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Introduction RADIO NAVIGATION
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This edition distributed by Transair (UK) Ltd, Shoreham, England: 2008 Printed in Singapore by KHL Printing Co. Pte Ltd
ii
Introduction RADIO NAVIGATION
Textbook Series
Book Title EASA Ref. No. Subject
1 010 Air Law 010
2 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 1 021 01 Airframes & Systems
021 01 01-04 Fuselage, Wings & Stabilising Surfaces 021 01 05 Landing Gear 021 01 06 Flight Controls 021 01 07 Hydraulics 021 01 08-09 Air Systems
& Air Conditioning 021 01 10 Anti-icing & De-icing 021 01 11 Fuel Systems 021 04 00 Emergency Equipment
3 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 2 021 02 Electrics – Electronics
021 02 01 Direct Current 021 02 02 Alternating Current 021 02 05 Basic Radio Propagation.
4 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3 021 00 Powerplant
021 03 01 Piston Engines 021 03 02 Gas Turbines
5 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 4 022 Instrumentation
022 01 Flight Instruments 022 03 Warning & Recording 022 02 Automatic Flight Control 022 04 Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments
6 030 Flight Performance & Planning 1 031 Mass & Balance
032 Performance
7 030 Flight Performance & Planning 2 033 Flight Planning & Monitoring
8 040 Human Performance & Limitations 040
9 050 Meteorology 050
10 060 Navigation 1 061 General Navigation
11 060 Navigation 2 062 Radio Navigation
12 070 Operational Procedures 070
13 080 Principles of Flight 080
14 090 Communications 091 VFR Communications
092 IFR Communications
iii
Introduction RADIO NAVIGATION
iv
Introduction RADIO NAVIGATION
Contents
PROPERTIES of RADIO WAVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
RADIO PROPAGATION THEORY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
MODULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
ANTENNAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
DOPPLER RADAR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
VHF DIRECTION FINDER (VDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
RADAR PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
GROUND RADAR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
TRAFFIC COLLISION and AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
AREA NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (RNAV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (EHSI) . . . . . . . . . . . 313
GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS (GNSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
LORAN C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
REVISION QUESTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
v
Introduction RADIO NAVIGATION
vi
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
1 CHAPTER ONE
PROPERTIES of RADIO WAVES
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
THE RADIO NAVIGATION SYLLABUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC (EM) RADIATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
POLARISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
RADIO WAVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
FREQUENCY BANDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
PHASE COMPARISON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PRACTICE FREQUENCY (f ) - WAVELENGTH (λ) CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . 11
ANSWERS TO PRACTICE f - λ CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
2
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
3 INTRODUCTION
Radio and radar systems are now an integral and essential part of aviation, without which the current intensity of air
transport operations would be unsustainable. In the early days of aviation aircraft were flown with visual reference to
the ground and flight at night, in cloud or over the sea was not possible. As the complexity of aircraft increased it
became necessary to design navigational systems to permit aircraft to operate without reference to terrain features.
The early systems developed were, by modern standards very basic and inaccurate. They provided reasonable
navigational accuracy for en-route flight over land, but only a very limited service over the oceans, and, until about
40 years ago, flight over the oceans used the traditional seafarers techniques of astro-navigation, that is using sights
taken on the sun, moon, stars and planets to determine position. Developments commenced in the 1910s, continued at
an increasing rate during the 1930s and 1940s and up to the present day leading to the development of long range
systems which by the 1970s were providing a global navigation service.
It is perhaps ironic that, having forsaken navigation by the stars, the most widely used navigation systems in the last
few years are once again space based, that is the satellite navigation systems we now take as being the norm. Whilst
global satellite navigation systems (GNSS) are becoming the standard in aviation and many advocate that they will
replace totally all the terrestrial systems, the ICAO view is that certain terrestrial systems will have to be retained to
back-up GNSS both for en-route navigation and runway approaches.
The development of radar in the 1930s allowed air traffic control systems to be developed providing a control service
capable of identifying and monitoring aircraft such that aircraft operations can be safely carried out at a much higher
intensity than would be otherwise possible. Modern satellite technology is being used to provide a similar service over
oceans and land areas where the provision of normal radar systems is not possible.
THE RADIO NAVIGATION SYLLABUS
The syllabus starts by looking at the nature of radio waves and how they travel through the atmosphere. This is
essential to understand why different radio frequencies are selected for particular applications and also the limitations
imposed. The introductory chapters also cover how radio waves are produced, transmitted, received and how
information is added to and recovered from radio waves.
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC (EM) RADIATION
If a direct electric current (DC) is passed through a wire then a magnetic field is generated around the wire
perpendicular to the current flow.
If an alternating electric current (AC) is passed through the wire then, because the direction of current flow is changing,
the polarity of the magnetic field will also change, reversing polarity as the current direction reverses. At low
frequencies the magnetic field will return to zero with the current, but as frequency increases the magnetic field will
not have collapsed completely before the reversed field starts to establish itself and energy will start to travel outwards
from the wire in the form of electromagnetic radiation ie radio waves.
The resulting EM energy is made up of two components, an electrical (E) field parallel to the wire and a magnetic
(H) field perpendicular to the wire.
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
Figure 1.3. Vertical Polarization. Figure 1.1 Vertical Polarisation
POLARISATION
The polarisation of radio waves is defined as the plane of the electric field and is dependent on the plane of the aerial.
A vertical aerial will emit radio waves with the electrical field in the vertical plane and hence produce a vertically
polarised wave, and a horizontal aerial will produce a horizontally polarised wave.
To receive maximum signal strength from an incoming radio wave it is essential the receiving aerial is in the same
plane as the polarisation of the wave, so a vertically polarised radio wave would require a vertical aerial.
Circular polarisation can be produced in a variety of ways, one of which is using a helical antenna, (see Chapter 22).
In circular polarisation the electrical (and hence magnetic) field rotates at the frequency of the radio wave. The rotation
may be right handed or left handed dependent on the orientation of the aerial array.
For reception of a circularly polarised wave an aerial of the same orientation is required, or a simple dipole aerial.
There are two significant advantages. Firstly in radar systems, if circular polarisation is used, when the energy is
reflected from water droplets the circularity is reversed and therefore the ‘clutter’ caused by precipitation can be
eliminated. Secondly, if a dipole aerial is used the orientation of the aerial is no longer critical, as it is with linear
polarisation, and, clearly, this will be a major advantage in mobile systems, such as cellular phones and satellite
communication and navigation systems.
4
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
5 RADIO WAVES
The length of time it takes to generate one cycle of a radio wave is known as the period and is generally signified by
the Greek letter tau (τ), and measured in micro-seconds (μs). (1μs = 10-6 second).
Period (τ )
Figure 1.2 Sinusoidal Wave - Period
If, for example, the period of one cycle of a radio wave is 0.125μs then the number of cycles produced in one second
would be the reciprocal of this giving:
1 = 1 = 8 000 000 cycles per second which are known as Hertz (Hz). τ 0.125 x 10-6
This is known as the frequency (f) of the wave; hence:
1
f= (1) τ
The frequency of radio waves is expressed in Hertz (Hz). Since the order of magnitude of the frequency of radio waves
is very high, for convenience, the following terms are used to express the frequency:
Kilo-Hertz (kHz) = 103 Hz = 1 000 Hz Mega-Hertz (MHz) = 106 Hz = 1 000 000 Hz Giga-Hertz (GHz) = 109 Hz = 1
000 000 000 Hz
So in the example above the frequency would be expressed as 8 MHz.
The speed of radio waves (c) is the same as the speed of light (which is also EM radiation) and is approximately:
300 000 000 ms-1 (= 300 x 106 ms-1), or 162 000 nautical miles per second
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
Wavelength (λ )
Figure 1.3 Sinusoidal Wave - Wavelength
If a radio wave travels at 300 x 106 ms-1 and the period is 0.125 μs, then the length (λ) of each wave will be:
λ = c.τ (2)
300 x 106 x 0.125 x 10-6 = 37.5 m
This is known as the wavelength. From equation (1) this can also be stated as:
c
λ = (3) f
Giving:
300 x 106
λ=

= 37.5 m 8 x 106
Hence if the frequency is known then the wavelength can be determined and if the wavelength is known then the
frequency can be calculated from:
c
f = (4) λ
Examples:
1. If the frequency of a radio wave is 121.5 MHz calculate the wavelength.
c 300 x 106
λ= =

= 2.47 m f 121.5 x 106

6
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
7 2. If the wavelength is 1515 m, what is the corresponding
frequency?
c 300 x 106
f= = = 198 000 Hz = 198 x 103 Hz = 198 kHz λ 1515
For ease of calculation we can simplify the formulae:
300
f= MHz λ (m)
300
λ= m f (MHz)
But we must ensure that our input arguments are correct, ie to calculate the frequency the wavelength must be in
metres and to calculate the wavelength the frequency must be input in MHz.
Example:
3. Determine the frequency corresponding to a wavelength of 3.2 cm.
Noting that 3.2 cm = 0.032 m the calculation becomes:
300
f= = 9375 Mhz (or 9.375 Ghz) 0.032
4. Determine the wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 357 kHz.
Noting that 375 kHz = 0.375 MHz the calculation is:
300
λ= = 800 m 0.375
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
FREQUENCY BANDS
The radio part of the electro-magnetic spectrum extends from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. For convenience it is divided into 8
frequency bands. These are shown at table 1 with the frequencies, wavelengths and the uses made of the frequency
bands in civil aviation. Note that each frequency band is related to its neighbouring band(s) by a factor of 10.
Civil Aeronautical
Frequency Band Frequencies Wavelengths
Usage
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 – 30 kHz 100 – 10 km Nil
NDB/ADF, LORAN
Low Frequency (LF) 30 – 300 kHz 10 – 1 km
C
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 – 3000 kHz 1000 – 100 m
NDB/ADF, long range communications
long range
High Frequency (HF) 3 – 30 MHz 100 – 10 m
communications
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 m
Short range communication, VDF, VOR, ILS localiser, marker beacons
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 – 3000 MHz 100 – 10 cm
 ILS glidepath, DME, SSR, Satellite communications, GNSS, long range radars
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 – 30 GHz 10 – 1 cm
RADALT, AWR, MLS, short range radars
Extremely High Frequency
30 – 300 GHz 10 – 1 mm Nil
(EHF)
Table 1
8
Properties of Radio Waves Chapter 1
9 PHASE COMPARISON
Some radio navigation systems use the comparison of phase between two signals to define navigational information.
The first important point is that the two signals being compared must have the same frequency, otherwise any phase
comparison would be meaningless. The second point is that one signal will be designated the reference signal and the
other a variable signal and that the comparison must yield a positive result.
Figure 1.4 Sinusoidal Wave - Phase Comparison
To determine the phase difference between 2 signals, first identify the position of (for example) zero phase on each of
the waves, then move in the positive direction from the chosen point on the reference wave to measure the phase angle
through which the reference wave has travelled before zero phase is reached on the variable wave.
In this example, starting at zero phase on the reference wave (point A), we observe that the reference wave has travelled
through a phase angle of 270° before zero phase is reached on the variable wave (point B), hence the phase difference
is 270°.
The relationship can also be found mathematically. At the origin the phase of the reference wave is 0° (= 360°) and
the phase of the variable wave is 090°. Subtracting the instantaneous phase of the variable wave from the instantaneous
phase of the reference wave gives the same result, note the result must always be positive.
Reference – variable = 360° – 90° = 270°
Note: The phase difference must be positive, so if the calculation yields a negative result simply add 360° to get a
positive answer.
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
10
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
11 PRACTICE FREQUENCY (f ) - WAVELENGTH
(λ) CONVERSIONS
In each of the following examples, calculate the frequency or wavelength as appropriate and determine in which
frequency band each of the frequencies lies.
Wavelength Frequency Frequency Band
1 198 kHz
2 2.7 m
3 5.025 GHz
4 137.5 m
5 137.5 MHz
6 3 km
7 329 MHz
8 29 cm
9 500 kHz
10 5 cm
Properties of Radio Waves Chapter 1
ANSWERS TO PRACTICE f - λ CONVERSIONS
Wavelength Frequency Frequency Band
1 1515 m 198 kHz LF
2 2.7 m 111.1 MHz VHF
3 5.97 cm 5.025 GHz SHF
4 137.5 m 2181.8 kHz MF
5 2.18 m 137.5 MHz VHF
6 3 km 100 kHz MF
7 91.2 cm 329 MHz UHF
8 29 cm 1034 MHz UHF
9 600 m 500 kHz MF
10 5 cm 6 GHz SHF
12
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
13 QUESTIONS
1. A radio wave is:
a. an energy wave comprising an electrical field in the same plane as a magnetic field b. an electrical field
alternating with a magnetic field c. an energy wave where there is an electrical field perpendicular to a magnetic
field d. an energy field with an electrical component
2. The speed of radio waves is:
a. 300 km per second b. 300 million metres per second c. 162 nm per second d. 162 million nm per second
3. The plane of polarisation of an electromagnetic wave is:
a. the plane of the magnetic field b. the plane of the electrical field c. the plane of the electrical or magnetic field
dependent on the plane of the aerial d. none of the above
4. If the wavelength of a radio wave is 3.75 metres, the frequency is:
a. 80 kHz b. 8 MHz c. 80 MHz d. 800 kHz
5. The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 125 MHz is:
a. 2.4 m b. 24 m c. 24 cm d. 24 mm
6. The frequency which corresponds to a wavelength of 6.98 cm is:
a. 4298 GHz b. 4.298 GHz c. 429.8 GHz d. 42.98 GHz
7. The frequency band containing the frequency corresponding to 29.1 cm is:
a. HF b. VHF c. SHF d. UHF
Properties of Radio Waves Chapter 1
8. To carry out a phase comparison between two electromagnetic waves:
a. both waves must have the same amplitude b. both waves must have the same frequency c. both waves must have
the same amplitude and frequency d. both waves must have the same phase
9. The phase of the reference wave is 110° as the phase of the variable wave is 315°. What is the
phase difference?
a. 205° b. 025° c. 155° d. 335°
10. Determine the approximate phase difference between the reference wave and the variable
wave: (The reference wave is the solid line and the variable wave is the dashed line)
a. 045° b. 135° c. 225° d. 315°
11. The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 15 625 MHz is:
a. 1.92 m b. 19.2 m c. 1.92 cm d. 19.2 cm
12. Which frequency band is a wavelength of 1200 m?
a. UHF b. LF c. HF d. MF
14
Chapter 1 Properties of Radio Waves
15
Properties of Radio Waves Chapter 1
ANSWERS
1C
2B
3B
4C
5A
6B
7D
8B
9C
10 C
11 C
12 B
16
Chapter 2 Theory
17 CHAPTER TWO
RADIO PROPAGATION THEORY
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
FACTORS AFFECTING PROPAGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
PROPAGATION PATHS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
NON-IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
SKYWAVE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
HF COMMUNICATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
SELCAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
PROPAGATION SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
SUPER-REFRACTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
SUB-REFRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 2 Theory
18
Theory Chapter 2
19 INTRODUCTION
In the context of radio waves the term propagation simply means how the radio waves travel through the atmosphere.
Different frequency bands use different propagation paths through the atmosphere; the propagation path often
determines the uses to which a particular frequency band can be put in either communication or navigation systems.
The different propagation paths associated with particular frequencies can also impose limitations on the use of those
frequencies.
FACTORS AFFECTING PROPAGATION
There are several factors which affect the propagation of radio waves and need to be considered when discussing the
propagation paths:
Attenuation. Attenuation is the term given to the loss of signal strength in a radio wave as it travels outward from
the transmitter. There are two aspects to attenuation:
Absorption. As the radio wave travels outwards from a transmitter the energy is absorbed and scattered by the
molecules of air and water vapour, dust particles, water droplets, vegetation, the surface of the earth and the
ionosphere. The effect of this absorption, (except ionospheric) increases as frequency increases and is a very
significant factor above about 1000 MHz.
Inverse Square Law. The EM radiation from an aerial spreads out as the surface of a sphere so the power available
decreases with increasing distance from the transmitter. For example, if, at a certain distance from a transmitter, the
field intensity is 4 Wm-2 at double the distance that energy will be spread over an area of 4 m2 and the field intensity
will be 1 Wm-2. That is, power available is proportional to the inverse of the square of the range.
1ȱmȱ 4Wȱ
1ȱmȱ ȱ ȱ

1W1W 1W 1W
2ȱm
2ȱm
Rȱ
2ȱxȱRȱ
Figure 2.1 Inverse Square Law
1
P∝ R2
The practical effect of this is that if it is required to double the effective range of a transmitter then the power would
have to be increased by a factor of 4.
Chapter 2 Theory
Static Interference. There is a large amount of static electricity generated in the atmosphere by weather, human
activity and geological activity. The effect of static interference is greater at lower frequencies and at VHF and above
the effect of interference is generally negligible. However, radio waves travelling through the ionosphere will collect
interference at all frequencies. Additionally the circuitry in the receivers and transmitters also produces static
interference. The static, from whatever source, reduces the clarity of communications and the accuracy of navigation
systems. The strength of the required signal compared to the amount of interference is expressed as a signal to noise
ratio (S/N) and for the best clarity or accuracy the unwanted noise needs to be reduced to the lowest possible levels.
Power. An increase in the power output of a transmitter will increase the range, within the limits of the inverse square
law. As noted above, to double the range of a radio transmitter would require the power to be increased by a factor of
4.
Receiver Sensitivity. If internal noise in a receiver can be reduced then the receiver will be able to process weaker
signals hence increasing the effective range at which a useable signal can be received, however, this is an expensive
process.
Directivity. If the power output is concentrated into a narrow beam then there will be an increase in range, or a
reduction in power required for a given range. However the signal will only be usable in the direction of the beam.
PROPAGATION PATHS
There are five propagation paths of which four need to be considered for aviation purposes:
NON-IONOSPHERIC
Surface Wave 20 kHz-50 MHz (Used 20 kHz-2MHz)
Space Wave >50 MHz
PROPAGATIONIONOSPHERICSkywave
20 kHz-50 MHz (Used 2-30 MHz)
Satellite (UHF, SHF)
Ducting <20 kHz
Ionospheric propagation is propagation affected by the properties of the ionosphere. At this stage it is only necessary
to discuss skywave, satellite propagation will be considered in conjunction with global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS) in chapter 19. Knowledge of propagation below 30 kHz is not required.
Non-Ionospheric propagation covers the other propagation paths.
The knowledge of propagation of radio waves in the VLF band is not required for the JAA examinations as there are
no civil aeronautical communication or navigation systems in this band.
20
Theory Chapter 2
21 NON-IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
Surface wave. Surface wave propagation exists at frequencies from about 20 kHz to about 50 MHz (from the upper
end of VLF to the lower end of VHF). The portion of the wave in contact with the surface of the earth is retarded
causing the wave to bend round the surface of the earth; a process known as diffraction.
Figure Figure 1.7. 2.2 Surface Surface Wave Wave. The range achievable is dependent on several factors: the
frequency, the surface over which the wave is travelling and the polarisation of the wave. As the frequency
increases, surface attenuation increases and the surface wave range decreases; it is effectively non-existent above
HF. The losses to attenuation by the surface of the earth are greater over land than over sea, because the sea has
good electrical conductivity. Hence greater ranges are attainable over the sea. A horizontally polarised wave will be
attenuated very quickly and give very short ranges; therefore, vertical polarisation is generally used at these lower
frequencies.
LAND SEA
10ȱkȱȱȱ

ȱ 100ȱkȱȱȱfȱ(Hz)ȱ ȱ 1M ȱȱȱ 10ȱMȱȱȱȱ

100ȱMȱ1ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ10ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ100ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ1,000ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ10,000ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱnmFigure
2.3
This is the primary propagation path used in the LF frequency band and the lower part of the MF frequency band (ie
frequencies of 30 kHz to 2 MHz).
An approximation to the useable range achievable over sea and land for a MF transmission at a frequency of 300
kHz is given by:
Sea: range ≈ 3 x √Power Land: range ≈ 2 x √Power
So, for example, a 300 kHz transmitter with a power output of 10 kW would give a surface wave range of about 300
nm over the sea and 200 nm over the land.
Chapter 2 Theory
Because the surface wave is retarded more over land than over sea there is a change in the direction the wave takes as
it passes from land to sea. The portion of the wave which first passes over the sea accelerates and the wave bends
away from the normal, that is towards the coast. This is known as coastal refraction and will be looked at in greater
detail in ADF.
Figure 2.4 Coastal Refraction
Space wave. The space wave is made up of two paths, a direct wave and a reflected wave.
22
Figure 1.6(a). Space Wave. Figure 2.5 Space Wave
At frequencies of VHF and above radio waves start to behave more like visible light and as we have a visual horizon
with light we have a radio horizon with the radio frequencies. So the only atmospheric propagation at these frequencies
is line of sight.
Theory Chapter 2
23 Figure 1.6(b). Line of Sight. Figure 2.6 Maximum Theoretical Range
There is some atmospheric refraction which causes the radio waves to bend towards the surface of the earth
increasing the range slightly beyond the geometric horizon. Since the diameter of the earth is known and the
atmospheric refraction can be calculated it is possible to determine the maximum theoretical range at which a
transmission can be received. The amount of refraction decreases as frequency increases but for practical purposes for
the JAA syllabus the line of sight range can be calculated using the formula:
Range (nm) = 1.23 x (√HTX + √HRX)
HHTX RX : Transmitter height in feet : Receiver height in feet
At VHF and above it does not matter how powerful the transmitter is, if the receiver is below the line of sight range,
it will receive nothing.
For example: What is the maximum range a receiver at 1600 ft can receive VHF transmissions from a transmitter at
1024 ft?
Range = 1.23 x (√1600 + √1024) = 1.23 x (40 + 32) = 88.6 nm
Note 1: Regardless of the possible propagation paths, if a receiver is in line of sight
with a transmitter, then the space wave will be received.
Note 2: At the time of writing, the JAA Question Bank uses a constant of 1.25 in line of
sight range calculations, but this will be amended to 1.23 in the new syllabus (NPA25); these notes reflect the new
syllabus and consequently answers to Examples are worked out using 1.23.
IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
Before studying ionospheric propagation it is necessary to know about the processes which produce the ionisation in
the upper atmosphere and the properties of the ionosphere that produce skywave.
The Ionosphere. The ionosphere extends upwards from an altitude of about 60 km to limits of the atmosphere
(notionally 1500 km). In this part of the atmosphere the pressures are very low (at 60 km the atmospheric pressure is
0.22 HPa) and hence the gaseous atoms are widely dispersed. Within this region incoming solar radiation at ultra-
violet and shorter wavelengths interacts with the atoms raising their energy levels and causing electrons to be ejected
from the shells of the atoms. Since an atom is electrically neutral, the result is negatively charged electrons and
positively charged particles known as ions.
Chapter 2 Theory
The electrons are continually attempting to reunite with the ions, so the highest levels of ionisation will be found
shortly after midday (about 1400) local time, when there is a balance between the ionisation and the decay of the
ionisation with the electrons rejoining the ions and the lowest just before sunrise (at the surface). In summer the
ionisation levels will be higher than in winter, and ionisation levels will increase as latitude decreases, again because
of the increased intensity of the solar radiation.
Increased radiation from solar flares is unpredictable but can give rise to exceptionally high levels of ionisation, which
in turn can cause severe disruption of communication and navigation systems, particularly those which are space
based. It is not unusual for communication (and other) satellites to be shut down during periods of intense solar flare
activity to avoid damage.
As the incoming solar energy is absorbed by the gaseous atoms the amount of energy available to ionise the atoms at
lower levels reduces and hence the levels of ionisation increase with increase in altitude. However, because the normal
atmospheric mixing processes associated with the lower levels of the atmosphere are absent in the higher levels,
gravitation and terrestrial magnetism affect the distribution of gases. This means that the increase in ionisation is not
linear but the ionised particles form into discrete layers.
Km
e-
F LAYER
D LAYER
Figure 2.7 Effect of Ionisation with Height
The ionisation is most intense at the centre of the layers decreasing towards the lower and upper edges of the layers.
The characteristics of these layers vary with the levels of ionisation. The lowest of these layers occurs at an average
altitude of 75 km and is known as the D-region or D- layer. This is a fairly diffuse area which, for practical
purposes, forms at sunrise and disappears at sunset. The next layer, at an average altitude of 125 km, is present
throughout the 24 hours and is known as the E-layer. The E-layer reduces in altitude at sunrise and increases in
altitude after sunset. The final layer of significance is the F-layer at an average altitude of 225 km. The F-layer
splits into two at sunrise and rejoins at sunset, and increasing in altitude after sunset. The behaviour year, in summer
 it increases in altitude and may reach the of Faltitudes 1the -layer F2-layer reducing in in altitude at sunrise is
dependent on time of excess of 400 km and in winter it reduces in altitude.
E LAYER
24
Theory Chapter 2
25 Figure 2.8 Layers of the Ionosphere
Although, overall the levels of ionisation increase from sunrise to midday local time and then decrease until sunrise
the following morning, the levels are continually fluctuating as the intensity of high energy radiation from the sun
fluctuates. So it would be possible for the ionisation levels to decrease temporarily during the morning, or increase
temporarily during the afternoon.
The structure of the ionosphere gives stable conditions by day and by night. Around dawn and dusk, however, the
ionosphere is in a transitional state, which leads to what can best be described as electrical turbulence. The result is
that around dawn and dusk, radio navigation and communication systems using the ionosphere are subject to excessive
interference and disruption.
Chapter 2 Theory
SKYWAVE
The ionisation levels in the layers increase towards the centre of the layer. This means that as a radio wave transits a
layer it encounters an increasing density of ions as it moves to the centre of the layer and decreasing density as it
moves out of the layer. If the radio waves travel across the layer at right angles they will be retarded, but will maintain
a straight path. However, if the waves penetrate the layer at an angle they will be refracted away from the normal as
they enter, then back towards the normal as they exit the layer.
26
Figure 1.10. Critical Angle (HF Band). Figure 2.9 Skywave Propagation - Critical Angle
The amount of refraction experienced by the radio waves is dependent on both the frequency and the levels of
ionisation. If the radio wave refracts to the (earth) horizontal before it reaches the centre of the layer then it will
continue to refract and will return to the surface of the earth as skywave; this is total internal refraction at the layer.
Starting from the vertical at the transmitter, with a frequency which penetrates the ionosphere, as the angle between
the vertical and the radio wave increases, an angle will be reached where total internal refraction occurs and the wave
returns to the surface. This is known as the first returning skywave and the angle (measured from the vertical) at
which this occurs is known as the critical angle. The distance from the transmitter to the point where the first returning
skywave appears at the surface is known as the skip distance. As skywaves occur in the LF, MF and HF frequency
bands there will also be some surface wave present. From the point where the surface wave is totally attenuated to the
point where the first returning skywave appears there will be no detectable signal, this area is known as dead space.
Theory Chapter 2
27 Figure 1.11. Dead Space and Skip Distance. Figure 2.10 Skywave Propagation - Dead
Space
The height at which full internal refraction occurs is dependent on frequency, but, as a generalisation frequencies up
to 2 MHz will be refracted at the E-layer and from 2 – 50 MHz at the F-layers. Skywave is only likely to occur above
50 MHz when there are abnormal ionospheric conditions associated with intense sunspot or solar flare activity,
therefore, VHF frequencies used for Navigation systems do not produce skywaves.
Effect of change in ionisation intensity. Since the reason for the refraction is the ionisation of the upper atmosphere
it follows that if ionisation intensity changes, then the amount of refraction of radio waves will also change. At a given
frequency, as ionisation increases the refractive index and hence the amount of refraction affecting the radio waves
will also increase. This means that refraction will take place at a smaller critical angle and the skip distance and
dead space will decrease. Conversely, a decrease in ionisation will result in an increase in critical angle, skip distance
and dead space.
Figure 2.11 Skywave Propagation - Effect of Increased Ionisation
Chapter 2 Theory
Effect of change of frequency. For a given ionisation intensity, the amount of refraction of radio waves decreases as
frequency increases, because as frequency increases the energy contained in the radio wave increases and therefore
refraction decreases. So, as frequency increases, the critical angle will increase and the skip distance and dead space
will also increase. As frequency increases, the surface wave range will decrease, so there is an increase in dead space
caused by both the increase in skip distance and decrease in surface wave range. Conversely, a decrease in frequency
will give a decrease in critical angle, skip distance and dead space.
Height of the Layers. The skip distance will also be affected by the altitude of the refracting layers. As the altitude
of the layer increases then the skip distance will also increase and greater ranges will be experienced by refraction at
the F-layer than the E-layer.
LF and MF skywave propagation. During the day the D-region absorbs radio energy at frequencies below about 2
MHz (LF and MF bands). At night the D-region is effectively non- existent so, at these frequencies, sky waves,
refracted at the E-layer are present. This means the skywaves at LF and MF are not reliable for continuous long-range
use and the presence of skywaves at night at the relatively short ranges associated with these lower frequencies will
cause interference with short range navigation (and broadcasting) systems relying on surface wave reception. This
affects ADF and will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.
28
E LAYER
DȱLAYER
SkyȱWaveȱ
EARTH
DAY
E LAYER
NIGHT
SurfaceȱWaveȱ
EARTH
Figure 2.12 LF/MF Skywave Propagation
Theory Chapter 2
29 Achievable ranges. The maximum range for sky wave will be achieved when the path
of the radio wave is tangential at the surface of the earth at both the transmitter and receiver.
A simple calculation shows that the average maximum range for refraction from the E-layer at 125 km is 1350 nm,
and the average maximum range from the F-layer at 225 km is 2200 nm. These ranges will obviously change as the
height of the ionised layers changes.
Multi-hop skywave occurs when the wave is refracted at the ionosphere then the sky wave is reflected back from the
surface of the earth to the ionosphere etc. Multi-hop skywave can achieve ranges of half the diameter of the earth.
Figure 1.12. Single and Double Reflections. Figure 2.13 Multi-Hop Skywave Propagation
VLF Propagation. At VLF frequencies, up to about 20 kHz, the wavelength (15 – 100 km) is of the same order of
magnitude as the altitude of the D-region and E-layer. At these frequencies the surface of the earth and the lower edge
of the ionosphere act as a wave guide, effectively channelling the radio waves around the earth with very little loss of
power, this is known as duct propagation. Theoretically, at relatively modest power levels a VLF transmission could
circumnavigate the planet. As there are no civilian equipments in the VLF band detailed knowledge is not required.
Chapter 2 Theory
HF COMMUNICATIONS
Over inhabited land areas VHF communications are ideal for all communications between aircraft and ground.
However, until satellite communications are fully implemented, the only means of communication between aircraft
and ground when over the oceans, or other uninhabited areas, is either surface wave or skywave. To achieve ranges
of 2000 nm to 3000 nm using surface wave would require frequencies at the lower end of LF or the upper end of VLF.
The use of these frequencies for aeronautical communications would require relatively complex equipment with the
associated weight penalty, and they would be more susceptible to static interference than higher frequencies making
them somewhat tedious to use and they would also have very low data rates. Thus, the only practical means of
communication over long ranges is skywave (until satellite communications are fully implemented).
30
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) for a given range will be that of the first returning skywave and this is the
ideal frequency for that range because it will have had the shortest path through the ionosphere, and therefore, will
have experienced less attenuation and contain less static interference. However, since the ionisation intensity
fluctuates, a decrease in ionisation would result in an increase in skip distance and hence loss of signal. So a
compromise frequency is used, known as the optimum working frequency (OWF), which by decades of
experimentation and experience has been determined to be 0.85 times the MUF.
Since ionisation levels are lower by night than by day it follows that the frequency required for use at a particular
range by night will of necessity be less than the frequency required for use by day. A good rule of thumb is that the
frequency required at night is roughly half that required by day.
Because skip distance increases as frequency increases, the range at which communication is required will also
influence the selection of the frequency to be used. Short ranges will require lower frequencies and longer ranges will
require higher frequency.
Theory Chapter 2
31 A typical example of the sort of problem that may appear is:
An aircraft on a flight from London, UK to New York, USA is in mid-Atlantic at sunrise. The pilot is in
communication with the UK on a frequency of 12 MHz. What frequency can the pilot expect to use with the USA?
DAY
SUNRISE
Answer: 6 MHz.
The wave will be refracted half way between the aircraft and the UK, and half way between the aircraft and the USA.
Mid way between the aircraft and the UK it is day, so a relatively high frequency will be required. Midway between
the aircraft and the USA it is night so a relatively low frequency will be required.
SELCALBecause the frequencies have transited the ionosphere they will have accumulated a considerable
amount of static interference and, because of the long ranges, signals may be received from more than one ground
station. Pilots are required to maintain a continuous listening watch when receiving an ATC service, however, these
factors combine to make HF frequencies very difficult and stressful to listen to. To reduce the stress experienced by
pilots using HF a selective calling system (SELCAL) is installed in HF equipment to alert pilots when ATC wish to
communicate.
Each radio fitted with SELCAL has a unique code comprising 4 letters (eg ABCD). When the aircraft is to be flown
in an area where HF communications are used, the pilot notifies ATC of the aircraft’s SELCAL code. Then, having
made initial contact with ATC and checked that the SELCAL is serviceable, the pilot can rely on ATC using the
SELCAL facility to alert him when communication is required by ATC, if the pilot wishes to communicate with ATC
then he will just make a call. SELCAL is also available on VHF in some remote areas.
NIGHTȱ
Chapter 2 Theory
PROPAGATION SUMMARY
The propagation characteristics of each of the frequency bands are summarised below, where propagation paths are
in brackets this indicates that the path is present but not normally utilised.
Frequency Band Propagation Path
VLF Ducting
Surface Wave
LF
Surface Wave
(Skywave) MF
Skywave
(Skywave) HF
(Surface Wave)
VHF Space Wave
UHF Space Wave
SHF Space Wave
EHF Space Wave
SUPER-REFRACTION
This is a phenomenon which is significant at frequencies above 30 MHz (that is VHF and above). Radio waves
experience greater refraction, that is, they are bent downwards towards the earth’s surface more than in normal
conditions, giving notable increases in line of sight range to as much as 40% above the usual. The conditions which
give rise to super-refraction are:
Decrease in relative humidity with height ➢ Temperature falling more slowly with height than standard ➢ Fine
weather and high pressure systems ➢ Warm air flowing over a cooler surfaces ➢In extreme cases when there is a

low level temperature inversion with a marked decrease in humidity with increasing height (simply, warm dry air
above cool moist air), a low level duct may be formed which traps radio waves at frequencies above 30 MHz giving
extremely long ranges. This phenomenon is known as duct propagation and can lead to exceptionally long ranges.
When interference is experienced on UK television channels from continental stations, the reason for this is the
forming of such a duct.
This phenomenon is most common where warm desert areas are bordering oceanic areas, eg the Mediterranean and
Caribbean seas. It can also occur in temperate latitudes when high pressure predominates, particularly in the winter
months when the dry descending air in the high pressure system is heated by the adiabatic process and is warmer than
the underlying cool and most air.
32
Chapter 2 Theory
33 SUB-REFRACTION
Much rarer than super-refraction, but still of significance in radio propagation, sub-refraction causes a reduction in
the normal refraction giving a decrease in line of sight range by up to 20%. The conditions which give rise to sub-
refraction are:
An increase in relative humidity with increasing height ➢
Temperature decreasing with increasing height at a greater rate than standard ➢
Poor weather with low pressure systems ➢
Cold air flowing over a warm surface ➢
Theory Chapter 2
QUESTIONS
1. The process which causes the reduction in signal strength as range from a transmitter increases
is known as:
a. absorption b. diffraction c. attenuation d. ionisation
2. Which of the following will give the greatest surface wave range?
a. 243 MHz b. 500 kHz c. 2182 khz d. 15 MHz
3. It is intended to increase the range of a VHF transmitter from 50 nm to 100 nm.
This will be achieved by increasing the power output by a factor of:
a. 2 b. 8 c. 16 d. 4
4. A 300 kHz transmitter has an output of 1600 watts, the effective range over the sea will be:
a. 52 nm b. 80 nm c. 35 nm d. 120 nm
5. The maximum range an aircraft at 2500 ft can communicate with a VHF station at 196 ft is:
a. 80 nm b. 64 nm c. 52 nm d. 65 nm
6. What is the minimum height for an aircraft at a range of 200 nm to be detected by a radar at
1600 ft amsl?
a. 25,500 ft b. 15,000 ft c. 40,000 ft d. 57,500 ft
34
Chapter 2 Theory
35 7. Determine which of the following statements concerning atmospheric ionisation are
correct. 1. The highest levels of ionisation will be experienced in low latitudes. 2. Ionisation levels increase linearly
with increasing altitude. 3. The lowest levels of ionisation occur about midnight. 4. The E-layer is higher by night
than by day because the ionisation levels are lower at
night.
a. statements 1, 2 and 3 are correct b. statements 1, 3 and 4 are correct c. statements 2 and 4 are correct d. statements
1 and 4 are correct
8. The average height of the E-layer is ...... and the maximum range for skywave will be ......
a. 60 km, 1350 nm b. 125 km, 2200 km c. 225 km, 2200 km d. 125 km, 1350 nm
9. Concerning HF communications, which of the following is correct?
a. The frequency required in low latitudes is less than the frequency required in high
latitudes. b. At night a higher frequency is required than by day. c. The frequency required is dependent on time of
day but not the season. d. The frequency required for short ranges will be less than the frequency required for
long ranges.
Theory Chapter 2
ANSWERS
1C
2B
3D
4D
5A
6B
7D
8D
9D
36
Chapter 3 Modulation
37 CHAPTER THREE
MODULATION
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
KEYED MODULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
PHASE MODULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 3.4 Comparison of Methods of Modulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
PULSE MODULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
EMISSION DESIGNATORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
First Symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Chapter 3 Modulation
38
 Chapter 3 Modulation
39 INTRODUCTION
Modulation is the name given to the process of adding information to a radio wave or the formatting of radio waves for other
purposes. Of the main forms of modulation, five have application in aviation:
Keyed Modulation Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation Pulse Modulation
The modulation of a radio frequency is generally associated with the transmission of audio information, although the
transmission of data, including that in satellite navigation systems, and the determination of bearing in VOR, for example,
require modulation for other purposes.
Before an audio signal can be added to a radio wave it must be converted to an electrical signal. This will be achieved by
the use of a microphone, which is quite simply a device that converts sound waves to an electrical current.
It will be assumed for AM and FM that this conversion has already been accomplished.
KEYED MODULATION
The simplest way to put information onto a carrier wave is to quite simply interrupt the wave to give short and long bursts
of energy.

●‘K’
Figure 3.1 Morse ‘K’ in Keyed Modulation
By arranging the transmissions into short and long periods of carrier wave transmission we can send information using the
Morse code. This is known as telegraphy and until the development of other forms of modulation was the only means of
passing information. Keyed modulation is still used by some non-directional beacons (NDBs) for identification and will be
discussed further in Chapter 7.
Chapter 3 Modulation
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
In AM the amplitude of the audio frequency (AF) modifies the amplitude of the radio frequency (RF)
Figure 3.2 Amplitude Modulation
As can be seen from the diagram above, positive amplitude in the AF gives an increase in amplitude in the RF and
negative amplitude in the AF gives a decrease in amplitude in the RF.
The process of combining a radio frequency with a current at audio frequencies is known as heterodyning. Looking
in more detail at the process; the heterodyning process combines the two frequencies, leaving the RF unchanged but
producing new frequencies at the sum and difference of the RF and AF. For example an audio frequency of 3 kHz is
used to amplitude modulate a radio frequency of 2182 kHz. The RF remains unchanged but the AF is now split into 2
sidebands extending upwards from 2182.001 kHz to 2185 kHz – the upper sideband (USB) and a lower sideband
(LSB) extending downwards from 2181.999 kHz to 2179 kHz. The spread of frequencies is from 2179 kHz to 2185
kHz giving a bandwidth of 6 kHz, ie double the audio frequency used.
2185 kHz

(25W) ⇧
Upper Side Band (USB)
(100 W) RF 2182 kHz 2182.001 kHz

⇨ (100 W) 2182 kHz

(50 W) AF 3 kHz 2181.999 kHz

(25 W) ⇩
 Lower Side Band (LSB)
2179 kHz
Table 1 AM Side Band Production
40
ModulationChapter 3
41 As can be seen from the table the power that is in the AF is divided equally
between the two sidebands, furthermore the information in the AF is contained in both sidebands. It should also be
noted that only one third of the signal is carrying the information.
SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB)
There is redundancy in double sideband transmissions in that the information is contained in both the upper and lower
sidebands. Additionally, the original RF carrier wave having served its purpose to get the audio information into radio
frequencies is now redundant. So it is possible to remove one of the sidebands and the carrier wave because the
remaining sideband contains all the information. This is known as single sideband (SSB) operation.
2185 kHz

(25W) (150W) ⇧
Upper Side Band (USB)
(100 W) RF 2182 kHz 2182.001 kHz

⇨ (100 W) 2182 kHz

(50 W) AF 3 kHz 2181.999 kHz

(25 W) ⇩
Lower Side Band (LSB)
2179 kHz
Table 2 Single Side Band
When using sky wave propagation for communication, the differing refraction occurring at different frequencies leads
to an increase in distortion if the bandwidth is too large. The ionosphere comprises electrically charged particles which
cause high levels of static interference on radio waves, the use of SSB significantly reduces the effect of this
interference. The MF & HF frequencies used for long range communication are in great demand, hence the use of
SSB transmissions increases the number of channels available. The use of SSB also reduces the amount of power
required. Thus the main advantages of SSB are:
Double the number of channels available with double side band Better signal/noise ratio (less interference) Less
power required hence lighter equipment
Chapter 3 Modulation
FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
In FM the amplitude of the AF modifies the frequency of the RF.
Figure 1.17.
The frequency deviation is primarily dependent on the amplitude of the AF; the greater the amplitude the greater the
frequency deviation. The frequency of the AF determines the rate of change of frequency within the modulated RF.
When used for sound broadcasting the bandwidth permitted by international agreements is 150 kHz, compared to a
maximum bandwidth permitted in AM broadcasting of 9 kHz. Hence FM is generally unsuitable for use below VHF
because of the bandwidth requirement.
For communications the bandwidth can be considerably reduced whilst still maintaining the integrity of the
information, this is known as narrow band FM (NBFM). Typically NBFM systems have a bandwidth of 8 kHz, which
is still greater than the 6 kHz permitted for aeronautical communications and the 3 kHz used in HF communications.
NBFM is not, at present, used in aviation communications.
42
Modulation Chapter 3
43 PHASE MODULATION
In phase modulation the phase of the carrier wave is modified by the input signal. There are two cases: the first is
where the input is an analogue signal when the phase of the carrier wave is modified by the amplitude of the signal;
econdly, with a digital signal it is known as phase shift keying, the phase change reflects a 0 or 1; eg 0° phase shift
indicates a zero and 180° phase shift represents a 1. (Note: this is the simplest case as multiple data can be represented
by using many degrees of phase shift.)
There are two cases used in navigation systems, MLS and GPS. GPS uses binary phase shift keying, MLS uses
differential phase shift keying.
Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation
Figure 3.4 Comparison of Methods of Modulation
PULSE MODULATION
Pulse modulation is used extensively in radar systems and for data exchange in communications systems.
EMISSION DESIGNATORS
In order to easily identify the characteristics and information provided by electronic signals, a list of designators has
been devised. They comprise 3 alphanumerics, where the first letter defines the nature of the modulation, the second
digit the nature of the signal used for the modulation and the third letter the type of information carried.
Chapter 3 Modulation
44
Chapter 3 Modulation
45 For example, VHF radio telephony communications have the designation A3E.
Reference to the table gives the following breakdown:
A - Amplitude modulation - Double sideband
3 - Single channel containing analogue information
E - Telephony, including sound broadcasting
This means an RF carrier wave is being amplitude modulated with speech
HF radio telephony communications have the designation J3E, this gives:
J – Amplitude modulation – single sideband with suppressed carrier
3 - Single channel containing analogue information
E - Telephony, including sound broadcasting
This means an RF carrier wave is being amplitude modulated with speech then the RF carrier wave is being
removed along with one of the sidebands.
It is not necessary to know the details of the table.
Other designators relevant to the equipments discussed in phase 2 are:
ADF N0NA1A or N0NA2A VHF RTF A3E HF RTF J3E VOR A9W ILS A8W Marker Beacons A2A DME P0N
MLS N0XG1D
With the exception of ADF it is unlikely that knowledge of these designators will be examined.
Modulation Chapter 3
QUESTIONS
1. The bandwidth produced when a radio frequency (RF) of 4716 kHz is amplitude modulated
with an audio frequency (AF) of 6 kHz is:
a. 6 kHz b. 3 kHz c. 12 kHz d. 9 kHz
2. Which of the following statements concerning AM is correct?
a. the amplitude of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF b. the amplitude of the RF is modified by the
amplitude of the AF c. the frequency of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF d. the frequency of the RF is
modified by the amplitude of the AF
3. Which of the following is an advantage of single sideband (SSB) emissions?
a. More frequencies available b. Reduced power requirement c. Better signal/noise ratio d. All of the above
4. Which of the following statements concerning FM is correct?
a. the amplitude of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF b. the amplitude of the RF is modified by the
amplitude of the AF c. the frequency of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF d. the frequency of the RF is
modified by the amplitude of the AF
46
Chapter 3 Modulation
47 ANSWERS1 C
2B
3D
4D
Modulation Chapter 3
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
48
Chapter 3 Modulation
49 INTENTIONALLY BLANK
Modulation Chapter 3
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
50
Chapter 4 Antennae
51 CHAPTER FOUR
ANTENNAE
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
BASIC PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
LOADED ANTENNAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
AERIAL FEEDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
POLAR DIAGRAMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
OTHER SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
RADAR AERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Chapter 4 Antennae
52
Antennae Chapter 4
53 INTRODUCTION
Antennae or aerials are the means by which radio energy is radiated and received. The type of antenna used will be
determined by the function the radio system is required to perform. This chapter will look at the principles which are
common to all antennae and at the specialities required for particular radio navigation systems.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
There are two basic types of aerial used for receiving and transmitting basic communications, the half-wave dipole

and the Marconi or quarter wave aerial.Figure 4.1 Half-Wave Diplole Figure 3.5 With the dipole aerial the power
is fed to the centre of the aerial and radiates in all directions perpendicular to the aerial. The Marconi aerial is set on,
but insulated from, a metal surface which acts as the second part of a dipole, with the radio energy radiating
perpendicular to the aerial. Because of the better aerodynamic qualities, Marconi aerials are used on aircraft.
λ4
Figure 4.2 Marconi Aerial
For an aerial to operate with maximum efficiency it must be the correct length for the wavelength of the frequency in
use. As the names imply the ideal length for an aerial is half or quarter of the wavelength of the frequency being
transmitted. However, whilst we regard the speed of propagation of electromagnetic energy as being constant, this is
only true in a specified medium. If the energy passes from one medium to another the speed will change. In the case
of electromagnetic energy, the denser the medium the slower the speed. This needs to be taken into account in the
length of aerials.
The speed of electromagnetic energy in metal is approximately 95% of the free space speed, so our aerial needs to
be 95% of half or quarter the wavelength.
Chapter 4 Antennae
Example: What is the optimum length for a Marconi aerial transmitting on a frequency of 125 MHz?
λ
The wavelength is 2.4 m, so 0.95 x = 57 cm 4
LOADED ANTENNAE
The wavelengths of aeronautical VHF radio telephony are 2.19 m to 2.54 m which means that for maximum efficiency
the aircraft (and ATC) aerial must be adjustable between approximately 52 cm and 60 cm. To achieve maximum
efficiency aerials would have to be adjustable in length, which would pose significant technical problems.
Furthermore, aircraft aerials are about 20 - 30 cm long, so would operate very inefficiently.
To overcome these problems an aerial loading unit (ALU) is fitted in the circuit between the radio equipment and the
aerial. The ALU samples the signal, then through a series of capacitors and resistors balances the signal travelling
to/from the aerial to effect maximum aerial efficiency.
AERIAL FEEDERS
The means by which energy is carried between the aerial and transmitter or receiver is dependent on the frequency in
use and the power levels. At low and medium frequencies a simple wire is adequate to carry the signal over reasonable
distances with little energy loss. As frequency increases the power losses increase and into HF and VHF a twin wire
feeder is more efficient. At UHF frequencies, the power losses in these simple feeders becomes unacceptably high
and a coaxial cable is required.
In the upper part of the UHF band and in the SHF and EHF bands the use of dipole or Marconi aerials is precluded
because of the high energy losses and the way the energy is produced. At these frequencies a waveguide is used to
carry the energy to or from the aerial. The waveguide is a hollow, rectangular metal tube. The internal dimensions of
the tube are determined by the frequency in use, being half the wavelength.
54
Chapter 4 Antennae
55 POLAR DIAGRAMS
A polar diagram is used to show the radiation or reception pattern of an aerial. It is simply a line joining all points of
equal signal strength and is generally a plan view perpendicular to the plane of radiation or reception. From here on
we will talk about radiation only, but the same principle applies to reception.
A dipole aerial radiates most energy at right angles to the aerial with signal strength decreasing towards the ends of
the aerial, where there is no radiation. A three dimensional representation of radiation from such an aerial would be a
torus, centred on the centre point of the aerial:
e 3.4. Omni Directional Transmitter Polar Diagram Figure 4.3 3-D Polar Diagram
Clearly such diagrams would be cumbersome so a plan view of the plane of radiation is used:
Figure 3.4. Omni Directional Transmitter Polar D Figure 4.4 Plan View Polar Diagram
Chapter 4 Antennae
DIRECTIVITY
Many systems require the directional emission or reception of energy, for example; radar, ILS, MLS and many more.
How this directivity is achieved depends on the frequency and application.
The simplest way to achieve directivity is to add parasitic elements to the aerial. If we place a metal rod 5% longer
than the aerial at a distance of quarter of a wavelength from the aerial and in the same plane as the aerial, it will act as
a reflector.
Figure 4.5 Directivity Using Reflector
This reflector re-radiates the energy 180° out of phase, the resulting polar diagram is shown above, with no signal
behind the reflector and increased signal in front of the aerial.
This process can be taken further by adding other elements in front of the aerial. These elements are known as
directors and are smaller than the aerial itself.
Figure 4.6 Improved Directivity Using Reflector and Directors
All will recognise this as being the type of aerial array used for the reception of television signals. The directors have
the effect of focussing the signal into (or out of) the aerial, giving a stronger signal than that which would be generated
by a simple dipole.
However, directivity comes with its own price. As can be seen from the diagram, we have produced a strong beam
along the plane of the aerial, but have also produced many unwanted sidelobes which would receive (and transmit)
unwanted signals. Signals received in these sidelobes produce characteristic ghosting on television pictures, usually
caused by reflections from buildings etc. These sidelobes give major problems which have to be addressed in SSR
and ILS, and also produce problems in primary radars.
56
Antennae Chapter 4
57 OTHER SYSTEMS
The instrument landing system (ILS) uses an extension of this idea to produce the narrow beams of energy required
to guide aircraft along the runway centreline. The localiser aerial array which produces this is an array of 16 or 24
aerials placed in line with half wavelength spacing. There is some modification to the way the signal is fed to the
aerials but the end result is that two narrow beams of energy are produced which are symmetrical, close to the
centreline of the runway:
Figure 4.7 ILS Localiser Polar Diagram
In the automatic direction finder (ADF) a loop aerial is used.
a) LOOP
NULL
NULL

Figure 4.8 Loop Figure Aerial ‘Figure-of-Eight’ 4.2 Polar Diagrams Polar of Diagram Loop a When the
loop is aligned with the incoming signal then there is a phase difference between the signals in each of the vertical
elements of the loop and there will be a net flow of current from the loop. If the loop is placed at right angles to the
incoming signal then the induced currents will be equal and will cancel each other out giving a zero output.
Chapter 4 Antennae
The resulting polar diagram will have two distinct nulls which can be used to determine the direction from which the
radio wave is coming. How this principle is utilised will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
RADAR AERIALS
Radar systems operate in the UHF and SHF bands where waveguides are used to carry the radio energy, and the end
of the waveguide is the aerial. Since radar systems are required to be directional the aerial is placed at the focal point
of a parabolic reflector and the energy is then focussed into a narrow beam.
58
Figure 3.10. Radar Antennae Figure 4.9 Horn Feed to Parabolic Reflector
In principle a very narrow pencil beam should be produced as shown above. However, this does not happen because
the focal point is infinitesimally small compared to the opening of the waveguide, so the energy actually diverges
slightly.
Figure 4.10 Polar Diagram of Parabolic Reflector
Chapter 4 Antennae
59 Additionally, this uneven reflection produces sidelobes which contain sufficient
energy to give valid returns outside the main beam.
The width of the lobe is dependent on the cross-section of the waveguide and the diameter of the reflector. For a
parabolic reflector, this relationship is:
70 x λ Beamwidth = _______ where D is the diameter of the reflector. D
It follows from this formula that to achieve a narrow beam requires either a very large reflector or a very short
wavelength, or both. These problems will be discussed further in Chapter 11. Another type of radar aerial is the
phased array or slotted antenna.
Figure 4.11 Phased Array or Slotted Antenna
This is a flat plate with numerous waveguide size slots cut into it. These slots are fed with the radio energy which
forms a narrow beam similar to a parabolic reflector.
Figure 4.12 Polar Diagram of Phased Array/Slotted Antenna
As can be seen from the diagram the beam is much narrower than that from a parabolic reflector, and with much
smaller sidelobes. This means the power requirements for phased arrays is less than that required for parabolic
reflectors. Hence the advantages of a slotted antenna over the
Chapter 4 Antennae
parabolic reflector are:
Narrow beam ➢ Reduced sidelobes ➢ Less power required for a given range ➢ Narrower pulse ➢ Improved
resolution ➢
60
Chapter 4 Antennae
61 QUESTIONS
1. The ideal length for a Marconi aerial for a frequency of 406 MHz is:
a. 36.9 cm b. 35.1 cm c. 17.5 cm d. 18.5 cm
2. A disadvantage of directivity is:
a. reduced range b. sidelobes c. phase distortion d. ambiguity
3. Which of the following is not an advantage of a slotted antenna (phase array)?
a. reduced sidelobes b. improved resolution c. reduced power d. directivity
4. The ideal length of a half wave dipole for a frequency of 75 MHz is:
a. 1.9 m b. 95 cm c. 3.8 m d. 47.5 cm
Antennae Chapter 4
ANSWERS1 C
2B
3D
4A
62
Chapter 5 Doppler Radar
63 CHAPTER FIVE
DOPPLER RADAR
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
DOPPLER PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
AIRBORNE DOPPLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
JANUS ARRAY SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
QUESTION PAPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Chapter 5 Doppler Radar
64