Electrical & Computer Engineering Technology

ELEX1105 – Circuit Analysis 1

Instructor: Maurice LeNoble

ELEX1105 Lecture Notes (2), © 2016 - 2017, M. LeNoble

 00-Introduction
Instructor: Maurice LeNoble
Office: SW02-360
Phone: (604)432-8785
Email: maurice_lenoble@bcit.ca
Office Hours: As posted
Course Outline: BCIT online – review for course specific information
Schedule: Refer to your timetable and the Schedule slide
Duration: 15 weeks, (excludes Winter Session reading break)
Weekly: 3 lecture blocks, 1 tutorial block, 2 lab blocks
• Blocks are 50 minutes duration
• Lecture rooms as assigned for the term
• Tutorial rooms as assigned for the term
• Laboratory room: SW01 – 3045
Contact:
• Use office hours or set up an appointment to have 1 on 1 contact time to address matters.
• Use email only from your @my.bcit.ca to notify of a:
• personal absence where marks may be affected (miss lab, test etc.).
• significant issue affecting the course (mistake in lecture notes, etc.).
Other email items or email not sourced from an @my.bcit.ca account will be rejected as spam.

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 Outline
Marks Distribution
Practical Labs (8) 15%
(Must pass)
Lab Test 15%
Theory Midterm / Quizzes / Assignments* 15% / 15% / 5%*
(Must pass)
Final Exam 40%
Total 100%

*Assignments are optional and may award up to 5% bonus.

Review BCIT Policy 5103-PR1 for the U grade and other important grading information.

Description
This course covers the methods for investigating the behavior of direct current (dc) circuits whose
circuit quantities (voltage, current) do not vary with time.

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 References
Required
• TEXT: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (6th Edition), Alexander / Sadiku
Optional
• WEB: McGraw Hill Connect web account (purchased with textbook)

Useful Web Links

Covers a wide range of electronics topics with problems and solutions.
• http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/

Online learning tool covering topics in dc circuits with problems and solutions.
• https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/technical/electronics-dc

Many solved dc circuit problems.

• http://www.solved-problems.com/topic/circuits/electrical-circuits-problems/resistive-circuits

Google the phrase ‘dc circuit problems with answers’ for more like these…

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 Web Tool
• The McGraw Hill Connect web based learning tool is an option for
doing textbook reading assignments and practice problems.
• Reading assignments and problems are scheduled.

• Refer to the ELEX1105 BCIT Course Outline for the session to obtain the
McGraw Hill Connect web address to setup an account.

Accounts must be setup:

• Using your @my.bcit.ca email address
• By the subscription deadline

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 Circuit Simulators
• A circuit simulator is an important tool for analysis / design of circuits.
• Some dc circuit simulation will be required.

Recommended circuit simulators:

Falstad Free (Web based)

Multisim Free (Web based)

CircuitLab $ (Web based)

MicroCap Free (Demo – installed)

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 Laboratory Sessions
• There are 8 x Labs to be completed.
• There is 1 x Lab Test at the end of term.
• Refer to the Schedule.

Laboratory Requirements:
• No food or drink permitted. (Worksafe BC)
• No cellular phones or other handheld devices permitted.
• Use of the lab workstation is permitted.
• A scientific calculator is permitted.
• Breadboards, wire, alligator clips and tools are required.
• Collaborating with others during a Lab session is not permitted.

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 Schedule*
WEEK SECTION: TOPIC ASSIGNMENT TEST LAB TUTORIAL

01 Basic Concepts 01 N/A N/A

02 Fundamental Laws 02 01 – Introduction to Measurement 01

03 Series Circuits 03 02 – Resistors and Ohm’s Law 02

04 Parallel Circuits 04 Quiz01 03 – Series Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 03

05 Y-Δ Transforms 05 04 – Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law 04

06 Circuit Elements 06 Quiz02 N/A N/A

07 Operational Amplifier 07 N/A 05

08 Series/Parallel Circuits 08 Quiz03 05 – Dependent Sources 06

09 Applications 09 06 – Series/Parallel Circuits 07

10 Thévenin’s Theorem 10 Midterm Exam 07 – Loaded Voltage Divider 08

Reading Break (Winter Session Only)

11 Maximum Power Transfer 11 N/A N/A

12 Superposition Principle 12 Quiz04 08 – Thévenin Equivalent Circuits 09

13 Source Transforms/Norton’s Theorem 13 Lab Test N/A 10

14 Nodal/Mesh Analysis 14 Quiz05 N/A 11

15 Final Exam

*Subject to change
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 01-Basic Concepts

Text: Ch 1.1 – Ch 1.6

• Introduction
• System of Units
• Charge and Current
• Voltage
• Power and Energy
• Circuit Elements

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 Voltage
• A voltage is the source of energy that moves an electric charge between
two points in space.
• A voltage, measured in volts (V), is the difference in electric potential
energy, measured in joules (J), between two points in space per unit
electric charge, measured in coulombs (C).
1 V = 1 J / 1 C = potential energy / charge = dE/dQ
• 1 C = 6.24 x 1018 electrons
• An ideal voltage source is a device that produces a defined voltage
(potential difference) across its terminals regardless of what is
connected to it.

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 Voltage
• For the ideal voltage source shown below, terminal a is marked (+) and
terminal b is marked (-). This indicates terminal a is at an electric
potential V volts higher than at terminal b.
(Alternatively, the electric potential at terminal b is lower than at terminal a)

• Note this is true.

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 Voltage
• In general, the voltage V produced by an ideal voltage source will be a
function of time t.
• Example: an electrical outlet provides a sinusoidal output voltage.
• An ideal voltage source that provides a constant output voltage V is
commonly referred to as a battery and is shown below.

(Can be shown without the polarity mark)

We will investigate circuits having constant voltages (and currents) only.

Circuits with voltages and currents that are
constant are known as direct current (dc) circuits.
The currents are always unidirectional.
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 Current
• A current is the rate of flow of electric charge across a surface.
• A current, measured in amperes (A), is the amount of electric charge,
measured in coulombs (C), moving across a surface per unit time (t).
• 1 C = 6.24 x 1018 electrons
• 1 C charge moving across a surface in 1 s corresponds to a current of 1
ampere (A).

1 A = 1 C / 1 s = charge / time = dQ/dt

• An ideal current source is a device that provides a defined current I to

anything that is attached to it.

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 Current
• For the ideal current source shown below, a current I is pushed out of
terminal a and pulled into terminal b.

• Note the following is true.

• In general, the current I produced by an ideal current source will be a

function of time t.
• We will investigate circuits having constant currents only.
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 Current
Conventional Current

• The direction of conventional current is the same as the direction of

positive charge flow. (The result of early work by Benjamin Franklin)

• A conventional current experiences a voltage drop if it loses energy as it

passes from the + polarity through to the – polarity terminals of a
device. Such a device is known as a load. A resistor is a load.

• A conventional current experiences a voltage rise if it gains energy as it

passes from the – polarity through to the + polarity terminals of a
device. Such a device is known as a source. An ideal battery is a source.

Circuits are analyzed using conventional current notation.

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 Power
• Power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by a circuit.
• Power P, measured in watts (W), is produced by an electric current,
measured in amperes (A), passing through a potential difference,
measured in volts (V).
1 W = 1 V x 1 A = voltage x current = 1 joule/sec

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 = � =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• One horsepower (hp) is approximately 746 watts.

• Power is a nonlinear circuit quantity derived from the product of

voltage x current. This will be demonstrated later…
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 Power
Power (Passive Sign) Convention
• A circuit branch dissipates power if a conventional
current through the branch loses energy. This happens
when the current experiences a voltage drop.
• For positive current and voltage – power is dissipated if
the conventional current enters the terminal whose
voltage polarity is + with respect to the exit terminal.
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼 > 0 W (Circuit A)
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 > 0 W (Circuit B)

• A circuit branch supplies power if a conventional

current through the branch gains energy. This happens
when the current experiences a voltage rise.
• For positive current and voltage – power is supplied if
the current leaves the terminal whose voltage polarity
is + with respect to the exit terminal.
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 � 𝐼𝐼 < 0 W (Circuit A)
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 < 0 W (Circuit B)
Power is normally expressed as a positive quantity and is
qualified as being SUPPLIED or DISSIPATED.
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 02-Fundamental Laws

Text: Ch 2.1 – Ch 2.4

• Introduction
• Ohm’s Law
• Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• Kirchhoff’s Laws

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 Resistance
• Suppose some material is connected to the terminals of an ideal
voltage source whose voltage is V volts.

• The electric potential at the top of the material is V volts above the
potential at the bottom if V is a positive voltage.
• For the given polarity and positive voltage V, the current I will be a
positive number with the direction indicated.
• The current I passes through the material back to the voltage source
since there is nowhere else for it to go!
• If the current I is always directly proportional to the voltage V then the
material is known as a resistor.

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 Resistance
• Since voltage and current are directly proportional, the proportionality
constant R is the resistance, measured in ohms (Ω).
• A plot of current versus voltage for different resistances.

• The accepted circuit symbol (schematic representation) of a resistor

with resistance R.

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 Resistance
• Real resistors cannot support unlimited power dissipation.
• Resistors come in various shapes and sizes to suit circuit requirements.
• Common formats include axial leaded and surface mount (SMT).
• The power rating specified for a resistor defines its maximum safe
power dissipation. The larger the resistor the greater its power rating.
• Exceeding the rated power increases the probability of failure of the
resistor (i.e. shortens the expected operating lifetime of the device).
• Standard power ratings include: 1⁄8 , 1⁄4 , 1⁄2 , 1 and 2 watts.

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 Ohm’s Law
• If the polarity of the voltage across a resistor and the direction of
current through it are as shown below (Direction\polarity are crucial).

• Then Ohm’s Law is

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼
• We deduce

𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼 =
𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅
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 Ohm’s Law
• Example: If V1 = 10 volts and R1 = 1kΩ what is the current I ?

V1 10V
I= = = 10 mA
R1 1kΩ

• Common prefixes for circuit quantities.

Value Prefix Symbol
10-12 pico p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro μ
10-3 milli m
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G

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 Ohm’s Law
• Example: If I = 12 A and R = 20Ω what is the voltage V in the circuit?

V = R � I = 20Ω � 12A = 240V

Remember:
• An ideal voltage source can supply any amount of current to a
resistance connected to its terminals – the amount depends on R.
Only the voltage is constrained to be V volts at the source.
• A small resistance leads to a large current and vice-versa.
• An ideal current source can supply any voltage to a resistance
connected to its terminals – the amount depends on R.
Only the current is constrained to be I amperes through the source.
• A small resistance leads to a small voltage and vice-versa.
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 Ohm’s Law
• Example: What is the power dissipated by the resistor R in the previous
circuit? What is the power supplied by the current source?
The power dissipated by the resistor R is
P = V � I = 240V � 12A = 2880W = 2.88kW
The power supplied by the current source is
P = R � I � I = R � I 2 = 20Ω � 12A 2 = 2.88kW
• Notice the power supplied = power dissipated
• This is more commonly stated as: SOURCE power = LOAD power
• Since energy is conserved the above statement is always TRUE
• Notice Ohm’s Law was used to replace V for the source power to give
an alternative power equation that is nonlinear. The alternative forms
are:

2 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑅𝑅
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 Circuit Concepts
• Gustav Kirchhoff developed two fundamental laws that allow a system
of interconnected elements (sources, resistors, etc.) to be analyzed.
• Such a system is referred to as a circuit or network.
Circuit Definitions
• A node connects the terminals of two or more branches together.
• A branch is a circuit path that spans two nodes.
• A loop contains the elements in a circuit path that starts and ends at a
node and encounters other nodes along the path only once.

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 Circuit Concepts
Double Subscript Notation
• Label the circuit nodes using lower case letters (a, b, c, …).
• Identify the direction of the conventional current along the circuit path.
• Use subscripts to define the voltage at node x with respect to node y.
• Example: Vxy is the voltage at node x with respect to node y.
Single Subscript Notation
• Designate one node as a common node to which all circuit voltages are
referenced to. The second subscript y is removed as it is known.
• A ground node (arbitrarily = 0 V) is an example of a reference node.
• Example: Va = 5 V is the voltage dropped from node a to ground.

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 Circuit Concepts
• Example: What are the voltages in the circuit below.

Voltage Value
Vab
Vcb
Vdc
Vde
Ve
Va

• How would you determine the voltages spanning non-adjacent nodes?

• What happens to the voltages if the direction of I is reversed?

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

The sum of the voltages around any loop

in a circuit must be zero.

Conservation of energy

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The sum of the currents at any node in a

circuit must be zero.

Conservation of charge

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Applying Kirchhoff’s Laws:
KVL:
• Identify the target circuit loop to be analyzed and show the ‘loop’
current I (clockwise / counter-clockwise) for the loop. Mark the voltage
across each circuit element in the loop (conventional notation). Follow
the current I along its path around the loop. At each circuit element
include its voltage in the summation. A voltage is positive if the current
I enters the terminal with + polarity, negative otherwise. Set the sum
of voltages equal to zero.
KCL:
• Identify the target circuit node to be analyzed. Mark all currents
entering and exiting the node. Include all currents at the node in the
summation. A current is positive if it enters the node; negative if it
exits the node. Set the sum of currents equal to zero.

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 03-Series Circuits

Text: Ch 2.5

• Series Resistors and Voltage Division

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 Series Circuits

Two circuit branches are connected in series if they have a single

node in common and no other branch is connected to this node.

Resistors in Series
• Consider the series circuit below, what is the voltage V?

By Ohm’s Law

𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑅𝑅1 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑅𝑅2 𝐼𝐼

• By KVL
𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉 = 0
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅1 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝐼𝐼
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 Series Circuits
• Consider the circuit below, clearly 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

• Notice, the same voltage V is obtained for the source current I in both
circuits provided 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

Two resistors 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 in series are

equivalent to a single resistor 𝑅𝑅 provided
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

• This can be extended to m resistors in series provided

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
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 Series Circuits
Voltage Sources in Series
• Two ideal voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel, however, if
they are connected in series as shown below – what is the voltage V?

By KVL
−𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉 = 0
From which
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2
• What is the voltage V if the polarity of the source V2 is reversed?

Two series connected ideal voltage sources 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2 are equivalent to
a single ideal voltage source V provided 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2

• This can be extended to m voltage sources in series provided

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
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 Series Circuits
Interchanging Series Connected Elements
• Consider the circuits below – are they equivalent? Why?

• By KVL
−𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0 = −𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑉𝑉2
• Notice the expressions are identical for both circuits. This is true
regardless of where the series elements are positioned in the loop.
• How would you simplify the circuit to just two elements?

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 Series Circuits
Voltage Division in a Series Circuit
• Consider the circuit below, how are the voltages divided between the
resistors R1 and R2?

By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2

since 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

• Therefore
𝑅𝑅1 �𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅2 �𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 = and 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2

• Resistors in series form a voltage divider with the voltage across each
resistor proportional to its value.
• The larger the resistance the larger the voltage.
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 Series Circuits
Power Distribution in a Series Circuit

• The source power supplied by the voltage source for the prior circuit
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼
• The load power dissipated by each series resistor
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼2 and 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼2
From which
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 2 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝐼𝐼 2
= 𝑅𝑅1 𝐼𝐼 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝐼𝐼 2 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
= 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿
• In general, power must be conserved in any circuit, that is

∑(Source Power) = ∑(Load Power)

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 Series Circuits
Summary
• Current in a series circuit is the same through each element.
• Resistors in series can be replaced by a single resistance equal to the
sum of the resistances.
• Voltage sources in series can be replaced by a single voltage source
equal to the sum of the voltages (taking into account polarities).
• Elements in series can be interchanged with each other without
affecting the current or the voltages dropped across each element.
• A voltage divider distributes the voltages across each resistor in
proportion to each resistance.
• Power dissipated by each resistor in a voltage divider scales in the same
manner as the voltages.

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 Series Circuits - Examples
• For the circuit below, calculate I, V1, V2, V3, P1, P2, P3
By KVL
𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 − 𝑉𝑉 = 0
By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼
Substituting
𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼 − 𝑉𝑉 = 0
From which
𝑉𝑉 36𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = = = 2𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 18Ω

𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 = 3Ω � 2𝐴𝐴 = 6𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 = 6Ω � 2𝐴𝐴 = 12𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼 = 9Ω � 2𝐴𝐴 = 18𝑉𝑉
And
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑉𝑉1 � 𝐼𝐼 = 6𝑉𝑉 � 2𝐴𝐴 = 12𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑉2 � 𝐼𝐼 = 12𝑉𝑉 � 2𝐴𝐴 = 24𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃3 = 𝑉𝑉3 � 𝐼𝐼 = 18𝑉𝑉 � 2𝐴𝐴 = 36𝑊𝑊

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 Series Circuits - Examples
• For the previous circuit what is the voltage Vac?
Method 1
By KVL
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉1 = 0
From which
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 = 6𝑉𝑉 + 12𝑉𝑉 = 18𝑉𝑉
Method 2
Method 2
Let 𝑅𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 = 9Ω

The circuit reduces to a voltage divider, from which

𝑅𝑅4 � 𝑉𝑉 9Ω � 36𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = = 18𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑅3 18Ω

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 Series Circuits - Examples
• Determine the voltage V2 for the circuit below.
By KVL
𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉 = 0
By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼
Substituting and rearranging
𝑉𝑉 36𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = = = 2A
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 18Ω
From which
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼 = 12Ω � 2𝐴𝐴 = 24𝑉𝑉

Notice KVL applies regardless of the resistor R3.

• Obtain the same result using the voltage divider rule.

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 Series Circuits - Examples
DC Voltage Sources
• Real dc voltage sources cannot provide unlimited current.
• The limitation results from the internal resistance of the source.
• A real dc voltage source can be modeled as shown below.
Rs I --> A 12V car battery with 50mΩ internal resistance is connected
to a load. What is the terminal voltage Vt if I = 0; I = 100A?
+ Vr -
By KVL
+ 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 + 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 0
+
Vs Vt Rearrange and using Ohm’s Law
- - 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 � 𝐼𝐼
Case I = 0
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 = 12𝑉𝑉 − 50𝑚𝑚Ω � 0𝐴𝐴 = 12𝑉𝑉
Case I = 100A
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 = 12𝑉𝑉 − 50𝑚𝑚Ω � 100𝐴𝐴 = 7𝑉𝑉

• The voltage regulation 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =

𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡,𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 −𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
� 100% =
12𝑉𝑉−7𝑉𝑉
7𝑉𝑉
� 100% = 71%

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 Series Circuits - Examples
Ammeter Loading Effect
• Real dc ammeters add series resistance to a circuit when inserted.
• Circuit operation is altered as a result.
This must be taken into account when attempting precision current
measurements.
• The voltage dropped across the ammeter is specified as the burden
voltage and this may affect low voltage, high current measurements.
A 1.5V NiCd battery pack powers a 1.5Ω load. A DMM
used to measure the current introduces 80mΩ resistance.
What is the observed current and resulting measurement
error?
From Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 1.5𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = = = 950𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 1.5Ω + 0.08Ω
The relative error
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 1𝐴𝐴 − 0.95𝐴𝐴
𝜀𝜀 = 100% � = 100% � = 5%
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 1𝐴𝐴

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 04-Parallel Circuits

Text: Ch 2.6

• Parallel Resistors and Current Division

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 Parallel Circuits

Two circuit branches are connected in parallel if they are

connected to the same pair of nodes.

Resistors in Parallel
• Consider the parallel circuit below, what is the current I?

The voltage across the resistors is V (Why?)

By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼1 = and 𝐼𝐼2 =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

• By KCL
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 = 0
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 1 1
𝐼𝐼 = + = + 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
ELEX1105 Lecture Notes (2)
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 Parallel Circuits
𝑉𝑉
• Consider the circuit below, clearly 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅

• Notice, the same current I is obtained for the source voltage V in both
1 1 1
circuits provided = +
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

Two resistors 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 in parallel are

equivalent to a single resistor 𝑅𝑅 provided
1 1 1 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑅𝑅2
= + 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅 =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

• This can be extended to m resistors in parallel provided

1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
ELEX1105 Lecture Notes (2)
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 Parallel Circuits
• The reciprocal of a resistance appears frequently in parallel resistance
circuits. The conductance is defined as the reciprocal of resistance
1
𝐺𝐺 =
𝑅𝑅
• The Siemen (S) is the unit of conductance and is equivalent to Ω-1.
• Ohm’s Law can be expressed using conductance G

𝐼𝐼
𝑉𝑉 =
𝐺𝐺
• We deduce

𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐺𝐺 � 𝑉𝑉 𝐺𝐺 =
𝑉𝑉
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 Parallel Circuits
• As an alternative, add conductances to combine resistors in parallel

𝐺𝐺 = 𝐺𝐺1 + 𝐺𝐺2

1
𝑅𝑅 =
𝐺𝐺

• Notice the following for the above circuit for positive G1 and G2
𝐺𝐺 > 𝐺𝐺1 and 𝐺𝐺 > 𝐺𝐺2
• From which
1 1 1 1
> and >
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅2
• Which yields
𝑅𝑅 < 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅 < 𝑅𝑅2
The equivalent resistance R of two resistors in parallel is always less than
the value of either of the two resistors.
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 Parallel Circuits
Current Sources in Parallel
• Two ideal current sources cannot be connected in series, however, if
they are connected in parallel as shown below – what is the current I?

By KCL
𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼 = 0
From which
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2
• What is the current I if the direction of the source I2 is reversed?
Two ideal current sources 𝐼𝐼1 and 𝐼𝐼2 connected in parallel are equivalent
to a single ideal current source I provided 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2

• This can be extended to m current sources in parallel provided

𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
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 Parallel Circuits
Interchanging Parallel Connected Elements
• Consider the circuits below – are they equivalent? Why?

• By KCL
𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2
• Notice the expressions are identical for both circuits. This is true
regardless of where the parallel elements are positioned.
• How would you simplify the circuit to just two elements?

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 Parallel Circuits
Current Division in a Parallel Circuit
• Consider the circuit below, “If I were an ampere, where would I go?”
By Ohm’s Law
𝐼𝐼
𝑉𝑉 =
𝐺𝐺

𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐺𝐺1 � 𝑉𝑉 and 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉

• Therefore
𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺1 �𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅2 �𝐼𝐼 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺2 �𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅1 �𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼 = = and 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼 = =
𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺1 +𝐺𝐺2 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺1 +𝐺𝐺2 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2

• Resistors in parallel form a current divider with the current through

each resistor proportional to its conductance.
• If 𝐺𝐺1 > 𝐺𝐺2 (i.e. 𝑅𝑅1 < 𝑅𝑅2 ) then 𝐼𝐼1 > 𝐼𝐼2 . The larger amount of current
goes through the smaller resistor; thus amperes take the path of
least resistance!
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 Parallel Circuits
Power Distribution in a Parallel Circuit

• The source power supplied by the current source for the prior circuit
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼
• The load power dissipated by each parallel resistor
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 2 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝑉𝑉 = = 𝐺𝐺1 � 𝑉𝑉 2 and 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑉 = = 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2

From which
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐺𝐺 � 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐺𝐺 � 𝑉𝑉 2 = 𝐺𝐺1 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝑉𝑉 2
= 𝐺𝐺1 𝑉𝑉 2 + 𝐺𝐺2 𝑉𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑉 𝐺𝐺1 � 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉𝑉 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉
= 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿
• As was observed for the series circuit, power must be conserved.

∑(Source Power) = ∑(Load Power)

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 Parallel Circuits
Summary
• Voltage in a parallel circuit is the same across each element.
• Resistors in parallel can be replaced by a single resistance equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the conductances.
• Current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single current source
equal to the sum of the currents (taking into account direction).
• Elements in parallel can be interchanged with each other without
affecting the voltage drop or the currents through each element.
• A current divider distributes the current through each resistor in
proportion to each conductance.
• Power dissipated by each resistor in a current divider scales in the same
manner as the branch currents.

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 Parallel Circuits - Examples
• For the circuit below, calculate V, I1, I2, I3, P1, P2, P3
By KCL
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼3 = 0
By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼3 =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
Substituting
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 − − − =0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
From which
−1 −1
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 � + + = 1𝐴𝐴 � + + = 6Ω � 1𝐴𝐴 = 6V
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 10Ω 20Ω 60Ω

𝑉𝑉 6𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 6𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 6𝑉𝑉

𝐼𝐼1 = = = 600𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼2 = = = 300𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼3 = = = 100𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅1 10Ω 𝑅𝑅2 20Ω 𝑅𝑅3 60Ω
And
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼1 = 6𝑉𝑉 � 0.6𝐴𝐴 = 3.6𝑊𝑊 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼2 = 6𝑉𝑉 � 0.3𝐴𝐴 = 1.8𝑊𝑊 𝑃𝑃3 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼3 = 6𝑉𝑉 � 0.1𝐴𝐴 = 0.6𝑊𝑊

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 Parallel Circuits - Examples
• Determine the current I1 for the circuit below.
By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉3 36𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼1 = = = 2A
𝑅𝑅3 18Ω

Notice the parallel connection of series resistors R1 and R2 do not matter!

• What is the current supplied by the voltage source V to the circuit?

• What is the power dissipated by resistor R2?
• Use KCL to verify the currents at node x.

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 Parallel Circuits - Examples
• If R1, R2 and R3 have power ratings: 0.5W, 0.25W and 1W, respectively,
determine the maximum safe operating voltage V and source current I.
For resistor R1
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = =
𝐼𝐼1,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑅𝑅1
From which
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 1.2𝑘𝑘Ω � 0.5𝑊𝑊 = 24.5𝑉𝑉
Similarly
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅2,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 3.9𝑘𝑘Ω � 0.25𝑊𝑊 = 31.2𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅3,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 1.0𝑘𝑘Ω � 1𝑊𝑊 = 31.6𝑉𝑉
The maximum safe operating voltage is the minimum value of (VR1,Max VR2,Max VR3,Max )
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 24.5𝑉𝑉
From which the source current I is
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐺𝐺 � 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐺𝐺1 + 𝐺𝐺2 + 𝐺𝐺3 𝑉𝑉 = + + 𝑉𝑉 = + + � 24.5𝑉𝑉 = 51𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 1.2𝑘𝑘Ω 3.9𝑘𝑘Ω 1.0𝑘𝑘Ω
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 Parallel Circuits - Examples
Voltmeter Loading Effect
• Real dc voltmeters add parallel resistance to a circuit when connected.
• Circuit operation is altered as a result.
This must be taken into account when making precision voltage measurements.
• The parallel (shunt) resistance across the dc voltmeter is specified as resistance
(digital meters) or as full-scale sensitivity in Ω/V (analog meters).
• The FLUKE 8010A DMM provides 10MΩ input resistance while the TRIPLETT 630
PLK VOM provides 20kΩ/V full-scale sensitivity for dc voltage measurements.
Two series 10kΩ resistors supplied 10V dc provide a 5V output to
be measured. What is the voltage error if a TRIPLETT VOM is used?
Use 10V scale on VOM: 𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 ≈ 20 𝑘𝑘Ω⁄𝑉𝑉 � 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉,𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 20 𝑘𝑘Ω⁄𝑉𝑉 � 10𝑉𝑉 = 200𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅1 �𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 10𝑘𝑘Ω�200𝑘𝑘Ω
Let 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅2 = 10𝑘𝑘Ω and let 𝑅𝑅1,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ≈ = = 9.5𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 10𝑘𝑘Ω+200𝑘𝑘Ω

𝑅𝑅1,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 �𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 9.5𝑘𝑘Ω �10𝑉𝑉

From which 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≈ = = 4.9𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 +𝑅𝑅2 19.5𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 5𝑉𝑉 − 4.9𝑉𝑉
𝜀𝜀 ≈ � 100% = � 100% = 2%
𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 5𝑉𝑉

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 Parallel Circuits - Examples
Parallel Voltage Sources
• A real voltage source cannot provide unlimited current to a circuit
because of its internal resistance.
• Configuring real voltage sources (i.e. batteries) in parallel increases the
available current for a given output voltage.
• The voltage rating and polarity of parallel connected voltage sources
should be identical to avoid unwanted circulating currents.
Two batteries, Vs1 = Vs2 = 12V and Rs1 = Rs2 = 50mΩ, are in
parallel, what is the terminal voltage if the current I = 100A?
By KCL 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼 = 0
By KVL 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠1 = 0 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝐼𝐼2
From which 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼2 = 50𝐴𝐴 (since 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 )
By KVL 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 12𝑉𝑉 − 50𝑚𝑚Ω � 50𝐴𝐴 = 9.5𝑉𝑉
12𝑉𝑉−9.5𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = � 100% = 26%
9.5𝑉𝑉

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 Parallel Circuits - Examples
Parallel Voltage Sources - Continued
• Suppose the two 12V batteries in the previous example held different
charge levels resulting in different open circuit voltages (perhaps one
battery is ‘old’ the other ‘new’). What is the effect of this?
By KVL
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0
By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼
Substituting and rearranging
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠
• From which 𝐼𝐼 = ≠0 if 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≠ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠 +𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠

A circulating current I exists! Over time, this current discharges the higher
voltage battery as it charges the other battery. As this occurs, power is
dissipated in the internal resistances (creates heat). The circulating current
exists until the battery voltages are equal (Vs1 = Vs2).
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 Parallel Circuits - Examples
A Paradox or two…

• To avoid the paradoxical situations above,

• Two ideal voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel.
• Two ideal current sources cannot be connected in series.
What are the exceptions to these statements?

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 05-Wye/Delta Transforms

Text: Ch 2.7

• Wye-Delta Transformations

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 Wye-Delta Transformations
• Wye (Y) and Delta networks occur frequently in circuits. They are used
extensively in 3-phase ac circuits, matching networks, attenuators,
ladder networks and so on…

• Circuits using Wye or Delta networks often appear to be complex on

initial examination. However, it is often possible to transform portions
(or all) of the circuit into a combination circuit which may simplify the
circuit analysis.
• This is done by using Wye – Delta conversions.

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 Wye-Delta Transformations

• Delta to Wye • Wye to Delta

𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 � 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 =
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 + 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 � 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 =
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 + 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 � 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 =
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 + 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅3

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 Wye-Delta Transformations
• Find Vout for the circuit if all resistors R = 1kΩ.

• The circuit can be analyzed using the reduce and return approach but it
may be more efficient to use Delta to Wye conversions.
• Convert the two Delta networks to Wye networks.
• Since all resistors are equal valued R = RA = RB = RC
𝑅𝑅 � 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅3 = = = 333Ω
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅 3

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 Wye-Delta Transformations
• Replace the two Delta networks

• Convert the Delta to a Wye network with RA = RB = R/3, RC = 5R/3

𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 � 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 5𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅1 = =
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 + 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 21
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 � 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 5𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅2 = =
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 + 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 21
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 � 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅3 = =
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 + 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 21
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 Wye-Delta Transformations
• Replace the Delta network

• From which
𝑅𝑅
21 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = � 𝑉𝑉 = = 1.54𝑉𝑉
12𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆 13
21 + 21

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 06-Circuit Elements

Text: Ch 1.6, Ch 2.2, 2.8

• Circuit Elements (Dependent Sources)

• Ohm’s Law (Review - Open Circuit, Short Circuit, Potentiometer)
• Applications (Lamps, Potentiometer)

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 Open Circuit
• Consider the following circuit whose resistance R = ∞Ω (open circuit).

• No matter the value of voltage V, the current I is always 0 amperes.

An open circuit is equivalent to an ideal current source whose value is 0 A.
• As such, an ideal current source must always have something
connected to its terminals. Why?

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 Short Circuit
• Consider the following circuit whose resistance R = 0Ω (short circuit).

• No matter the value of current I, the voltage V is always 0 volts. Why?

A short circuit is equivalent to an ideal voltage source whose value is 0 V.
• As such, a short circuit cannot be connected across another ideal
voltage source. Why? Is there an exemption to this?

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 Potentiometer
• A potentiometer is a 3-terminal resistor with terminals at each end and
a third terminal in between that contacts the resistor at a position
determined by an actuator.

• A potentiometer is used as a voltage divider or variable resistor.

• The resistance versus position (taper) may be linear or logarithmic.

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 Potentiometer
• What potentiometer resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is needed to dissipate 36mW
power in the resistor?
Have
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 2
𝑃𝑃 = → 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃 � 𝑅𝑅 = 36𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � 1𝑘𝑘Ω = 6𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅
Let 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 be the equivalent resistance of 𝑅𝑅 in parallel with 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑅𝑅 � 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 =
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Let 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 be the supply voltage, using voltage division have
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 3 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = � 𝑉𝑉 → = =
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 5 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

Where 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 for the potentiometer. Rearrange and substitute for 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
𝑅𝑅 � 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 3
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = = � 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 2
Simplifying yields a quadratic equation for 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
2 2 2
10 − 1
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + � 𝑅𝑅 � 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑅𝑅 = 0 → 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = � 1kΩ = 721Ω
3 3

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 Switch
• A switch is a circuit element that can open or close a circuit path.
• Open: current cannot pass. The switch breaks the circuit.
• Closed: current can pass. The switch makes the circuit.
• Electro-mechanical switches rely on a mechanism to actuate a
conductor that links / unlinks two conductive contacts separated by an
insulating gap. Conductors interface the contacts to the external circuit.

Terminology:
• Pole: the number of switches controlled by a
single actuator.
• Throw: the number of closed paths possible
for a pole.
• Normally open (NO): switch is open unless
actuated.
• Normally closed (NC): switch is closed unless
actuated.

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 Switch
• Examples of switch types are provided below.

Strictly speaking, a switch can be actuated at any time to change the

characteristic of a circuit. The time dependency will be ignored but the
circuit changes will be investigated.
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 Lamp
• A lamp is a circuit element that produces light from electricity.
• Lamp types are distinguished by their light generating processes.
• Gas-discharge: fluorescent lamp.
Generic Lamp Circuit Symbol
• Solid-state: light emitting diode lamp.
• Resistive heating: incandescent lamp.
Incandescent Lamp:
• Relies on the heating of a tungsten filament in an inert
gas environment to a temperature sufficient to cause
incandescence.
• Incandescence is the production of thermal radiation
in the visible spectrum.
• The filament is a temperature dependent resistor. The
resistance increases with temperature (PTC or NTC?).
• The typical 100W AC light bulb provides 144Ω
resistance at temperature but presents about 10Ω
resistance at room temperature.

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 Lamp
• Which lamps are turned ‘on’ with a) the switch open and b) the switch
closed? The batteries are identical and the lamps are identical.

• Switch open:
• Use KVL with the outer loop; the sum of the battery voltages is 0;
there is no current, so no power dissipated; both lamps are ‘off’.
• Switch closed:
• Use KVL with the inner loops; each circuit contains a battery and
lamp; there is current in both loops, so power is dissipated; both
lamps are ‘on’.

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 Dependent Source
• The ideal voltage(current) source considered to this point supplies a
voltage(current) whose value is uninfluenced by the behavior of the
circuits to which they belong. Such sources are independent.
• Consider an ideal source whose output value depends upon some
other circuit parameter (usually a voltage or current) in the circuit to
which it belongs. Such sources are dependent or controlled sources.

Note that diamond shaped circuit symbols are used to distinguish these
from the independent sources.

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 Dependent Source
• Controlled sources are usually current or voltage dependent.

Voltage-controlled voltage source

Voltage-controlled current source

Current-controlled current source

Current-controlled voltage source

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 Dependent Source
• Calculate the voltage Vac in the circuit.

Use Ohm’s Law for the voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼
Apply KCL at node b to obtain 𝐼𝐼
−𝐼𝐼 −𝐼𝐼1 +𝐼𝐼2 = 0
𝐼𝐼 = −𝐼𝐼1 + 2 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Use Ohm’s Law for the voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = −𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼

Substitute for 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and solve for 𝐼𝐼

𝐼𝐼 = −𝐼𝐼1 − 2 � 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼1
𝐼𝐼 = −
1 + 2 � 𝑅𝑅2
Substitute for 𝐼𝐼 and solve for 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼1 10Ω � 2.1𝐴𝐴
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = − =− = −1.00𝑉𝑉
1 + 2 � 𝑅𝑅2 1 + 2 � 10Ω

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 Dependent Source
• The controlled sources are useful for analyzing the amplifier.
• An amplifier is a circuit element that can increase the level of a current
or voltage to increase power (dc or time-varying signals).
• Examples of circuit elements that provide amplification include:
• Transistors (BJT, JFET, MOSFET, MESFET etc.)
• Operational amplifier (Op-amp)
• Vacuum tubes (klystron, gyrotron, traveling wave tube)

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 Dependent Source
• Simplified BJT model Simplified FET model

• Simplified op-amp model

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 07-Operational Amplifier

Text: Ch 5.1 – 5.7, 5.9*

• Introduction
• Operational Amplifiers
• Ideal Op Amp
• Inverting Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Difference Amplifier
• Op Amp Circuit Analysis with PSpice*

* Advanced topic – not graded

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 Operational Amplifier

Basic Ideal Op-Amp Equivalent Circuit

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 Operational Amplifier
• The op-amp is modeled using a voltage-controlled voltage source.
• The input terminals: – inverting input + non-inverting input.
• K is the open loop voltage gain and K → ∞ for the ideal op-amp.
• A real op-amp has very large open loop gain.
• The LM741 op-amp open loop voltage gain is 200 V/mV = 2∙105.
• The op-amp output voltage is
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝐾𝐾 � 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛
• With K → ∞ the voltage Vo → ∞ for Vin ≠ 0. This is usually not useful for circuits.

• A voltage amplifier with finite gain is obtained if the input voltage drop
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 is always zero. This is done by adding negative feedback between
the op-amp output and inverting terminals.

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 Operational Amplifier
• The analysis of an op-amp based amplifier considers the following:
1. Use the basic ideal op-amp equivalent circuit for the op-amp.

2. Verify negative feedback is present. Specialty circuits can use

positive feedback (circuitry between the op-amp output and non-
inverting terminals) but these will not be considered here.

3. Apply KCL at the feedback node to setup the fundamental

equation describing the amplifier circuit operation. Take into
account no current is present at either op-amp input terminals.

4. Apply Ohm’s Law as needed to convert currents to voltages to

obtain the output voltage or amplifier closed loop voltage gain AV.

5. Determine Vterminal – = Vterminal+ since Vin = 0 across the op-amp input

terminals when negative feedback is used.

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 Operational Amplifier
• Determine the output voltage and closed loop voltage gain for the inverting
amplifier circuit shown below with Vi = 1V.
• Have by KCL at node a,
𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 = 0
• By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎
+ =0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
• With negative feedback in place
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 → 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 0
• From which
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
+ =0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅2 120kΩ
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = − � 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = − � 1V − 12V
𝑅𝑅1 10kΩ
𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅
• The closed loop gain 𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = − 𝑅𝑅2 = −12
𝑖𝑖 1

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 Operational Amplifier
• Determine the current Io for the amplifier circuit.

• Have by KCL at node a,

𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 = 0
• By Ohm’s Law
0 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎
+ =0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
• With negative feedback in place
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 → 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉1 = 10V
• From which
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 − 𝑉𝑉1
− + =0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅2 50kΩ
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉1 + � 𝑉𝑉 = 10V + � 10V = 60V
𝑅𝑅1 1 10kΩ
𝑉𝑉 60V
• The current 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 = 20kΩ = 3.00mA
3

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 08-Series/Parallel Circuits

Text: Ch 2.4 – 2.6

• Kirchhoff’s Laws (Review)

• Series Resistors and Voltage Division (Review)
• Parallel Resistors and Current Division (Review)

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 Series/Parallel Circuits
• A dc circuit can be an arbitrary arrangement of sources and resistances.
• Combination circuit: does contain series and parallel branches only.
• Complex circuit: does not contain series and parallel branches only.
• Combination / complex circuits typically span more than one loop or
contain more than two nodes.

Kirchhoff’s Laws and Ohm’s Law apply,

regardless of the circuit complexity.

• The Reduce and Return method can be used to analyze combination

circuits.

This method is implicitly covered in the course textbook

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 Series/Parallel Circuits
Reduce and Return Method
• The reduce and return approach simplifies the analysis of combination
circuits by exploiting the properties of series and parallel circuits. In its
most general implementation:
• The reduce phase consists of a sequence of circuit simplifications
with the goal of replacing the original circuit with an equivalent one
that has two branches containing a source and a resistance.
• The source voltage / current and load resistance are determined.
• The return phase steps through the sequence of circuit
simplifications in reverse order to determine the intermediate
circuit values needed to compute the desired ones.

The skillful application of the reduce and return approach to circuit

analysis takes careful consideration of the circuit and the objectives. This
takes practice to become proficient (and efficient) at doing.
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 Series/Parallel Circuits
Procedure
Reduce Phase
1. Examine the circuit and identify the desired parameters.
2. Write down the circuit equations for the desired parameters.
3. From these circuit equations determine the unknown parameters.
4. Combine branches – try to keep the unknown parameters intact*.
5. Redraw the reduced circuit and label all parameters.
6. Repeat using the reduced circuit until there are two branches**.
7. Determine the source voltage / current and load resistance**.

* If possible
** If necessary

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 Series/Parallel Circuits
Procedure
Return Phase
1. In the last iteration done in the reduce phase, replace the unknown
parameters with the known source voltage / current to calculate the
desired parameters.
2. In the previous iteration done in the reduce phase, replace the
unknown parameters with their known values determined during the
previous return phase step to calculate the desired parameters.
3. Repeat until all desired parameters are calculated.

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 Series/Parallel Circuits
• Determine IR3 and VR4 for the combination circuit below.

Is this a combination circuit?

There are 2 loops and 4 nodes in

this combination circuit.

Reduce Phase – Iteration #1

1. Identify the desired parameters: IR3 and VR4
2. Obtain circuit equations for desired parameters: (Others are possible)
𝑅𝑅4 �𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝑅𝑅3 +𝑅𝑅4 𝑅𝑅3 +𝑅𝑅4

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 Series/Parallel Circuits
3. Identify the unknown parameters: VR2
4. Combine branches (try to keep the unknown parameters intact):

Let the symbol 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 ‖𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 be defined as the parallel

combination of resistances Rx and Ry. That is
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 � 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 ‖𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 =
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦

For resistance R5
𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 20Ω � 6Ω + 14Ω
𝑅𝑅5 = 𝑅𝑅2 ‖ 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 = = = 10Ω
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 20Ω + 6Ω + 14Ω

5. Redraw the reduced circuit and label all quantities (see above):
6. Repeat the previous steps, if required. (Is it required?)
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 Series/Parallel Circuits
• Determine VR2 for the reduced combination circuit below.

There is 1 loop and 3 nodes

in this combination circuit.

Reduce Phase – Iteration #2

1. Identify the desired parameters: VR2
2. Obtain circuit equations for desired parameters: (Others are possible)
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅5 � 𝐼𝐼

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 Series/Parallel Circuits
3. Identify the unknown parameters: I
4. Combine branches (try to keep the unknown parameters intact):

For load resistance R

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅5 = 5Ω + 10Ω = 15Ω

5. Redraw the reduced circuit and label all parameters (see above):
6. Reduction complete – circuit contains two branches.
7. Determine the source voltage/current and load resistance (see above).
𝑉𝑉 30𝑉𝑉
Source voltage 𝑉𝑉 = 30𝑉𝑉 Source current 𝐼𝐼 = = = 2𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅 15Ω

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 Series/Parallel Circuits
Return Phase
• The reduce phase has produced a set of equations for the desired
parameters and are solved as shown.
Source and Load Values
𝑉𝑉 30𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 = 30𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼 = = = 2𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅 15Ω

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅5 = 5Ω + 10Ω = 15Ω

Iteration #2
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅5 � 𝐼𝐼 = 10Ω � 2𝐴𝐴 = 20V
𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 20Ω � 6Ω + 14Ω
𝑅𝑅5 = 𝑅𝑅2 ‖ 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 = = = 10Ω
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 20Ω + 6Ω + 14Ω
Iteration #1
𝑅𝑅4 � 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 14Ω � 20𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 20𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = = 14𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = = 1𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 6Ω + 14Ω 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 6Ω + 14Ω
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 09-Applications

Text: Ch 2.4 – 2.6

• Kirchhoff’s Laws (Review)

• Series Resistors and Voltage Division (Review)
• Parallel Resistors and Current Division (Review)

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples
• Determine the requested parameters for the circuit below

Example 1: Determine: IT, Va and P40Ω in the circuit below.

(Hint: reduction usually begins away from the source and works towards it)

20Ω 50Ω
a

24V 40Ω 30Ω

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples
• Determine the requested parameters for the circuit below.

Example 2: Determine: Va, P10Ω, Vca, I1 in the circuit below.

7Ω
a

I1
25Ω 33Ω
40V 60Ω b

18Ω
10Ω

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples
• Determine the requested parameters for the circuit below.

Example 3: Determine: Vab, P2.2kΩ, and I1 in the circuit below.

2.2kΩ

I1
4.7kΩ

20V
5.6kΩ 3.9kΩ
2.7kΩ

8.2kΩ
b

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples
• Determine the requested parameters for the circuit below.

Example 4: Determine Va, Vca, Vbc, P8.2k and I1 in the circuit below.

1.5kΩ 6.8kΩ
a

c
I1
5.6kΩ 1.2kΩ
40V
8.2kΩ
1.8kΩ
4.7kΩ
3.3kΩ

•
b

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples
• Determine the requested parameters for the circuit below.

Example 5: Determine I1, I2, Vd, Vab, Vbd and P15Ω in the circuit below.

10Ω 20Ω 8Ω

18Ω b
I1 6Ω
45Ω c 25Ω
• d
I2
30V
15Ω 12Ω
5Ω
a

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Series/Parallel Circuits - Examples

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• A loaded voltage divider is a series-parallel circuit that distributes
power from a voltage source to the attached loads.
• Output voltages are obtained by tapping off the series nodes.
• The |output voltages| ≤ |source voltage|.
The voltage regulation depends upon the circuit parameters.

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
Design Approach:
1. Set the number of output nodes = number of loads.
2. Set the number of series resistors = number of loads + 1.
3. Draw the unloaded voltage divider.
4. Determine the maximum positive load voltage required VPmax .
5. Determine the minimum negative load voltage required VNmin.
6. Set the supply voltage ≥ VPmax - VNmin. (If unknown)
7. Assign the voltage reference node.
8. Determine the current IP supplied by the positive load voltages.
9. Determine the current IN supplied by the negative load voltages.
10. Set the load current = max(IP, IN).
11. Set the bleed current (usually 10 – 15% of the load current).
12. Draw a load (resistor) from each output node to the reference node.
13. Determine the resistances for the unloaded voltage divider.
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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• Design a loaded voltage divider with a 100V source to supply the loads:
Load 1: 50mA, 60V
Load 2: 40mA, 30V
Load 3: 75mA, -25V
The bleed current is 15% of the load current.

Solution
1. The number of output nodes = 3
2. The number of series resistors = 4
3. The unloaded voltage divider →
4. VPmax = 60V
5. VNmin = -25V
6. Vin = 100V ≥ 60V – (-25V) = 85V
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 Loaded Voltage Divider
7. Assign the reference node →
8. IP = 40mA + 50mA = 90mA
9. IN = 75mA
10. IL = max(90mA, 75mA) = 90mA
11. IBLEED = 15% · 90mA = 13.5mA

The bleed current is supplied by the voltage source and is in addition to the
load current. The bleed current improves the voltage regulation.
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡,𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = � 100%
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
12. Draw the load resistors
60𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 = = 1.2𝑘𝑘Ω
50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
30𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 = = 750Ω
40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
25𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 = = 330Ω
75𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
13. Determine the resistances
RS, R1, R2 and R3

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• With IP ≥ IN the bleed current passes through resistor R2.
• By Ohm’s Law,
𝑉𝑉2 30𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅2 = = ≈ 2.2𝑘𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 13.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• By KCL at node 2,
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼2 = 13.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 53.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• By KVL,
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = 60𝑉𝑉 − 30𝑉𝑉 = 30𝑉𝑉
• By Ohm’s Law,
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 30𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 = = ≈ 560Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 53.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• By KCL at node 1,
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐼1 = 53.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 103.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• By KVL,
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 100𝑉𝑉 − 60𝑉𝑉 + (−25𝑉𝑉) = 15𝑉𝑉
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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• By Ohm’s Law,
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 15𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 = = ≈ 145Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 103.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• By KCL at node 3,
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝐼𝐼3 = 103.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 75𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 28.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• By Ohm’s Law,
−𝑉𝑉3 −(−25𝑉𝑉)
𝑅𝑅3 = = ≈ 875Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 28.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Summary
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1.2𝑘𝑘Ω 𝑅𝑅1 = 560Ω 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 = 145Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 750Ω 𝑅𝑅2 = 2.2𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 330Ω 𝑅𝑅3 = 875Ω

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• Simulated using CircuitMaker 2000

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• Determine the voltage regulation for output voltage V1.
Solution
• To show the improvement consider the voltage regulation for V2.
𝑉𝑉1,𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑉𝑉1,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
𝑉𝑉1,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
• Remove RL1 and determine V1,unloaded

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 Loaded Voltage Divider

𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 �𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 � 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑉𝑉1,𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 =
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 + 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 �𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅3 �𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿𝐿
560Ω + 2.2𝑘𝑘Ω‖750Ω � 100𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉1,𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 =
145Ω + 560Ω + 2.2𝑘𝑘Ω‖750Ω + 875Ω‖330Ω
𝑉𝑉1,𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 74.4𝑉𝑉

• From which
𝑉𝑉1,𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑉𝑉1,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 74.4𝑉𝑉 − 60𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = = 0.24
𝑉𝑉1,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 60𝑉𝑉

• The ideal voltage regulation is VR = 0

• Note the voltage regulation is generally not the same for each output.

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• To demonstrate the voltage regulation improvement of the loaded
voltage divider – consider the single load case.
• For the voltage divider:
The voltage regulation is

𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = −1
𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

With voltages

𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (Why?)

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 = −1
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿

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 Loaded Voltage Divider
• Adding a bleed current with R1 creates a loaded voltage divider.
• For the loaded voltage divider:
The voltage regulation is
𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = −1
𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
With voltages
𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑅𝑅1 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 = − 1 = 𝑎𝑎 −1
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿

• Since 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 > 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 (below) the voltage regulation of the loaded voltage
divider is always better than that obtained by the voltage divider.
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 > 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 → 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 > 0 → 1 − 𝑎𝑎 > 0 always as 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1 and >1
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿

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 10-Thévenin's Theorem

Text: Ch 4.1, 4.5

• Introduction
• Thévenin's Theorem

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 Thévenin's Theorem
• An arbitrary circuit containing resistors and sources can be split into
two parts with terminals connected at a pair of nodes a and b.

• If circuit A has no source dependent on parameters in circuit B and vice-

versa then Thévenin’s Theorem can be used to simplify either circuit.

A two-terminal dc network can be replaced by its Thévenin

equivalent circuit which consists of a voltage source VTH in
series with a resistance RTH.

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 Thévenin's Theorem
• The circuit A is replaced by that shown in the dashed box below.

Thévenin’s Theorem procedure.

Preliminary:
1. Remove circuit B from circuit A.
Thévenin Voltage (or Open-Circuit Voltage):
2. Determine VTH = Vab across the terminals a – b of circuit A.
Thévenin Equivalent Resistance:
3. Set all independent sources to zero in circuit A.
• Open circuit current sources, short circuit voltage sources.
4. Determine the RTH = Rab at the terminals a – b of circuit A.
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 Thévenin's Theorem
• Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit at the load resistance.

1. Remove the load resistance (i.e. circuit B).

2. Determine the Thévenin voltage (open-circuit voltage) at a – b.

𝑅𝑅3 180Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 = � 40𝑉𝑉 = 18𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 220Ω + 180Ω
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 Thévenin's Theorem
3. Determine the Thévenin equivalent resistance at a – b.

𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3 220Ω � 180Ω

𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅2 �𝑅𝑅3 = = = 99Ω
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 220Ω + 180Ω
• The Thévenin equivalent circuit.

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 Thévenin's Theorem
• Find the Thévenin equivalent and the voltage across R3.

1. Remove R3 (i.e. circuit B) (Note: reference node added for step 2)

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 Thévenin's Theorem
2. Determine the Thévenin voltage (open-circuit voltage) at a – b.
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏
𝑅𝑅2 3.9𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 = � 24𝑉𝑉 = 17.3𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 1.5𝑘𝑘Ω + 3.9𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅4 � 𝑅𝑅5 5.6𝑘𝑘Ω � 2.7𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = −𝑅𝑅4 �𝑅𝑅5 � 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 = − � 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 = − � 8𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −14.6𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑅5 5.6𝑘𝑘Ω + 2.7𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 17.3𝑉𝑉 − −14.6𝑉𝑉 = 31.9𝑉𝑉
3. Determine the Thévenin equivalent resistance at a – b.
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅1 �𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅4 �𝑅𝑅5 = 1.08𝑘𝑘Ω + 1.82𝑘𝑘Ω = 2.91𝑘𝑘Ω
• The Thévenin equivalent circuit and VR3
• Use voltage division to obtain VR3
𝑅𝑅3 1.2𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = � 𝑉𝑉 = � 31.9𝑉𝑉 = 9.3𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅3 𝑋𝑋 2.91𝑘𝑘Ω + 1.2𝑘𝑘Ω

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 Thévenin's Theorem
• Determine the Thévenin equivalent circuit at A – B for the loaded
Wheatstone bridge – which is used in sensor applications.

• A sensor resistance R2 varies with some stimulus (e.g. temperature) is

configured in a bridge circuit along with 3 precision resistors (R1, R3 and R4).
• Let resistors R4 = R1 and R3 = R2 (the nominal sensor resistance)
• The monitor circuit (e.g. amplifier) at A – B introduces the load resistance RL.
1. Remove RL and (2) determine the Thévenin voltage at A – B
𝑅𝑅4 �𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅3 �𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 1
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = − = − 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 since R4 = R1
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅4 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅3 2 1+
𝑅𝑅3

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 Thévenin's Theorem
2. Determine the Thévenin equivalent resistance at A – B
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑅𝑅1 �𝑅𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑅2 �𝑅𝑅3 = +
2 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3

1 1
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = − � 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
2 1+ 2𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = +
2 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3

• 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 0 → 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 0 → 𝑅𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑅2 → this is the balanced condition and occurs
at a specified (baseline) sensor stimulus (e.g. room temperature).
• As the sensor stimulus deviates from its baseline the sensor resistance R2
varies from its nominal value and 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ≠ 0 → 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ≠ 0. The voltage can be
negative (positive) depending on whether R2 is less (greater) than R3.
• An amplifier at A – B conditions the response to meet the sensor application
requirements. Maximum power transfer may be a consideration at A – B.
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 Thévenin's Theorem

Resistance type sensors

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 Thévenin's Theorem

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 Thévenin's Theorem

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 Thévenin's Theorem

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 11-Maximum Power Transfer

Text: Ch 4.8

• Maximum Power Transfer

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 Maximum Power Transfer
• It is often required to maximize power transfer from one circuit
(considered the source) to another circuit (considered the load).
• The circuit can be represented using its Thévenin equivalent.

• What resistance RL results in the maximum amount of power

transferred if VTH and RTH are known?
• It is tempting to believe that to increase the power absorbed by RL,
simply increase its value. However, increasing RL decreases current IL.

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 Maximum Power Transfer
• The power dissipated by the load resistance RL is
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿2 � 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
By Ohm’s Law,
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
Substituting,
2
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
Let
2
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑓𝑓 −2 ℎ = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝐾𝐾 = 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
From which
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾 � 𝑔𝑔 � ℎ

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 Maximum Power Transfer
• Some 1st year calculus is needed to maximize PL with respect to RL…
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0 = 𝐾𝐾 � ℎ � � + 𝑔𝑔 �
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
With
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −2 � 𝑓𝑓 =1 =1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
Substituting
0 = ℎ � −2 � 𝑓𝑓 −3 + 𝑔𝑔
0 = ℎ � −2 � 𝑓𝑓 −3 + 𝑓𝑓 −2
2�ℎ
0=1−
𝑓𝑓
ℎ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 1
= =
𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
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 Maximum Power Transfer
• The maximum power is transferred to the load resistance RL when the
condition RL = RTH exists.
• When this condition holds the maximum power transferred to RL is
2 2 2
2
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿,𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 � 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2 � 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 4 � 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

• Notice this power is dissipated by the Thévenin resistance RTH as well.

In other words…
The load resistance dissipates ½ of the total dissipated power
If maximum power is transferred to the load!
• The dc operating efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power
delivered to the load to the power supplied by the source.
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿2 � 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝜂𝜂 = = 2 = = 0.5 = 50%
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 � 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

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 Maximum Power Transfer
• Determine the power dissipated by the load resistance and the dc
operating efficiency for the circuit below if RL ranges from 0 – 100Ω.

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 2
• The power dissipated by RL is 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿2 �𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
• The dc operating efficiency is 𝜂𝜂 = = =
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿2 � 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
RL (Ω) PL (mW) η RL (Ω) PL (mW) η
5 165 0.09 55 499 0.52
10 278 0.17 60 496 0.55
15 355 0.23 65 491 0.57
20 408 0.29 70 486 0.58
25 444 0.33 75 480 0.60
30 469 0.38 80 473 0.62
35 484 0.41 85 466 0.63
40 494 0.44 90 459 0.64
45 499 0.47 95 452 0.66
50 500 0.50 100 444 0.67

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 Maximum Power Transfer
• Plot the power and efficiency vs load resistance.

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 Maximum Power Transfer
• For the previous circuit, determine the value of RL to achieve an
operating efficiency of 60% and the resulting load power?

𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
• The dc operating efficiency is 𝜂𝜂 = rearranging
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿

𝜂𝜂 � 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 0.6 � 50Ω

𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = = = 75Ω
1 − 𝜂𝜂 1 − 0.6

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 2
• The power dissipated by RL is 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
2
10𝑉𝑉
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = � 75Ω = 480𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
50Ω + 75Ω

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 12-Superposition Principle

Text: Ch 4.2 – 4.3

• Linearity Property
• Superposition

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 Superposition Principle
• The relation between voltage and current for a resistor is linear
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼
• Kirchhoff’s Laws are linear for loop voltages and node currents:
• KVL: ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 0 around a loop with 𝑖𝑖 nodes
• KCL: ∑𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼𝑘𝑘 = 0 at a node with 𝑘𝑘 branches

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 Superposition Principle
• Let 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 be the current through resistance 𝑅𝑅 then the voltage
dropped across the resistance
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2
• Power is NOT linear for a resistor
2 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 or 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑅𝑅
Let 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼12 and 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼22
The power dissipated by resistance 𝑅𝑅 is
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 2 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 2 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼12 + 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼22 + 2 � 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼1 � 𝐼𝐼2 ≠ 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2

A linear circuit with M independent sources S1,…,SM will produce a

response R (current or voltage) obtained as the sum of M responses,
each one obtained by setting all sources except Sm to zero (1 ≤ m ≤ M).

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 Superposition Principle
• Use superposition to find VR1, PR1 and VR4.

• Let
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅
2
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑅4 � 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅
• Apply the superposition principle to find IR1 and IR4 (responses).
• There are 3 sources → 3 responses to be determined.

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 Superposition Principle
• Source 1: Vx

• Let
−1
1 1 1
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅4 = + + = 77.9Ω
680Ω 120Ω 330Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 −10𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅,1 = = = −43.9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 150Ω + 77.9Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 77.9Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅4,1 = � 𝐼𝐼 =− � 43.9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −10.4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅4 𝑅𝑅𝑅,1 330Ω

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 Superposition Principle
• Source 2: VY

• Let
−1
1 1 1
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅4 = + + = 89.5Ω
150Ω 680Ω 330Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑌𝑌 18𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅3 = = = 85.9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 120Ω + 89.5Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 89.5Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅,2 = − � 𝐼𝐼 = − � 85.9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −51.3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3 150Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 89.5Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅4,2 = � 𝐼𝐼 = − � 85.9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 23.3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅4 𝑅𝑅𝑅 330Ω
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 Superposition Principle
• Source 3: IX

• Let
−1
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 �𝑅𝑅4 = + + + = 51.3Ω
150Ω 680Ω 120Ω 330Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 51.3Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅,3 = � 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 = � 40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 13.7𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅1 150Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 51.3Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅4,3 = − � 𝐼𝐼 = − � 40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −6.22𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅4 𝑋𝑋 330Ω

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 Superposition Principle
• Combining the 3 responses
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅,1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅,2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅,3 = −43.9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 51.3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 13.7𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −81.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅4 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅4,1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅4,2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅4,3 = −10.4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 23.3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 6.2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 6.7𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

• From which
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = −150Ω � 81.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −12.2𝑉𝑉
2 2
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 150Ω � 81.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 996𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅4 � 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 330Ω � 6.7𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2.2V

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 13-Source Transforms/Norton’s Theorem

Text: Ch 4.4, Ch 4.6 – 4.7, 4.9*

• Source Transformation
• Norton’s Theorem
• Derivation of Thévenin's and Norton’s Theorem
• Verifying Circuit Theorems with PSpice*

* Advanced topic – not graded

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 Source Transformation
• A series voltage source and resistance can be transformed to a parallel
current source and resistance when supplying the same load.

• For this to be satisfied must have Vab = Vxy and I1 = I2.

𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 � 𝐼𝐼𝑔𝑔 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐼𝐼1 = = 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑔𝑔 − =
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔
• From which,

Source Transformation:
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 � 𝐼𝐼𝑔𝑔 or 𝐼𝐼𝑔𝑔 = 𝑆𝑆 and 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 = 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔
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 Norton’s Theorem
• Notice Circuit 1 is a Thévenin equivalent circuit. Circuit 2 is the Norton
equivalent circuit. Source transformations can be used to obtain the
alternative circuit type (Thévenin ↔ Norton).

• If circuit A has no source dependent on parameters in circuit B and vice-

versa then Norton’s Theorem can be used to simplify either circuit.

A two-terminal dc network can be replaced by its Norton

equivalent circuit which consists of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistance RN.

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 Norton’s Theorem
• The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in the dashed box below.

Norton’s Theorem procedure.

Preliminary:
1. Remove circuit B and replace with a short circuit.
Norton Current (or Short-Circuit Current):
2. Determine IN = IS/C of circuit A.
Norton Equivalent Resistance:
3. Remove the short circuit from nodes a – b.
4. Set all independent sources to zero in circuit A.
5. Determine the RN = Rab at the terminals a – b of circuit A.
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 Norton’s Theorem
• Find the Norton equivalent and VR3.

1. Remove R3 (i.e. circuit B) and replace with a short circuit.

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 Norton’s Theorem
2. Determine the Norton current (short-circuit current) at a – b. By KCL,
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅
By Ohm’s Law,
𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
From which,
𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 = −
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
Find VR2 for the above equation, (Note VR2 = VR6 below)

Let R6 be
−1
1 1 1
𝑅𝑅6 = 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅4 𝑅𝑅5 = + + = 1.24𝑘𝑘Ω
3.9𝑘𝑘Ω 5.6𝑘𝑘Ω 2.7𝑘𝑘Ω

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 Norton’s Theorem
By KCL
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅6 − 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 0
By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅6 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅6
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅6
From which
𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅
− − 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅6
𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 24𝑉𝑉
− 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 − 8𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅1 1.5𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = = 5.43𝑉𝑉
1 1 1 1
+ +
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅6 1.5𝑘𝑘Ω 1.24𝑘𝑘Ω
From which
𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 24𝑉𝑉 − 5.43𝑉𝑉 5.43𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 = − = − = 11𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 1.5𝑘𝑘Ω 3.9𝑘𝑘Ω

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 Norton’s Theorem
3. Determine the Norton equivalent resistance at a – b with the short-
circuit removed from the circuit and all independent sources set to 0.
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 = 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅1 �𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅4 �𝑅𝑅5 = 1.08𝑘𝑘Ω + 1.82𝑘𝑘Ω = 2.91𝑘𝑘Ω
• The Norton equivalent circuit and VR3,

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 � 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 �𝑅𝑅3

−1
1 1
= 11𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � + = 9.3𝑉𝑉
2.91𝑘𝑘Ω 1.2𝑘𝑘Ω

• A source transformation applied to the Thévenin equivalent circuit

gives the same result. (Less work…)
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 31.9𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 = = = 11𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 2.91𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 2.91𝑘𝑘Ω

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 14-Nodal/Mesh Analysis

Text: Ch 3.1 – 3.7

• Introduction
• Nodal Analysis
• Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• Mesh Analysis
• Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
• Nodal and Mesh Analyses by Inspection
• Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis

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 Nodal Analysis
• Up to this point, circuits of modest complexity have been analyzed
using the basic circuit principles of KVL, KCL and Ohm’s Law.
• Relies on creating a single equation having only one unknown.
• Some circuits may not lend themselves to this approach (What type?)
and more generalized techniques are required.
• Solve a set of linear equations setup using KVL, KCL and Ohm’s Law.
• There are two analysis techniques that can be used on all circuits
• Nodal analysis: the circuit variables are voltages.
• Loop Analysis: the circuit variables are currents.
• Mesh analysis: like Loop Analysis but for planar networks.
• A planar network can be drawn (redrawn) with no circuit element crossing
another. A planar network is guaranteed for circuits with 8 elements or less.
• The analysis approach taken does not favor one technique over the
other. Either technique will allow all circuit values to be determined.

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 Nodal Analysis
• Nodal analysis yields m linear equations for a circuit having m + 1
nodes. In matrix form:
𝐺𝐺 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼
• With G an m square matrix; V and I are single m column vectors.
Nodal Analysis
Given a circuit with m nodes:
1. Assign a node as the reference node.
2. Label the voltages at the remaining m nodes. (e.g. V1, V2…)
3. Assign branch currents I1, I2… to all elements.
4. Apply KCL to the m nodes (exclude the reference node).
• Address the voltage sources (Ohm’s Law cannot be used here)*
5. Use Ohm’s Law to express each I1, I2… in terms of V1, V2…
6. Substitute equations from step (5) into the equations from step (4).
7. Use linear algebra methods to solve the m equations.
* Voltage sources affect the basic nodal analysis approach – refer to the examples for methods to use.
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 Nodal Analysis
• Find the current through each resistor.

There are 3 nodes in this circuit – there will be m = 2 equations.

1. Assign the reference node. (Insert reference designators)
2. Label the remaining node voltages.
3. Assign the branch currents.

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 Nodal Analysis
4. Apply KCL to the m = 2 nodes. (Obtain 2 current equations)
𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼3 − 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝐼𝐼3 − 𝐼𝐼4 + 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 0
5. Use Ohm’s Law to obtain unknown currents in terms of voltages.
𝐼𝐼1 = −𝐺𝐺1 � 𝑉𝑉1 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉1
𝐼𝐼3 = 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝐼𝐼4 = 𝐺𝐺4 � 𝑉𝑉2
6. Substitute from (5) into (4).
−𝐺𝐺1 � 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 0
− 𝐺𝐺1 + 𝐺𝐺2 + 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
−0.75𝑆𝑆 � 𝑉𝑉1 + 0.25𝑆𝑆 � 𝑉𝑉2 = 8𝐴𝐴
𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝐺𝐺4 � 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺4 � 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 − 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
0.25𝑆𝑆 � 𝑉𝑉1 − 0.375𝑆𝑆 � 𝑉𝑉2 = 1𝐴𝐴
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 Nodal Analysis
7. Use linear algebra to solve the system of equations.
The augmented matrix (Multiplied by 1Ω where appropriate)
−0.75 0.25 8𝑉𝑉
0.25 −0.375 1𝑉𝑉

104
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉
= 7
𝑉𝑉2 88
− 𝑉𝑉
7
From which,
104 52 4 11
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼2 = − 𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼3 = − 𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼4 = − 𝐴𝐴
21 21 7 7

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 Nodal Analysis
• Find the voltages Vac, Vba and Vbc
18Ω b

4Ω
a
27Ω 33Ω
c
2A 8Ω 15Ω 16V

There are 5 nodes in this circuit – there will be m = 4 equations.

1. Assign the reference node.
2. Label the remaining node voltages.
3. Assign the branch currents.

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 Nodal Analysis
4. Apply KCL to the m = 4 nodes. (Obtain 4 equations)
Node a: −𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼3 − 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 0
Node b: 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼4 − 𝐼𝐼6 = 0
Node c: 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉𝑌𝑌 (Ohm’s Law does not apply to the voltage source)
Node d: 𝐼𝐼3 − 𝐼𝐼4 − 𝐼𝐼5 = 0
5. Use Ohm’s Law to obtain unknown currents in terms of voltages.
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐺𝐺1 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼3 = 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼4 = 𝐺𝐺4 � 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼5 = 𝐺𝐺5 � 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 𝐼𝐼6 = 𝐺𝐺6 � 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐
Substitute from (5) into (4) and collect terms,
Node a: − 𝐺𝐺1 + 𝐺𝐺2 + 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 + 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 + 0 � 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 + 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥
Node b: 𝐺𝐺2 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝐺𝐺2 + 𝐺𝐺4 + 𝐺𝐺6 � 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 + 𝐺𝐺6 � 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 + 𝐺𝐺4 � 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 = 0
Node c: 0 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 + 0 � 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 + 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 + 0 � 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑌𝑌
Node d: 𝐺𝐺3 � 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 + 𝐺𝐺4 � 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 + 0 � 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺4 + 𝐺𝐺5 � 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 = 0
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 Nodal Analysis
7. Use linear algebra to solve the system of equations.
𝐺𝐺1 = 125𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺2 = 56𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺3 = 37𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐺𝐺4 = 30𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺5 = 67𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺6 = 250𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The augmented matrix: (Multiplied by 1Ω where appropriate)
−0.218 0.056 0 0.037 2𝑉𝑉
0.056 −0.336 0.25 0.030 0
0 0 1 0 16𝑉𝑉
0.037 0.030 0 −0.134 0

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 −6.27
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 10.9
= 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 16.0
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 0.74

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = −22.3𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 17.2𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = −5.10𝑉𝑉

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 Nodal Analysis
8. Confirm the analysis using circuit simulation.

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 Nodal Analysis
• Use nodal analysis to find the voltages V1, V2 and V3.

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 Nodal Analysis

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 Nodal Analysis

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 Mesh Analysis
• Mesh Analysis yields m = (# of branches – # of nodes + 1) linear
equations. In matrix form:
𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉
• With R an m square matrix; I and V are single m column vectors.
Mesh Analysis:
Given a circuit with m loops:
1. Assign a loop current (I1, I2,…IM) to each loop.
• A loop must span at least one unique branch.
• All branches must be spanned.
2. Assign branch voltages V1, V2… to all elements except voltage sources.
3. Apply KVL to the m loops.
• Address current sources using KCL (Ohm’s Law does not apply)
4. Use Ohm’s Law to express each V1, V2… in terms of I1, I2…
5. Substitute equations from step (4) into the equations from step (3).
*6.Current
Usesources
linearaffect
algebra methods
the basic to solve
Mesh Analysis the
approach m equations.
– refer to the examples for methods to use.

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• Find Vab, Vy, Iy.

There are (8 branches – 7 nodes + 1) loops – there will be m = 2 equations.

1. Assign the loop currents (I1, I2).
2. Label the branch voltages (VR1, VR2, VR3, VR4).

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3. Apply KVL to the m = 2 loops. (Obtain 2 voltage equations)
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 0
−𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅4 + 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 0
4. Use Ohm’s Law to obtain unknown voltages in terms of currents.
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼1 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼1
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑅4 � 𝐼𝐼2
5. Substitute from (4) into (3).
𝑅𝑅1 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 0
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵
29Ω � 𝐼𝐼1 − 9Ω � 𝐼𝐼2 = 9𝑉𝑉
−𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑅𝑅4 � 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 0
−𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 � 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
−9Ω � 𝐼𝐼1 + 14Ω � 𝐼𝐼2 = 10𝑉𝑉

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7. Use linear algebra to solve the system of equations.
The augmented matrix: (Multiplied by 1S where appropriate)
29 −9 9𝐴𝐴
−9 14 10𝐴𝐴

216
𝐼𝐼1 0.67
= 325 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼2 371 1.14
325
By KVL,
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅2 � 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝑅𝑅4 � 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 8Ω � 0.67𝐴𝐴 + 5Ω � 1.14𝐴𝐴 + 8𝑉𝑉 = 19.0𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦 = −𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = −𝑅𝑅3 � 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 = 9Ω � 1.14𝐴𝐴 − 0.67𝐴𝐴 = 4.23𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼1 = 1.14𝐴𝐴 − 0.67𝐴𝐴 = 0.47A = 470mA

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