistors in series and parallel circuits, and their faults as shorts and opens 25
Exp 3 Oscilloscope 33
Exp 4 Resistors networks, Millmanʹs and reciprocity theorems 38
Exp5 Solution of resistive network, power at DC 48
Electromotive force and internal resistance of voltage source, Maximum
Exp 6 power transfer, and star/delta conversion 56
Exp 7 RMS value of an AC waveform 61
Exp 8 Capacitors in series and parallel 64
Exp 9 Time constants and inductance 70
Pulse response of RL and RC circuit. Resistive, inductive, and capacitive
Exp 10 at ac circuits 75
Exp 11 Damping in RLC circuits 81
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Laboratory Safety
Experiments in this laboratory will be conducted in strict accordance with following
list of regulations, procedures and comments in order to promote a professional and
safe approach to the laboratory experience. Additionally, laboratory safety rules
apply during all experiments. If you are not sure of the operation of equipment or
laboratory procedure, particularly those which might compromise personal safety
and the safety of your laboratory partners, do not hesitate to ask your laboratory
instructor for assistance. The following rules must be strictly adhered to during the
course of your laboratory experiment:
1. Be calm and relaxed, while working in Lab.
2. No paper lying on table or nearby circuits.
3. No smoking, no food and no drinks permitted inside the laboratory.
4. Wear proper clothing and insulated footwear to the laboratory.
5. Do not use wet hands or stand on a wet floor while making electrical
connections.
6. Do not place personal belongings (books, coat, etc.) on the laboratory
equipment.
7. Keep your work area clean and organized.
8. Use only that equipment required for a particular experiment specified.
9. Do not use damaged or poorly insulated wires or equipment.
10. Properly ground all equipment.
11. Thoroughly check all connections before applying power.
12. Turn power off when making changes to your experiment.
13. Discharge capacitors by shorting with resistor.
14. Do not energize equipment until give permission.
15. Do not touch 120V electrical outlets or the terminals of any energized
electrical connection.
16. Report any accident to your instructor immediately.
17. Work deliberately and carefully.
18. In the event of a power failure, turn off the power switched to all equipment
immediately and wait further instructions.
19. After you are done with your experiment, turn all main switches off.
20. Failure to follow safety instructions can cause serious bodily injury or death.
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The Islamic University of Gaza
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
Electric Circuit (1) Laboratory (EELE 2110)
Laboratory Experiments:
The lab will cover the following experiments:
1. Familiarization with simple resistance measurements
2. Resistors in series and parallel circuits, and their faults as shorts and opens.
3. Oscilloscope
4. Resistors networks, Millmanʹs and reciprocity theorems.
5. Solution of resistive network, power at DC.
6. Electromotive force and internal resistance of voltage source, maximum
power transfer, and star/delta conversion.
7. RMS value of an AC waveform.
8. Capacitors in series and parallel.
9. Time constants and inductance.
10. Pulse response of RL and RC circuit. Resistive, inductive and capacitive at ac
circuits.
11. Damping in RLC circuits
Objectives:
• This course aims to give a practical view on your theoretical subject.
• To be familiar with resistorsʹ circuits, connections, and faults
• To get to know the oscilloscope device and its usage.
• To be familiar with resistors networks and their solutions with different
electrical theorems.
• To get to know power calculations and rms value of any signal.
• To be familiar with capacitors and inductors and the response of their
circuits.
Grades:
Attendance…………………….. 5 Pts
Midterm Exam……………….... 20 Pts
Final Practicle Exam 20 Pts
Final Exam…………………..... 30 Pts
Reports………………………… 15 Pts
Quizzes………………………... 10 Pts
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Lab Policy:
• No late reports or pre-labs will be accepted
• Avoid copy-paste Technology
• Reports should be done individually.
• Mid term Exam will be at the end of Lab(5)
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PSpice with OrCAD Capture
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Objectives :
Provide an introduction to the basics of using the PSpice circuit analysis
software package.
Get a review about installing of OrCAD software program.
Be familiar with different types of analyses and simulation.
Introduction:
PSpice is a powerful general purpose analog and mixed‐mode circuit simulator that
is used to verify circuit designs and to predict the circuit behavior. Its name implies ʹ
Simulation Program for Integrated Circuits Emphasis ʹ .
It is recommended to simulate all circuits you will connect in the lab to get the ability
of predicting the practical results thus the intended ideas become more obvious.
PSpice allows you to do different types of analysis according to the purpose of each
circuit. These types are DC bias, DC Sweep, Transient with Fourier analysis, AC
analysis, Parameter sweep and Temperature sweep.
In this lab, we will use three basic types of circuit analysis; transient analysis, AC
frequency sweep and DC sweep. Briefly, these may be described as follows:
The “DC sweep” analysis produces a graph of the voltage (or current) at a
selected point in the circuit as the value of one of the DC sources in the circuit
is swept over some range.
The “AC Sweep” analysis produces a graph of the magnitude of the
sinusoidal voltage versus frequency at a selected point in the circuit.
The “Time Transient” analysis produces a graph of the output voltage (or
current) versus time at a selected point in the circuit. Applied sources are
characterized by a time sequence of samples of a voltage or current
waveform.
Procedure :
1. Install OrCAD Program on your computer from your own CD. Try to follow
the instruction of downloading.
2. from ʹ Programsʹ directory, click : OrCAD release 9, Capture CIS. The main
page of OrCAD will appear.
3. To open anew project, click : File, New, Project.
4. In the dialog box, type the name of your project. Check the ʹ Analog or Mixed
– Signal Circuit Wizard ʹ . Browse to the path to be used to store the project at
location Field. Click OK.
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5. Another dialog box will appear, it asks you to add libraries you need at your
project. Initially the default libraries are sufficient so Click Finish.
6. A schematic page will appear. Click near the right edge of the screen Then a
tool bar should appear.
Simulation Examples:
As mentioned before, there are different types of analysis are available using
OrCAD, in this laboratory, you will work through an example of each of the three
basic types of analysis.
• DC sweep :
1. Open OrCAD main window, Open a new project .
2. From the tool bar, click ʹ Place partʹ.
3. From source library, choose VDC ʺDc sourceʺ and click ok. Place it on your
project page.
4. From Analog library, choose R ʺresistorʺ and click ok. Place two resistors on
the project page.
5. From tool bar, click ʹ Place wireʹ and connect between the components as
shown at figure(1).
6. From the tool bar, click ʹ Place groundʹ, choose ʹ 0/SOURCEʹ, connect it to the
circuit as shown at figure (1).
7. Save your project.
8. click PSpice, New simulation profile, Type your desired name of the
simulation name. Click OK.
9. Simulation Settings window will appear. Choose ʹ DC Sweep ʹ as the analysis
type.
10. Choose the type of the dc source you want to draw the output with respect to
it . At this example it is a voltage source. Type its name V1.
11. Type the range of V1, start value, final value and increment which is the step
between voltage values.
Figure (1) : DC sweep example circuit
12. It is intended to plot the current versus to the value of voltage source, so the
current should be measured. Put ʹCurrent into Pinʹ as shown at figure (1)
13. click Runʹ. The result of simulation will appear as shown at figure(2).
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Figure (2) : DC sweep simulation result
14. Try to analyze and explain the result, does it as you have predicted ….. ?!!
15. For any details, see ʹ Example1 ʹ video file on the attached CD.
• AC sweep :
1. Try to follow the same steps at ʹExample1ʹ, to build the circuit shown at
figure(3).
2. The differences between two examples are:
- Use VAC ʺac sourceʺ source instead of VDC, change its value to 1V.
Ac source is used for plotting relations versus frequency.
- Use ʹVoltage levelʹ instead of ʹCurrent into Pinʹ, to plot the output
voltage versus frequency.
- Choose ʺAC Sweepʺ as an analysis type for this example, linear choice.
Type the range of frequency at start frequency, end frequency and
total points.
- Note that the x‐axis variable is the frequency while at dc sweep is the
source voltage V1.
- The result of AC sweep simulation is shown at figure(4).
Figure (3) : AC sweep example circuit
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Figure (4) : AC sweep simulation result
• Time Transient :
1. Follow steps at ʹExample2 ʹ to build the circuit shown at figure(5).
2. The differences are:
- Use VSIN ʺsinusoidal sourceʺ source instead of VAC. The sinusoidal
source is used for plotting relations versus for time.
- Double click on the sinusoidal source to change its parameters:
frequency, amplitude and offset voltage.
- Choose ʺTime transientʺ as an analysis type for this example. Type the
duration of simulation you want. Keep it suitable with the frequency
of the sinusoidal input to get obvious simulation result.
- Note that the x‐axis variable is the time.
- Showing the input and output signals in the simulation result helps
you during results analysis.
- The result of AC sweep simulation is shown at figure(6).
Figure (5) : Time transient example circuit
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Figure (6) : Time transient simulation result
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Laboratory Instruments and Measurements
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Objectives:
• To learn how to make basic electrical measurements of current, voltage, and
resistance using multi‐meters.
• To be familiar with the bread board.
Theoretical Background:
Definitions:
a‐ Electric current (i or I) is the flow of electric charge from one point to another,
and it is defined as the rate of movement of charge past a point along a
conduction path through a circuit, or i = dq/dt. The unit for current is the
ampere (A). One ampere = one coulomb per second .
b. Electric voltage (v or V) is the ʺpotential differenceʺ between two points, and
it is defined as the work, or energy required, to move a charge of one
coulomb from one point to another. The unit for voltage is the volt (V). One
volt = one joule per coulomb.
c. Resistance (R) is the ʺconstant of proportionalityʺ when the voltage across a
circuit element is a linear function of the current through the circuit element,
or v = Ri. A circuit element which results in this linear response is called a
resistor. The unit for resistance is the Ohm(Ω . One Ohm = one volt per
ampere. The relationship v = Ri is called Ohmʹs Law.
Typical standard resistor values are 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6,
6.8, 7.5, 8.2, and 9.1 multiplied by a power of 10
d. Electric power (p or P) is dissipated in a resistor in the form of heat. The
amount of power is determined by p=Vi, p=i2R, or p=v2/R. The latter two
equations are derived by using Ohms Law (v = Ri) and making substitutions
into the first equation. The unit for power is the watt (W) One watt = one
joule per second.
Instruments and equipments that will be used in this lab:
1‐ Multimeter:
Meters are used to make measurements of the various physical variables in
an electrical circuit. These meters may be designed to measure only one variable
such as a voltmeter or an ammeter. Other meters called multimeters are
designed to measure several variables, typically voltage, current and resistance.
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These multimeters have the capability of measuring a wide range of values for
each of these variables. Some multimeter operate on battery power and are
therefore easily portable, but need battery replacement. Others operate on A.C.
power.
The read‐out, or display, of value being measured on the multimeter may be
of the digital type or the analog type. The digital type displays the measurement
in an easy to read form. The analog type has a pointer which moves in front of a
marked scale and must be read by visually interpolating between the scale
markings.
In this lab we will use a digital multimeter which is as shown in figure 1.
Figure (1) : The multimeter device
It consists of :
- Ammeter which is used to measure A.C or D.C current passing in a branch
and is connected in series with the circuit’s elements.
- Voltmeter for measuring the A.C or D.C voltage drop a cross any two point
in the circuit, and is connected in parallel.
- Ohmmeter for measuring the resistance, and is connected across the resistant.
2‐ Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope (abbreviated sometimes as ʹscope or O‐scope) is a type of
electronic test instrument that allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as
a two‐dimensional graph which a potential differences plotted as a function
of time. Although an oscilloscope displays voltage on its vertical axis, any
other quantity that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed as well.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used when it is desired to observe the exact
wave shape of an electrical signal. In addition to the amplitude of the signal,
an oscilloscope can show distortion and measure frequency, time between
two events (such as pulse width or pulse rise time), and relative timing of two
related signals. (figure2.2)
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Figure (2) : Oscilloscope
3‐ Wattmeter
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power in watts of
any given circuit. The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamics
instrument. The device consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils,
and a movable coil known as the potential coil.
The current coils connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil
is connected in parallel.
A current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field
around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current
and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high‐value
resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it.
The result of this arrangement is that on a dc circuit, thus conforming to the
equation W=VA or P=VI. (figure 3)
Figure (3) : Wattmeter
4‐ Bread Board:
A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out
an idea. No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and
replace components. Parts will not be damaged so they will be available to re‐
use afterwards.
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This is in contrast to strip board and similar prototyping printed circuit
boards, which are used to build more permanent soldered prototypes, and
cannot easily be reused.
A typical small bread board is shown in figure below(figure 4), which is
suitable for testing a small circuit.
Figure (4) : The bread board
Connections on Breadboard
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called ʹholesʹ) arranged on a 0.1ʺ grid.
The leads of most components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are
inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left.
Wire links can be made with single‐core plastic‐coated wire of 0.6mm
diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will
crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands
break off.
The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected:
The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown
in figure (5), it is suggested to use the horizontal holes ; one for the positive
power supply and the other for ground also the lower horizontal holes may
be used for a negative power supply.
The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the
centre. Notice how there are separate blocks of connections to each pin of ICs.
Figure (5) : bread board connections
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On larger breadboards there may be a break halfway along the top and
bottom power supply rows. It is a good idea to link across the gap before you
start to build a circuit, otherwise you may forget and part of your circuit will
have no power!
Lab Work:
Building a Circuit on Breadboard
1. Connect the circuit shown in figure (6) on the bread board.
2. Set the power supply output voltage to 10v.
3. Find the value of the current passing through the circuit and the voltage
across the resistor using multi‐meter.
4. Record the value that you got in the table 1.
10V 1k V
Figure (6)
V(volt) I(mA)
Table (1)
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Prelab 1
Resistance Measurements
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a)
1‐ Why the voltmeter must be connected in parallel?
2‐ If the voltmeter is connected in series, why its reading will equal the reading
of the power supply?
3‐ Why the ammeter must be connected in series?
4‐ What is the behaviour of the capacitor and inductor at dc.?
b)
1‐ For the circuit shown in figure(1.1), if the power supply=10V, then compute
the value of I(mA) for the R=2.2 KΩ, and record them in table (1.1).
2‐ Compute the values of R (KΩ), and G (m moh), where and .
A
10V 1K ohm V
Figure (1.1)
Table (1.1)
3‐ Repeat steps 1 and 2, but use as source with v=5Vrms and f=500Hz.
Note: Read the theoretical part of experiment (1) to be able to answer
this part.
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c)
Figure (1.2)
Fill in the spaces:
For the circuit shown in figure (1.2)
1‐ Wheatstone bridge measurements method is used to measure
______________ values of resistance because _________________.
2‐ At stability, if R1>R3, then Runk. __________ Rvar..
3‐ When the readings of voltmeter is zero, if R1=R3=1KΩ, Rvar = 10KΩ, then
Runk.= _____________ .
d)
For the circuit shown in figure (1.3):
R1
0.22 uf Rvar
10V
A V B
R4(unk)
1 uf R3
10mH
Figure (1.3)
Fill in the spaces:
1‐ At dc, inductor acts as a ____________ and the capacitor acts as
a___________, then the circuit shown in figure (1.3) may be considered as in
figure ____________.
2‐ When the reading of voltmeter is zero, R1=1.8 KΩ, R3=10KΩ, Rvar.= 10KΩ
then Runk.= ___________.
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Experiment 1
Resistance Measurements
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Part A: Familiarization
Objective:
‐ To measure and calculate resistors by several methods.
‐ Discussing the behaviour of capacitor and inductor in dc circuits.
Methods of calculating and measuring resistance:
I‐ By using OHM’s Law:
Experiment procedure:
a‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1.1)
b‐ Set the power supply output voltage to 10v.
c‐ Record the value of I(ma) for R=1K, R=2.2K, and R=10K in table (1.1)
d‐ Compute the values of R(KΩ) using OHM Law, and G (m moh), and
compute the percentage of error for the values of R, where the
percentage of error can be computed as:
10V 1K ohm V
Figure(1.1)
R(KΩ) V(v) I(mA) R(KΩ) G(m % Error
moh)
1
2.2
10
Table (1.1)
II‐ By using ohmmeter:
1‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1.2).
2‐ Measure the value of R (KΩ) directly by connecting the digital multi‐
meter in parallel with the resistor and using it as a ohmmeter.
3‐ Record the value of R (KΩ) and compute the percentage of error.
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Figure (1.2)
R (KΩ)
R (KΩ) meas. % Error
1K
2.2K
10K
Table (1.2)
III‐ By using Wheatstone Bridge:
Theory:
ohm’s law method can’t be used to measure low values of resistors,
because it causes a high current passes through the resistor from the power
supply and these resistors can’t bear a high current. In contrast Wheatstone
Bridge method is used to measure high and medium values of resistances.
In Wheatstone Bridge method, the current is divided between the two
branches. This is why this method is preferable in measuring low values of
resistances.
Wheatstone Bridge:
Figure (1.3)
Let R4 is unknown resistance. If resistors R1,R2 and R3 are arranged in such
away as to produce zero deflection of the voltmeter which is connected
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between the points B and A, the voltage droops across R1 and R2 are equal
and the voltage drops across R3 and R4 are also equal.
Experimental procedures:
I1 I2
Rvar
R1
10V
A V B
I3 I4
R3 R4(unk)
Figure(1.4)
1‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1.4)
2‐ Let R1=R3=1 KΩ, R4=10KΩ ( to be proved), R2 variable is of the rang 10 KΩ.
3‐ Vary R2 until V=0, then measure R2 var and use this value to compute Runk.
From the relation
4‐ Compute the percentage of error.
5‐ Repeat the previous four steps if :
‐ R1= 1KΩ, R3=1.8 KΩ , R4(unk) = 22KΩ (to be proved), R2 variable of the range
10KΩ.
‐ R1= 1.8 KΩ, R3=1 KΩ , R4(unk) = 6.8KΩ (to be proved), R2 variable of the
range 10KΩ.
Runk.
R1(KΩ) R3(KΩ) Runk.(KΩ) Rvar.(KΩ) % Error
measured
1 1 10
1 1.8 22
1.8 1 6.8
Table (1.3)
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6‐
R1
0.22 uf Rvar
10V
A V B
R4(unk)
1 uf R3
10mH
Figure (1.5)
‐ Repeat steps 1‐4 for the figure (1.5).
‐ Is there any difference between the result of figure (1.4) and
figure(1.5)?comment.
‐ Note:
o
o
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Prelab 2
Resistor circuits and their faults
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Part A: Resistors in series and parallel:
I. For the circuit in fi gure (2‐3):
1. Compute the equivalent resistance (kΩ)
2. Compute the current (ma) from Ohms Law.
3. Tabulate your results in table (2.1P).
2
4
6
8
10
Table (2.1P)
II. Repeat steps 1, 2, 3 of fi gure (2‐3) for the circuit in Figure (2‐4):
2
4
6
8
10
Table (2.2P)
Part B: Faults in electrical circuits:
I. For the circuit in fi gure (2‐8):
1. Compute VAO, VBO, VCO.
2. With R1 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
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3. With R2 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
4. With R3 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
5. With R1 is only opened , repeat step (1).
6. With R2 is only opened , repeat step (1).
7. With R3 is only opened , repeat step (1).
8. Tabulate your results in the ʺCalcʺ columns of table (2‐2).
1. Compute VA, VB, and VC with respect to ground.
2. With R1 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
3. With R2 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
4. With R3 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
5. With R1 is only opened , repeat step (1).
6. With R2 is only opened , repeat step (1).
7. With R3 is only opened , repeat step (1).
8. Tabulate your results in the ʺCalcʺ columns of table (2‐3).
1. Compute I, I1, I12, I2, I3.
2. With R1 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
3. With R2 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
4. With R3 is only shorted , repeat step (1).
5. With R1 is only opened , repeat step (1).
6. With R2 is only opened , repeat step (1).
7. With R3 is only opened , repeat step (1).
8. Tabulate your results in the ʺCalcʺ columns of table (2‐4).
24
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Experiment 2
Resistor circuits and their faults
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Objectives:
• This experiment aims to describe the different circuits of resistors which
are series, parallel and series‐parallel.
• Being familiar of these circuits’ faults as shorts and opens and how to
detect these faults.
Part A: Resistors in series and parallel:
Theoretical background:
1. Series resistors:
Req=R1+R2+……. +Rn
I = V/ Req
V= VR1 + VR2 + ……..+ VRn
R1 R2 Rn
.........
V Req
V
Figure (2‐1)
2. Parallel resistors :
1/ Req= 1/ R1+ 1/ R2+……. + 1/ Rn
V = I* Req
I = I R1 + I R2 + ……. + I Rn
V
R1 R2 ......... Rn V Req
Figure (2‐2)
25
Experimental work:
I.
1) Connect the circuit shown in figure (2‐3)
2) Increase the applied voltage in 2 volts steps from 0 V up to 10V
3) At each step measure the current flowing in the resistors, at each point
calculate the value of the resistors R= V/ I and fill table (2‐1).
4) Plot a graph of V against I
5) Simulate the circuit using OrCAD.
6) Comment on your results
A
R1 0.33k Ohm
V
2 - 20 V dc variable
R2 1k Ohm
Figure (2‐3)
II. Repeat the steps of part I for the circuit of figure (2‐4)
V
R2 1k Ohm R1 0.33k Ohm
2 - 20 V dc variable
Figure (2‐4)
V (volt) I (mA) Rmeas Rcalc = V/I
Table (2‐1)
26
Part B: Faults, shorts and opens in series, parallel and parallel‐series
circuits:
Theoretical background:
1. Open circuits :
R1 R1 A
B
Vs Vs
R2 R2
a: before opening the circuit b: after opening the circuit
Figure (2‐5)
Before opening the circuit in figure (2‐5a), the current passing in the circuit is:
When a cut is made in the circuit as shown in figure (2‐5b), the resistance between
the terminals of the cut approaches to infinity, then the value of the
current passing through the circuit is:
Taking Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the circuit:
VAB – Vs = 0 VAB = Vs
2. Short Circuits:
Vs R
Vs R
a: before making a short b: after making a short
Figure (2‐6)
Before adding a short circuit across the resistor in the circuit of figure (2‐6a), the
current passing in the circuit is
When we add the short circuit as shown in figure (2‐6b), the resistance of this short is
zero and then the equivalent resistance of the circuit is
27
Then the value of the current passing through the circuit is
The infinite current value may cause the power supply to break down, so in order to
prevent this, an interior resistor must be added in series with the power supply as
shown in figure (2‐7). This will limit the current so as the power supply not to break
down if there is a sudden short circuit across it.
Rin
Vs R
Figure (2‐7)
Experimental work:
I.
1) For the circuit in figure (2‐8), calculate the nominal values for the voltage VA,
VB, VC, and record them in table (2‐3). All voltages are with respect to
ground.
R1 2.2k Ohm
B
12 V
R2 1k Ohm
A
R3 0.33k Ohm
O V
Figure (2‐8)
2) Construct the circuit and verify your calculations in step (1).
3) Consider now a shorted R1. Calculate the resulting voltages at A, B and C if
this were to occur. Enter the calculated values in the first column of table (2‐3)
under the heading “Fault Conditions”. Repeat this for each resistor in turn.
4) Consider now removing R1. Calculate the resulting voltages at A, B and C if
this were to occur. Enter the calculated values in the fourth column of table
(2‐3) under the heading “Fault Conditions”. Repeat this for each resistor in
turn.
5) Verify your calculations in steps (3) and (4) by connecting a piece of wire
across each resistor in turn, and then removing each resistor in turn. Measure
each fault condition and be sure to check its consistency with your calculated
values. Record all measured data in table (2‐3).
28
6) Simulate the circuit the circuit using OrCAD.
Short Resistors Open Resistors
Voltage Normal R1 S/C R2 S/C R3 S/C R1 O/C R1 O/C R1 O/C
Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc
VA
VB
VC
Table (2‐2)
II.
1) For the circuit in figure (2‐9), Calculate the nominal values for the currents I,
I1, I12, I2 and I3 and record them in table (2‐4).
Figure (2‐9)
2) Construct the circuit and verify your calculations in step (1).
3) Consider now a shorted R1. Calculate the resulting currents if this were to
occur. Enter the calculated values in the first column of table (2‐4) under the
heading “Shorted resistors “. Repeat this for each resistor in turn.
4) Consider now removing R1. Calculate the resulting currents if this were to
occur. Enter the calculated values in the first column of table (2‐4) under the
heading “Open resistors “. Repeat this for each resistor in turn.
5) Verify your calculations in steps (3) and (4) by connecting a piece of wire
across each resistor in turn, and then removing each resistor in turn. Measure
each fault condition and be sure to check its consistency with your calculated
values. Record all measured data in table (2‐ 4).
6) Simulate the circuit the circuit using OrCAD.
Short Resistors Open Resistors
Current Normal R1 S/C R2 S/C R3 S/C R1 O/C R1 O/C R1 O/C
Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc Meas Calc
I
I1
I12
I2
I3
Table (2‐3)
29
III.
1) For the circuit in figure (2‐10), calculate the nominal values for the voltage
VA, VB, VC, and record them in table (2‐5). All voltages are with respect to
ground.
R2 1k Ohm
R1 2.2k Ohm
A B C
R3 0.47k Ohm
R4 0.33k Ohm
12 V
Figure (2‐10)
2) Construct the circuit and verify your calculations in step (1).
3) Consider now a shorted R1. Calculate the resulting currents if this were to
occur. Enter the calculated values in the first column of table (2‐5) under the
heading “Shorted resistors “. Repeat this for each resistor in turn.
4) Consider now removing R1. Calculate the resulting currents if this were to
occur. Enter the calculated values in the first column of table (2‐4) under the
heading “Open resistors “. Repeat this for each resistor in turn.
5) Verify your calculations in steps (3) and (4) by connecting a piece of wire
across each resistor in turn, and then removing each resistor in turn. Measure
each fault condition and be sure to check its consistency with your calculated
values. Record all measured data in table (2‐ 5).
6) Simulate the circuit the circuit using OrCAD.
Table (2-4)
30
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Pre‐Lab 3
Oscilloscope
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1‐ For the circuit shown in fi gure (3.1):
CH1
DC Supply V
0V
Figure (3.1)
Sketch the expected oscilloscope output for the following cases:
Figure Scale of ch1 in Voltage power supply
volt/division
1.a 1 2
1.b 2 4
1.c 2 6
1.d 5 8
1.e 5 10
Table (3.1)
2‐ For the circuit shown in fi gure (3.2):
CH1
Function
Genertor V
0V
Figure (3.2)
Sketch the oscilloscope output for the following cases:
Figure Scale Amplitude of Frequency of
the function the function
generator (Vp‐ generator(Hz)
p)
2.a 5 msec/div. 10 50
2v/div.
2.b 5 msec/div. 20 100
5v/div.
2.c 5 msec/div. 14 70
5v/div.
Table (3.2)
31
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Experiment 3
Oscilloscope
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Objective:
In this experiment we shall study how to use the oscilloscope to make some
measurements in the lab.
Introduction:
We can use the oscilloscope to measure the frequency of a wave, the peak‐to‐peak
value, and the rms value of voltage, also to measure the phase between two waves.
Apparatus Required:
‐ Power supply unit.
‐ Function wave generator.
‐ Oscilloscope
Theory:
If a dc wave is appeared on the screen of osc. and ch1 5v/Division.
figure (3.1)
If two sinusoidal waves appeared on the screen, where the scale of ch1 is
5v/Div., and the scale of the ch2 is 3v/Div. and the time base = 5 msec/Div
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
32
‐
‐
‐ F(frequency) for each wave = 1/2.5m =400 Hz
‐ Each wave take for one period.
‐ Each division =360 / 2.5 =144o
‐ Phase shift = 0.5 × 144o = 72o
Figure (3.2)
Phase shift between the two waves:
If you put time base on XY mode, you will obtain a shape according to the
type of the circuit.
Figure (3.3)
Where
Experimental Procedure:
1‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3.4).
2‐ Switch the Power supply, OSC. And voltmeter.
3‐ Change the voltage supply in steps of 2V to 10V , take readings of voltage on
voltmeter and OSC. At each step, then compare between the two results.
33
CH1
DC Supply V
0V
Figure (3.4)
Figure Power Volt. # of OSC. Voltmeter % Error
Supply scale squares reading reading
(V)
A 2
B 4
C 6
D 8
E 10
Table (3.1)
4‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3.5)
5‐ Put the sine wave generator on 10V p‐p, 50 HZ. Satsfy these results with that
obtained from the screen of the OSC. Use the scale of ch1 to be 2V/Div and
time base of 5 msec/Div.
6‐ Repeat procedure (5) with other voltage and frequency, as shown in table
(3.2)
CH1
Function
Genertor V
0V
Figure (3.5)
Figure Scale f(Hz) f(Hz) % Error Vrms ‐ Vrms by %Error
meas. voltmeter OSC.
reading
a 5msec/div 50
2v/div
b 5msec/div 100
5v/div
c 5msec/div 70
5v/div
Table (3.2)
34
7‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3.6)
Voltage CH1
1 uf
Current CH2
10V p‐p, 250Hz
1K
0V
0
Figure (3.6)
8‐ Set the sine wave generator to give a 10V Peak‐to‐Peak at 250 Hz.
9‐ Set the OSC. As follows:
a. CH1 : voltage to 2v/div.
b. CH2 : current channel to 5v/div.
Time base to 1 msec/div.
10‐ Zero both traces and then observe the two waveforms on the OSC. Carefully
draw the two waveforms, showing their positions with respect to each other,
and the value of voltage and current.
Find the phase shift between the current and the voltage in the circuit
in figure (3.6).
11‐ Set the time base at X‐Y mode and obtain the value of phase shift.
12‐ Replace the 1 uf, by 1KΩ, then repeat steps 10 and 11.
Voltage CH1
1K
Current CH2
10V p‐p, 250Hz
1K
0V
0
Figure (3.7)
35
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Prelab 4
Millman’s and Reciprocity Theorems
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a) Calculate :
‐ The voltage across the terminals A‐ B with the 1kΩ resistor connected.
‐ The current in the 1kΩ resistor.
b) Using the resistor values measured in step1; compute the millman
equivalent voltage and resistance EM and RM.
c) Connect the circuit as shown in figure (4‐7b). EM and RM are the values
computed n step 3.
d) Repeat step (b) for the circuit in figure (4‐7b).
II. For the circuit in fi gure (4‐8a) and fi gure (4‐8b):
a) Calculate the currents I1, I2 and I3 flowing as shown in the figure.
b) Now connect the power supply in series with the 1.8kΩ resistor and calculate
the current I. See the figure (4‐8b), and note the polarity of the relocated
power source.
c) In a similar way, relocate the power supply so that it will be in series with the
2.2kΩ and the 470Ω resistance and again calculate the current I.
36
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Experiment 4
Resistor Networks, Millman’s and Reciprocity Theorems
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Objectives:
• To investigate what happens when resistor are interconnected in a circuit.
• To investigate the effect of more than one voltage source in a network.
(superposition)
• To satisfy KVL and KCL for a resistive circuit.
Theoretical Background:
The student has to study the solution of the network from any book for electric
circuit using Kirchhoff’s law (KCL and KVL) or superposition theorem.
Experimental Procedure:
I.
1) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure(4‐1)
0 - 20 Vdc variable
R3 2.2k Ohm
2) Adjust the output voltage from power supply unit (PSU) to be 20 volts.
3) Using 0 – 10 V voltmeter, measure the voltage across each resistor (Note
the polarity of each voltage), then tabulate your results in table (4‐1).
Table (4‐1)
37
4) Measure the current in each component using the multi‐meter then
tabulate your results in table (4‐1).
5) From the measured values of current and voltage in each branch, calculate
using ohms law the value of the resistance in each leg of the network, and
copy the results in table (4‐1)
6) Solve the circuit using node voltage method and mesh current method,
and compare the results.
7) Simulate the circuit using OrCAD.
II.
1) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure (4‐2).
R2 1k Ohm
R3 2.2k Ohm R5 0.47k Ohm
20V 15V
Figure (4‐2)
2) Switch on the PSU, measure the current in each branch of the network,
this will give the currents in R1, R2, R3 and R5 respectively due to the two
sources. Note both the magnitude and polarity of each current and
Table (4‐2)
3) Now disconnect the 15 V source and link the resistors R3 and R5 as shown
in the circuit in figure (4‐3).
38
R1 1.8k Ohm R4 0.33k Ohm
R2 1k Ohm
R3 2.2k Ohm R5 0.47k Ohm
20V
Figure (4‐3)
4) Measure and tabulate the magnitude and polarity of the currents I1’, I2’,
I3’, I4’ and I5’.
5) Remove the link between R3 and R4 and replace the 15 v source
connections they were initially.
6) Disconnect the 20V source and link R2 and R3 as shown in figure (4‐4).
Measure the branch currents I1”, I2”, I3”, I4” and I5” as before.
7) Calculate using Kirchhoff’s Maxwell’s (mesh) current method the current
in total network shown in figure (4‐2).
8) Simulate the circuit using OrCAD.
R2 1k Ohm
R3 2.2k Ohm R5 0.47k Ohm
15V
Figure (4‐4)
Part B: Millman’s Theorem and the Reciprocity Theorem
Objectives:
After completing this experiment, you should be able to:
• Verify experimentally Millman’s theorem for parallel‐ connected voltage
sources.
39
Theoretical Background:
a) Millman’s Theorem :
Figure (4‐5a) Figure (4‐5b)
If we have a circuit like this shown in figure (4‐5a), then Millman’s Theorem
provide us with an analytical tool that allows us to replace the parallel sources by
one single equivalent source in series with a single equivalent resistance.
Millman’s Theorem is applicable to circuits of the general form illustrated in
figure (4‐5a). With respect to the terminals A‐B in this figure, the Millman
equivalent circuit is shown in figure (4‐5b), where RM is the parallel equivalent
resistance of R1, R2, … Rn; can be computed by the relation:
1 1
RM = =
1 1 1 GM
+ + ......... +
R1 R2 Rn
and
⎛E E E ⎞
E M = ⎜⎜ 1 ± 2 ± .......... ± n ⎟⎟ * RM
⎝ R1 R2 Rn ⎠
⎛ E1 E 2 E ⎞
⎜⎜ ± ± ..... ± n ⎟⎟
or E M = ⎝ 1
R R2 Rn ⎠
GM
We use then (+) sign in front of E if it has the polarity of one of those shown in
figure (4‐5a), and the sign (‐) if it has the opposite polarity.
b) The Reciprocity Theorem :
The reciprocity theorem states that when a voltage source is moved to another
location in a DC circuit, the current where it was originally located will be the
same as the current that was originally in the location to which it was moved.
This theorem is only applicable to circuits which contain a single voltage source.
Also, when the voltage source is moved to a new location, it must be placed with
a polarity that produces current in the same direction as the current that was
originally flowing in that location.
Figure (4‐6) illustrates the reciprocity theorem. This figure shows that when the
20 V source is moved from the branch A‐ B to the branch C‐ D, the 0.1 A current
that was flowing in C‐ D then flows in A‐ B. Note in figure (4‐6b) that the polarity
40
of the located voltage source is such that it will produce current in the same
direction as the current originally in C‐ D of Figure (4‐6a).
Figure (4‐6a) Figure (4‐6b)
Experimental Procedure:
I.
e) After measuring the actual resistance values of resistors used, connect the
circuit shown in figure (4‐7a), E1 and E2 are power supplies that has been
set to 5V and 10V before being connected in the circuit.
Figure (4‐7a) Figure (4‐7b)
f) Measure and record the following:
‐ The voltage across the terminals A‐ B with the 1kΩ resistor connected.
‐ The current in the 1kΩ resistor.
g) Using the resistor values measured in step1; compute the millman
equivalent voltage and resistance EM and RM.
h) Connect the circuit as shown in figure (4‐7b). EM and RM are the values
computed n step 3.
i) Repeat step (b) for the circuit in figure (4‐7b).
j) Simulate the circuit using OrCAD.
II.
41
1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure (4‐8a).
Figure (4‐8a) Figure (4‐8b)
2) Measure and record the currents I1, I2 and I3 flowing as shown in the figure.
3) Now connect the power supply in series with the 1.8kΩ resistor and measure
the current I. See the figure (4‐8b), and note the polarity of the relocated
power source.
4) In a similar way, relocate the power supply so that it will be in series with the
2.2kΩ and the 470Ω resistance and again measure the current I.
42
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Pre‐lab 5
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Part A: solution of resistive network by:
1‐ Thevenin theorem:
• For the circuit shown in figure (5.1), calculate the current in the 470Ω resistor.
0.33K X
10V 2.2K
0.47K
1K Y
Figure (5.1)
• Remove the 470 Ω resistor from the circuit, and calculate the voltage between
terminals X,Y (this will give a value of the thevenin voltage ,E,)
0.33K
X
2.2K
Y
1K
Figure (5.2)
• Remove voltage source and short the points together(as shown in figure(5.2)
then calculate the resistance of the circuit between them and calculating the
corresponding current, as shown in figure (5.3). Tabulate you results in
table (5.1).
0.33K X
A
2.2K Variable dc
1K Y
Figure (5.3)
43
V(v) I(mA) R(KΩ)
2
4
6
8
Table (5.1)
¾ Then where n is the number of readings.
• Now both the thevenin voltage ,E, and the thevenin resistance ,r, have been
calculated. Construct the thevenin circuit as shown in figure (5.4), and from
this circuit calculate the current in 470Ω resistor. Compare this value with that
obtained in step (1).
Rth
X
Rl=0.47K
E=Vth
Y
Figure (5.4)
2‐ Norton’s theorem:
• For the circuit in figure (5.5), calculate the voltage across the 4.7K Ω resistor.
2.2K X 1K
10V 5V
0.33K
Y
Figure (5.5)
• If the 4.7K Ω resistance in figure (5.5) is replaced by short circuit to obtain the
circuit in figure (5.6), calculate the current passing through this short circuit,
Isc. ; this will be the Norton’s current IN.
44
2.2K X 1K
10V A 5V
Y
Figure (5.6)
• With the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits and inserting a voltage
source between the two points X,Y, with 2,4,6,8 volts, calculate the current
passing through this voltage source, tabulate your results in table (5.2).
• The equivalent Norton circuit between the points X,Y is shown in
figure (5.7).
Calculate the voltage across the 4.7 KΩ resistor and compare the
results with the obtained in step (1).
IN RN 4.7K
Figure (5.7)
Part B: Power in DC circuits:
I. For the circuit in figure (5.8), if E varied as shown in table (5.3), calculate I
(mA) , and P (watts) in each case.
E 100
Figure (5.8)
45
V I (mA) P (watt)
0
2
4
6
8
10
Table (5.3)
II. For the circuit in figure (5.9), calculate:
The current passing through
PT, PR1 and PR2.
Then prove that PRT= PR1 + PR2 .
100
E
220
Figure (5.9)
III. For the circuit shown in figure (5.10), calculate:
The current passing through the circuit.
PT, PR1 and PR2.
Then prove that PRT= PR1 + PR2 .
E 100 220
Figure (5.10)
46
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Experiment 5
A: Solution of a resistive network
B: Power in DC circuit
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Part A: The solution of a resistive network using:
‐ The’venin Theorem
‐ Norton Theorem
Objective:
To find a method of simplifying a network in order to obtain the current
flowing in one particular branch of the network.
Theory:
The’venin’s theorem states that: the current through a resistor R connected
across any two points X and Y of a network containing one or more sources of emf is
obtained by dividing the P.d between X and Y, with R disconnected by (R+r), where r
is the resistance of the network measured between the points X and Y with R
disconnected and sources of emf replaced by their internal resistance.
Experimental Procedure:
I. Solution of the network using The’venin’s theorem:
1‐ Connect the circuit shown in figure (5.1).
0.33K
10V 2.2K
0.47K
1K
Figure (5.1)
2‐ For the dc voltage equal to 10v, measure the current in the 470Ω resistor.
3‐ Remove the 470 Ω resistor from the circuit, and measure the voltage
between terminals X and Y (this will give a value for the the’venin
voltage, E).
4‐ Remove the source of the voltage and short the points together, this gives
the network in figure (5.2).
47
0.33K
X
2.2K
Y
1K
Figure (5.2)
5‐ The resistance of this network may be found by connecting a voltage to
points X,Y and measuring the total current as shown in figure (5.2).
Measure the current for voltages of 2,4,6 and 8 Volts and tabulate your
results in table(5.1), then calculate the resistance using Ohm’s law and
take the average of r.
0.33K X
A
2.2K Variable dc
1K Y
Figure (5.3)
Rl=0.47K
E=Vth
Y
Figure(5.4)
48
From figure (5.4) the required current I can be easily found by dividing
the emf(E) by the total resistance (R+r).
Where R= Resistance of required branch (470Ω).
7‐ The the’venin resistance can also be determined by using the digital
multimeter directly as an ohmmeter between the points X and Y, with the
load resistance is being removed and the power supply is deactivated
(voltage source is replaced by short circuit and current source is replaced
by open circuit), as shown in figure (5.4).
Figure(5.5)
8‐ Repeat step 6 using the value of r obtained in step 7, and calculate the
current passes through the 470Ω resistor.
Compare this value with the current measured initially in the
470Ω resistor.
Satisfy your experiment results theoretically.
II. Solution of the network using Norton’s theorem:
1‐ Remove the resistance R3 (0.33KΩ) in figure (5.6) and make shunt instead
of it.
2.2K X 1K
10V 5V
0.33K
Y
Figure (5.6)
49
2‐ Measure the current flowing through the branch XY, this current is called
the Norton’s current (IN).
2.2K X 1K
10V A 5V
Y
Figure (5.7)
3‐ Remove e1 and E2 and make short instead of them then remove the short
between X and Y as shown in figure (5.8), and measure the The’venin’s
resistance (Rth) between the points X and Y. This is also called Norton’s
resistance.
Figure (5.8)
4‐ Plot the equivalent circuit as shown in figure (5.9), then measure the
voltage across the 4.7KΩ resistor and the current passing through it.
X
A
E(variable) 4.7K
RN
Y
Figure(5.9)
50
Part B: Power in Dc Circuits:
Objective:
To investigate the concepts of electrical dc, power transfer, and the
power dissipated at dc by various components.
Important Definitions:
Work: the force which is needed to move charge through a
circuit (Joule).
Volt: the potential difference between two points that exist
when it takes one joule of work to move one coloumb of
charge from one point to another.
Power: the rate of doing work.
The power is measured by wattmeter, where :
Reading of wattmeter(watts) = deflection * scale of current(A) * scale of volts (v).
Experimental Procedures:
1‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (5.10).
A
variable dc V 0.1K
51
Figure (5.10)
2‐ Switch on the power supply and take measurements of current, power
at voltage settings of 0,2,4,6,8 and 10volts, tabulate your results in
table (5.2), and calculate and satisfy the readings of
wattmeter.
Vsupply ImA Vvolt Pwatt Pcalc. %
Error
0
2
4
6
8
10
Table (5.10)
3‐ Draw a graph of voltage against power and current against power.
4‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (5.10). Measure the power
dissipated by R1 and R2, then measure the total power PT and prove
that.
PT = PR1 + PR2
V
0.1K
10V
0.22K
Figure (5.10)
5‐ Repeat step 4 for the circuit shown in figure (5.11).
A
V
V A
10V V A
0.1K 0.22K
52
Figure (5.11)
53
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Prelab 6
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A: Electromotive Force (emf) and internal resistance of voltage source, and
maximum power transfer:
For the circuit in figure (6‐1), if RL varies then I‐1 will also vary according to the
relation:
Where Rin s the internal resistance of the voltage supply in this circuit, and it could
be considered, in general, as the thevenin equivalent resistance of the circuit.
Depending on the last note, obtain a similar relation I‐1 and RL for the circuit in
figure (6‐2)
‐ Discuss how do you compute the values of the electromotive force (emf) and
internal resistance of the voltage supply (Rin) for the circuit in figure (6‐2)?
B: Star/ Data Conversion:
1. For the circuit in figure (6‐3), find RAB, RBC, and RCA using Y/ Δ
transformation.
2. Repeat step (1) for the circuit in figure (6‐4).
54
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Experiment 6
A: Electromotive Force (emf) and internal resistance of voltage source
B: Maximum power transfer
C: Star/ Data Conversion
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Part A: Electromotive Force (emf) and internal resistance of voltage source:
A
RL
Figure (6‐1)
E = I * (Rin+R)
If R varies then the relation of I ‐1 and R is a straight line with slope equal to
1/E and Y‐ intercept of r/E, as shown in figure (6‐2)
Figure (6‐2)
55
Part B: Maximum Power transfer:
P = I V = I2 R = V2 / R
If R = 0 P = 0
If R = ∞ P = 0
Maximum power transfer at dP/dR = 0
(R+ Rin) 2 = 2 R (R + Rin)
R= Rin
Pmax = E2R / (R+R) 2 = E2 / 4R
Efficiency = (Pload/Ptotal ) * 100 = I2 R * 100/ (I2(R+Rin))
Figure (6‐3)
Experimental Procedure:
a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure (6‐4).
56
0.33k Ohm 1k Ohm A
A
B
Rin
Load
2.2k Ohm
10V
1k Ohm
Figure (6‐4)
b) Change the load resistance and measure the current (I) and power PL and
record them in table (1). Plot I‐1 as a function of R then deduce r and E.
R I I‐1 P Pcalc=I2R
c) Plot PL against Rload and deduce the value of R at which the power is
maximum.
d) Calculate the efficiency at each point.
e) Simulate the circuit using OrCAD.
Part C: Star / Delta Conversion:
Figure (6‐5) Figure (6‐6)
57
Δ Y
R1 = (Rb Rc) / (Ra+Rb+Rc)
R2 = (Ra Rc) / (Ra+Rb+Rc)
R3 = (Ra Rb) / (Ra+Rb+Rc)
Y Δ
Ra = (R1R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3) / R1
Rb= (R1R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3) / R2
Rc = (R1R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3) / R3
Experimental Procedure:
a) Connect the circuit as shown at figure (6‐7)
R4 0.33k Ohm
C B
R6 0.47k Ohm R5 1.8k Ohm
R2 1k Ohm
Figure (6‐7)
b) Measure RAB, RBC, RCA directly by ohmmeter
c) Measure RAB, RBC, RCA using dc volt and measuring the total current.
d) Using Y/Δ transformation to satisfy your experimental result theoretically.
e) Simulate the circuit using OrCAD.
58
f) Repeat steps a, b, c, d, f for figure (6‐8).
R4 0.33 kOhm
R3 0.22k Ohm
R1 1k Ohm
R9 0.1k Ohm
R7 2.2 k Ohm
R8 0.33k Ohm
C B
R6 0.47k Ohm R5 1.8k Ohm
R2 1k Ohm
Figure (6‐8)
59
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Experiment 7
RMS value of an AC Waveform
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Objective :
‐ To know the concept of rms value.
‐ To measure rms values for different waveforms.
‐ To calculate the other important relations such as: form factor and peak
factor.
Theory:
There are two types of power supplies:
The rms value is the effective value of an ac voltage or current. Given an equivalent
resistive load R, and equivalent time period T, the rms value of an ac source delivers
the same energy to R as does a dc source of the same value. Then, the effect of the
two sources is identical from a point view of energy. This has led to term effective
value being used interchangeably with rms value.
60
100v R
R 100 vrms
Figure (7.2)
Irms
Vrms =
Experimental Procedure:
I.
1‐ Connect the circuit as shown in figure (7‐3), with ch2 time base on a dot
scale.
Ch1
10V
Ch2
Rvar
ground
Figure(7.3)
2‐ Draw the direct voltage (appeared on ch1) using oscilloscope.
3‐ Vary the potentiometer and notice the movement of the dot on Ch2 while
varying, then draw the waveform.
Does it ever cross the zero voltage axes?
II. 1‐ connect the circuit as shown in figure (7.4).
61
Ch1 Ch2
switch
5V 2
1Khz
1
LAMP
ground
Figure (7.4)
2‐ switch link to the left. The lamp should be one. Notice the intensity of the
lamp.
3‐ Switch the link to the right and adjust the amplitude of the function
generator until the intensity is nearly the same as before.
4‐ The value of the output rms value then should equal to 5V. From the
oscilloscope, determine Vpeak.
5‐ Obtain the peak factor= .
6‐ Repeat steps 1,2,3,4,5 for other as waveforms such as square and
triangular waves.
7‐ Do all calculations and compare the results.
62
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Experiment 8
Capacitors in Series and parallel
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Objectives:
• To explore the idea of the capacitance of a component.
• To measure the value of the capacitance using DC supply.
• To investigate what happens when capacitors are connected in series and in
parallel.
Theoretical Background:
The capacitor consists of two metal plates, separated by an insulating layer. The
insulator may be air, or any other insulating material with suitable characteristics.
The capacitance of a capacitor is determined by three factors:
The area (A) of the plates.
The distance (d) between the plates
The dielectric constant (K) which depends on the type of the insulating
material between the plates.
Figure (8‐1)
The mathematical expression for the capacitance as a function of the three
factors is given by,
The charge that accumulates in the capacitor causes a potential difference (voltage)
between the plates. The mutual relationship between the charge in a
capacitor of a given capacitance is given by,
Note: Unit of C is Farad ʺFʺ. The Farad is too large unit and it is therefore we use
sub‐units such as the micro‐farad (μf) = 10– 6 , nano Farad (nF) =10– 9 and pico Farad
ـ
(pf) = 10 12
63
Behavior of the capacitance in DC circuits:
Charging Process:
Figure (8‐2a)
Figure (8‐2b)
After the switch ʺSʺ in figure (8‐2a) is closed, the charging process begins and voltage
across the capacitor rises gradually it reaches its maximum value (Vs) as shown in
Figure (8‐2b). The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor is
Vc = Vs [ 1‐ e – t/RC ]
RC is called the time constant ( τ ) of the circuit, that τ = RC
so time constant is the time at which the value of Vc = 0.63 Vs or 63% of Vs .
The current will flow in the circuit as long as the capacitor is not completely charged.
This current will be maximum at the instant the switch is closed and decreases
exponentially as the charging continues.
64
Figure (8‐3)
Connection of Capacitors:
I. Parallel Connection:
The total charge QT will divide into Q1 and Q2
QT = Q1 + Q2
Since C = Q / V
E
C1 C2
So ….. QT = ECT, Q1 = EC1, Q2 = EC2
So ….. ECT = EC1 + EC2 Figure (8‐4)
CT = C1 + C2
II. Series Connection:
E = Vc1 + Vc2 C1
E
But E = Q/CT, Vc1 = Q1 / C1 , Vc2 = Q2 / C2
C2
Q / CT = Q1 / C1 + Q2 / C2
1 / CT = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 Figure (8‐5)
65
Experimental Procedure:
I.
a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure (8‐6).
Figure (8‐6)
b) Switch the toggle switch forward, and raise the output of the variable Dc
supply until a reading of 10V is obtained in the digital multi‐meter. Then
switch the toggle switch back, and check that the voltmeter returns to zero,
then short C until a zero indication is obtained on the multi‐meter.
c) At a conventional time switch the toggle switch forward, take reading of the
current on turning the switch, record the reading in the table (8‐1).
d) Switch the toggle back and temporarily short circuit C to restore the original
starting condition, and then follow the same procedure as before but taking
readings of the voltage across the capacitor. From these results on the same
graph paper, plot graph of voltage and current against time.
e) Simulate the circuit using OrCAD.
Let us now calculate the charge present on the capacitor at any time . The current is a
measure of the rate of flow of charge
I = Q / t i.e. Q = I * t (coulombs )
Thus Q is given by the area under the current curve. To estimate the area under the
curve, count the squares in the graph under the curve, multiply it by the time scale
curve and the current scale, and then record the result in your table. Notice that the
charge accumulates on the capacitor, so you should add every charge to the
following one. Then draw a graph of the charge again with time on the same paper.
Plot a graph of Q against V. It should be found that the charge on C is directly
proportional to the voltage across it, with a constant of proportionally equal the
capacitance of the capacitor, C. So measure the slope of the Q‐V graph to find C.
66
Time I ( μA ) V (volt) No. of squares Q
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
Table (8‐1)
II.
1. Capacitors in series:
a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure (8‐7).
Figure (8‐7)
67
b) Repeat previous steps, plot a graph of current against time, and count
squares under the graph, and calculate the charge.
c) Plot a graph of Q against V and compute the slope to find CT, then
find a relation between C total, C1, and C2 for the series connection.
d) Simulate the circuit using Or‐CAD.
2. Capacitors in parallel:
Repeat steps a, b, c, and d for the figure (8‐8)
Figure (8‐8)
68
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Experiment 9
Time constant and inductance
ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Objective :
• To investigate the factors determining the charge and discharge time for a
capacitive and inductive circuits.
• To explore the idea of the inductance of a component.
Theory:
‐ The relationships of voltage and current of the capacitor as follows:
Figure (9.1)
• Charging Process:
• Discharging Process:
‐ The relationships of voltage and current and current of the inductor are as
follows:
Figure (9.2)
69
• Charging Process:
iL
• Discharging Process:
iL
5.0V
5.0V
0V
0V
-5.0V
-5.0V 0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms V(L1:2)
V(C1:2) Time
Time
5.0V 5.0mA
0V 0A
-5.0V -5.0mA
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms 0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms
V(C2:2,R1:2) Time
-I(L1)
Time
10mA
10V
0A 0V
-10mA
0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms
-10V
-I(C2) 0s 0.5ms 1.0ms 1.5ms 2.0ms
Time V(L1:2,R1:2)
Time
Figure (9.3) Figure (9.4)
Experimental Procedure:
I. 1‐ connect the circuit as shown in figure (9.5).
70
A
10K
10V
Ch1 voltage
100u
Ch2 current
0.1K
Figure (9.5)
2. Connect the oscilloscope settings as follows:
• Time base: 0.5 sec/div.
• Ch1: 5v/div.
• Ch2: 50mv/div.
3. Draw the charge and discharge waveforms of ch1 and ch2.
II.
1‐ connect the circuit as shown in figure (9.6).
10K
Ch1 voltage
100u
Ch2 current
0.1K
0
Figure (9.6)
2‐ Set the function generator to give a square wave of frequency=
7Hz and a peak to peak voltage 0f 10 volt.
3‐ Set the oscilloscope setting as follows:
• Time base: 20msec/div.
• Ch1: 2v/div.
• Ch2: 50mv/div.
4‐ For clear waveforms press the dc button of the oscilloscope.
5‐ Draw the charge and discharge waveforms of ch1 and ch2.
6‐ What is the period of the waveforms?
7‐ Measure the time constant from the graph.
71
8‐ Calculate the time constant theoretically, and then compare the
results.
III.
1‐ set up the circuit as shown in figure (9.7). Then 33Ω resistor is
to limit the maximum current reached. Then 10Ω resistor is to
display the current waveform on the oscilloscope.
0.033k
Ch1
10mH
Ch2
0.01K
common
Figure (9.7)
2‐ Adjust the wave generator to give 10 V p‐p square wave at
250Hz.
Set the OSC as follows:
Time base: 0.5msec/div.
Ch1: 2v/div.
Ch2: 0.2v/div.
3‐ Take readings from the displayed current waveform and record
them in table (9.1). Plot the current waveform on a graph paper as
large as you can.
4‐ Repeat step (3) for the voltage waveform.
5‐ Draw tangent to the current curve as its origin and calculate the
slope of the curve at this point.
6‐ Repeat step (5) to all points and record the corresponding slope
in table(9.2).
Induced e.m.f. = Rate of change of current
We call the constant K the inductance of the coil L.
7‐ Plot a graph of voltage against rate of change of current and
measure the slope to find L.
72
Time (usec) Current (mA) Voltage (v)
Table (9.1)
Time (usec) Current (mA) Voltage (v)
Table (9.2)
73
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Experiment 10
A: Pulse Response of RL and RC
B: Resistive, Inductive, and capacitive at AC circuits
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Part A: Pulse Response of RL and RC
Objective :
• To investigate the factors determining the time constant for RC, RL circuits.
• To investigate the pulse response of RL, RC circuits.
Theoretical Background :
The complete response of pulse signal flowing in RL, RC, circuit is composed of the
natural and forced response for the circuit at the same time.
There are three factors that affected the pulse response waveform:
1. Components of the circuit:
τ= RC in RC circuits
τ= L/R in RL circuits
For example : reducing R in RC circuit will reduce τ so the response will reach
the steady state value in faster time, and increasing R will make the response to
have a ramp form
2. Time period = 1/ f
The variation of frequency also affects the waveform of the pulse response.
For example : reducing frequency will expand the waveform and vice‐versa.
3. Type of the input signal will affect the pulse response. It may be sine wave,
square wave, triangular wave … etc.
Experimental procedure:
I. Pulse response as a function of frequency:
1. Set up the circuit as shown in figure (10‐1). Set the output of the generator to 10
Vp‐p square wave with the suitable frequency for the steady state response.
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Figure (10‐1)
2. Connect the channels of the oscilloscope to monitor the current and voltage as
in figure (10‐1).
3. Draw the voltage and current waveforms. Determine the magnitude and time
period.
4. Change the frequency of the generator so that the response did not reach the
steady state. After that continue changing the frequency until you have a ramp
function response. Draw the voltage and current waveform, determine their
magnitude and time period.
5. Simulate the circuit using Or‐CAD.
‐ Did the change of the frequency affect the waveform of the circuit ?
Explain ?
6. Repeat the above steps for figure (10‐2), and answer the question above
Figure (10‐2)
II. Time constant with respect to the change of R, C, and L values:
1. Set up the circuit as shown in figure (10‐1), set the output of the generator to 10
Vp‐p square wave frequency at which you have obtained the steady state
response.
2. Connect the channels of the oscilloscope to monitor the voltage and circuit.
3. Replace the 1 kΩ resistor by 220 Ω resistor. Draw the voltage waveform.
4. Replace the 1 kΩ resistor by 10 kΩ resistor. Draw the voltage waveform.
5. Replace the 1 kΩ resistor by 220 kΩ resistor. Draw the voltage waveform.
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‐ What is the effect of changing R on the response of the circuit of figure
(10‐1)?
6. Replace the 1 µF by 100 µF in figure (10‐1).
‐ What is the effect of changing C on the response of the circuit of figure
(10‐1)?
7. Replace the 1 kΩ resistor by 220 Ω resistor in figure (10‐2). Draw the current
waveform.
8. Replace the 1 kΩ resistor by 10 kΩ resistor. Draw the current waveform.
‐ ‐ What is the effect of changing R on the response of the circuit of
figure (10‐2)?
9. Simulate the circuit using Or‐CAD
Part B: Resistive, Inductive, and capacitive at AC circuits
Objectives:
• To investigate ohmʹs law for a simple ac resistive, inductive, and
capacitive circuit.
• To investigate the effect of frequency on the impedance of a simple ac
resistive, inductive, and capacitive circuit.
Preliminary Exercise:
From the following electrical circuit in figure (10‐3) :
1. Calculate the current Ip at frequency 50 Hz.
Vp= 10 V, 50 Hz
10 mH
Figure (10‐3)
2. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor which have the capacitance (Xc) as
the inductive (XL) in the previous circuit at the frequency f = 50 Hz
3. Calculate the current and the voltage drop across a resistance R which equal to
the reactance XL at f= 50 Hz which connected in series with the inductor of the
previous circuit.
Experimental procedure:
1. Connect up the circuit as shown in figure (10‐4)
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A
V 0.1k Ohm
Figure (10‐4)
2. Vary the ac supply f= 1kHz from 1, 2, ….., 5 V, and record your result in table
(10‐1). Then plot a graph of I against V and calculate R using Ohmʹs law.
V(v) 1 2 3 4 5
I(mA)
R Ω
XL Ω
Xc Ω
Table (10‐1)
3. Set the generator frequency to 50 Hz with amplitude of 4 Vrms. Calculate the
resistance of the resistor at 50 Hz.
4. Repeat the reading for a frequency of 100 Hz, and then for 100 Hz increment to
1 kHz and tabulate your result in table (10‐2)
‐ How do the current, voltage, and resistance change with frequency.
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Table (10‐2)
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5. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (10‐5) with f= 4 kHz
V 10 mH
Figure (10‐5)
6. Adjust different voltage values and record the current in table (10‐1), then plot
a graph of I against V and calculate L where :
XL = Vrms / Irms = 2Π f *L
I rms = ( 1 / 2Π f *L ) * V
‐ Deduce the slope of the graph.
‐ What is the average value of impedance of the coil at 4 kHz?
Frequency (Hz) Voltage (Vrms) Current (mA) Resistance (ohms)
4
8
12
16
20
500
24
Table (10‐3)
7. Adjust the generator output of 1 Vrms sinewave for frequencies 4kHz, 8kHz, 12
kHz, ………. And 24 kHz.
‐ Copy the result in table (10‐3)
‐ Calculate the average impedance for each frequency.
‐ Plot a graph of impedance for each frequency.
‐ How does the impedance vary with frequency.
Important Note:
For an inductor : I = Imax sin ωt
Applied voltage V = ‐ L di/dt = (L Imax ω) cos ωt
At cos ωt = 1 Vmax = L Imax ω
Vmax/Imax = ω L = Z = X = 2Π f L X α f
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Thus the impedance (inductive reactance ) of an inductor is directly proportional
to the frequency.
8. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (10‐6)
Figure (10‐6)
9. Set the frequency of the function generator to 800 Hz, adjust the output of the
generator to give 1 Vrms as read on the meter then take the current reading for
this voltage.
10. Repeat this procedure for voltage 2, 3, 4, and 5 v
‐ Repeat your result in table (10‐1), and calculate the ratio of rms
voltage to rms current.
‐ Is there any relationship between rms voltage and rms current?
‐ What is the average value of the impedance?
‐ Thus we can say that the impedance of the capacitor is ……… ohmʹs
at frequency of 800 Hz.
‐ Calculate the impedance of pure capacitor at dc.
11. At frequency 50 Hz, take readings of current for voltages settings at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 6 V in rms values.
12. Do the same for frequencies 100, 200, 40, and 1600 Hz.
Important Note:
Input voltage V= Vmax sin ωt
i = C dv/dt = ( C Vmax ω ) cos ωt = ( C Vmax ω ) sin ( ωt + (Π/2))
Imax = C Vmax ω
Vmax/Imax = 1 / ω C = Vrms/Irms = Zc
Zc = 1/ (2Π f C ) Zc α 1/ f
Thus the impedance of the capacitor is inversely proportional to both the
frequency and the capacitance.
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Frequency (Hz) Voltage (Vrms) Current (mA) Resistance (ohms)
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Table (10‐4)
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Experiment 11
Damping in RLC circuits
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Objective :
To investigate the over, under, and critical damping in series and parallel
RLC circuits .
Theory :
VR
C L
R
Vs
OV
0
Figure (11‐1)
In the second‐order system with two energy‐ storage elements as in figure (11‐2), we
can have the following homogeneous equation :
which is satisfied when the roots of this equation are,
The character of the natural response is determined by the discriminant
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If the discriminant is positive, the response is over‐damped and
If the discriminant is negative, the response is oscillatory and it is called
under‐damped for which
If the discriminant is zero the response is critical damped and
Figure (11‐2)
Exercise :
Derive the condition of three types of damping for a parallel RLC circuit.
Experimental procedure :
I. Series RLC :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (11‐3).
2. Vary R for low values to get your under‐damped signal.
3. Draw the signal you get and answer the questions at the end of the
experiment.
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4. Change the frequency and explain what happens.
5. Now vary the resistor for mid values to get your critical damping signal
and repeat steps 3 and 4.
6. Vary R for high values to get your over‐damping signal, and then repeat
steps 3,4.
2.2 u F 10 mH
VR
3 Vpp, 50 Hz R
OV
0
Figure (11‐3)
II. Parallel RLC :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (11‐4).
VR
10 mH
3 Vpp, 50 Hz 2.2 u F R
OV
0
Figure (11‐4)
2. Vary R to get your under‐damping signal and repeat steps 3 and 4 from
part I.
3. Now vary R to get your critical damping signal. Repeat steps 3,4.
4. Vary R to get your over‐damping signal. Repeat steps 3,4 above.
Discussion:
1. Find the time period for the oscillating signal and the range of resistor
variation.
2. Find the maximum peak value for the signal.
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3. What happens when you increase or decrease R ?
4. Calculate the resonance frequency, damping coefficient and damping factor.
5. By calculation, draw V(t) for over‐damping parallel circuit, and under
damping series RLC circuit.
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