Alex Krulikowski ‘Copyright © 1999 Effective Training Inc.by Alex Krulikowski As a present and with best compliments from EINAR PETERSEN & CO. D-21373 SALZHAUSEN PO.BOX 1214 WIECHELHORNFELD 11 TELEPHONE: 04172 : 66 53-5 TELEFAX: 04172 -8352 E-MAIL: ep@epeco.de Be oiecatlsNOTE TO THE READER Publisher does not warrant or. guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of the product information contained herein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer Thereader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the instructions contained herein, thereader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions. The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind, including but not limited to, the warranties of fitness for particular purpose or merchantability, nor as any such representations implied with respect to the material set forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the reader’s use of, or reliance upon, this material. For information, address: Effective Training Inc. 2118 S. Wayne Road Westland, Michigan 48186 (734) 728-0909 FAX (734) 728-1260 800-886-0909 www.etinews.com email: alexk@etinews.com (Alex Krulikowski) COPYRIGHT © 1999 BY ALEX KRULIKOWSKI AND EFFECTIVE TRAINING INC. All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced orused in any forth or by any means—graphie, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systenis—without written permission of the publisher. Printed inthe United States of Americawww.Geo-Dim-Tol.irTABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments. . . Foreward......+++ Note to the Instructor. Text Conventions. . Ieon Definitions. .. Chapter SSRN AUNAWNY NNNN NNR NN HR Rm Rm NS SCNAMAWNS SOWNAMARWNHS DS GD&T Review Importance of Product Design Concept of Functional Dimensioning Dimensioning Standards ISO and ASME Comparison Applicable Drawing Standards Drawing Interpretation Using Substandard Drawings Rigid/Non-Rigid Parts Definitions Restraint Notes Restrained Part Datum Usage Form Controls The Datum System Datum Feature Types Datums—Datum Targets Datums—Specialized Application Tolerance of Position Usage Simultaneous and Separate Requirements Composite Position Tolerancing Multiple Single-Segment TOP Tolerancing Conical Tolerance Zone Profile Tolerances Profile—Simultaneous Requirements Profile—Composite Tolerances Profile—Multiple Single-Segment Tolerances Profile—Applications Answers to Selected Questions Glossary 3-1 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-1 10-1 dl-1 12-1 13-1 14-1 15-1 16-1 17-1 18-1 19-1 20-1 21-1 22-1 23-1 24-] 25-1 26-1 27-1 28-1_www.Geo-Dim-Tol.irACKNOWLEDGMENTS Two years in the making, three different drafts, used in seven classes, two rounds of prooftead- ing, countless hours of hard work by many friends, colleagues, coworkers, and... The Ad- vanced Concepts of GD&T is ready for its first printing! Things were looking good. No mysterious viruses this time to hold the book hostage. But, I wanted to\be sure this book was as good as it could be. So... I went to the well again and struck gold! I found a fine group of technical experts who were willing to take time from their busy schedules and help make this book a better resource for all. And they didn’t even get paid for it! Why do they do it? I believe it’s because of their love of the topic. And how lucky we are. Each proofreader did far more than I asked. Their comments and suggestions were so valuable they resulted in many corrections and additions to this book. I cannot imagine writing a book without having this group of friends and colleagues in my comer. I sincerely thank you all. Proofreaders extraordinaire: Robert Bourland General Motors Powertrain Division Dan Carlson Lucas-Varity Bob Charlton AMP Industries Roy Cross Cross Geometric Consulting Brent Davis Ford Motor Company Dave Honsinger Watervliet Arsenal Bob Kistner Conestoga College Michael Murphy General Motors Powertrain Division Dick Powers North Central Michigan College JimRoll General Motors Car Group Larry Smith St. Clair College Lalso owe a debt of gratitude to the fine people of Effective Training. Their hard work was a key element in the success of this project. Brandon Billings Matt Pride Kathy Darfler Donna Pokrywki Sue Fredriksen Jim Todd. Jamy Krulikowski Gary Walls Katherine Palmer Tina White Finally, I would like to thank the students who used preliminary versions of the book and provided feedback and suggestions on a number of ideas and features. Many thanks to all, Alex KrulikowskiFOREWARD The Advanced Concepts of GD&T text has two primary uses: as a text in a second course in geometric tolerancing and as an on-the-job reference. This book requires the reader to already have an understanding of the basics of GD&T, The bookis based on ASME Y14.5M-1994, an internationally recognized standard on dimensioning and tolerancitig. The Advanced Con- cepts of GD&T is intended for designers, product engineers, manufacturing and assembly engineers, CMM operators and quality engineers. What are advanced concepts? Advanced concepts of GD&T differ from fundamentals of GD&T in three ways. First, ad- vanced concepts include a more in-depth discussion on selected GD&T topics that are often not covered in detail in fundamentals classes. Second, advanced concepts cover GD&T topics ina manner that relates closely to how GD&T is used in industry. The examples are more complex and include explanations of tolerancing concepts that are often problematic in the workplace. The third element of advanced concepts is an explanation of items that are not explicitly documented in Y14.5, but are needed and used in industry. Based on Y14.5 : First, let me make it clear that I believe that Y 14.5 is the best dimensioning and tolerancing standard on the planet. However, Y 14.5 isn’t perfect; it does contain vague areas and gaps. This is one of the reasons many people have difficulty applying the Y14.5 standard to drawings in the workplace. When studying the fundamentals of GD&T, approximately 80% of the topic information can be directly related to paragraphs or figures in the standard. The information has a high correlation to the Y14.5 standard. In determining how to apply dimensioning and tolerancing in industry, the concepts that are explicitly documented in the standard drop to 20-40%. The figure below shows the relationship of concepts documented in the standard for fundamentals and advanced concepts. Concepts Documented in ASME Y14.5M - 1994 TS SL AS LS “ 100%) Coverage in Y14.5 0% Fundamental? me advanced ConceptsA few comments from the author In writing about the application of tolerancing, there is often no single correct answer and—in many cases—students may be doing things differently at their workplace, This text offers one possible solution or method for many tolerancing applications. There may be other methods that could work equally as well. A team of proofreaders has reviewed this book prior to publication. The concepts have been used for several years in seminars and classes are often taken from common industrial practices. Many colleagues and students have proofread the material. I have made numerous improye- ments and corrections as a result of their efforts. However, some errors may still exist. I apolo- gize in advance for any errors that do exist and would be deeply grateful to any reader who brings an error to my attention. My snail mail and e-mail addresses are provided in the front of the book.TEXT CONVENTIONS Drawing Conventions There are many engineering drawings used.in this book. In order to focus on the dimensioning topic being discussed, many of the drawings are partial drawings. Insome instances, figures show added detail for emphasis; in some instances, figures are incomplete by intent. Numerical values for dimensions and tolerances are illustrative only. Notes.shownin capital letters on drawings are intended to appear on actual industry drawings. Notes shown in lowercase letters are for explanatory purposes only and are not intended to appear on industry drawings. All drawings are in accordance with ASME Y14.5M-1994. Unless otherwise specified, all angles + 5°. All units are metric. The name of the dimensioning and tolerancing standard is ASME Y14.5M-1994. Itis referred to in the text as Y14.5. When the word “drawing” is used it can mean a traditional paper drawing or an electronic file that contains design information to describe the part. Gage Information In many places throughout the book, hard gages (also referred to as functional gages) are used to explain tolerancing concepts. Hard gages are used because they make it easy to visualize the conditions being described. The fact that hard gages are shown does not mean that a hard gage is required. In most cases, a coordinate measuring machine (CMM) could be used to verify the part compliance, Hard gage tolerances The gages used in this text are described with basic dimensions; no tolerances are shown. In the product design field, gages are considered to have no tolerances; however, in industry, gages do have tolerances. The gage tolerances are usually quite small compared to part tolerances. A rule of thumb is that gage tolerances are 10% of the part tolerances. Gage tolerances are usually arranged so that a (marginally) good part may be rejected, but a bad part will never be ac- cepted. (From paragraph 2.5.4.1 MIL-HD8K-204A[AR] Design of Inspection Equipment for Dimensional Characteristics.)ICON DEFINITIONS The following icons are uSed throughout the book. Author’s Comment In various places throughout this book, the author provides comments. Author’s comments are strictly advisory and are not part of the Y14.5M- 1994 dimensioning standard. When an author’s comment is made, a symbol like the one shown here is shown adjacent to the text material to which the comment applies. The comments usually fall into one oftwo categories: - They discuss a dimensioning situation that is not covered in the Y14.5M-1994 dimensioning standard. - They offer the reader opinions, insights, or tips about the topic being discussed. Design Tip Throughout the book, the author provides design tips. These tips are only advisory, and are not part of the Y14.5M-1994 dimensioning standard. The design tips help designers to apply this tolerancing infor- mation in a cost-effective manner. Inspection Tip Inspection tips are provided in various places throughout the book. These tips are only advisory. Inspection tips provide insights on how certain tolerance specifications could be verified with functional or electronic gaging.www.Geo-Dim-Tol.irGD&T Review CHAPTER GOAL Review the fundamentals of GD&T. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: * Score at least 70% on a fundamentals of GD&T skill survey. + Create a list of the fundamentals of GD&T that need additional study.GD&T Review Introduction This book is based on the ASME Y14.5M-1994 Dimensioning and Toler- ancing Standard. In order to be successful in this course, you must have a good understanding of the fundamentals of GD&T. Hopefully, you have had training in the fundamentals prior to taking this course. This chapter provides a brief review of the fundamentals of GD&T. It also gives you the opportunity to identify GD&T topics that you need to study further to have the prerequisite skills for success in this course. The review covers five major areas of GD&T: definitions, rules & concepts, geometric symbols and modifiers, the feature control frame, and the datum system. Definitions The following definitions are basic terms used in Y 14.5. Review each term and its meaning. Actual Local Size The value ofany individual distance at any cross-section of a feature of size. A two-point measurement is often considered an actual local size. Actual Mating Envelope (AME) For an external feature of size, a similar perfect feature counterpart of the smallest size that surrounds the feature so it contacts the high points of the surface(s). For an internal feature of size, a similar perfect feature counterpart of the largest size that fits inside the feature so it contacts the high points of the surface(s). Basic Dimension A numerical value used to describe the theoretically exact size, true profile, orientation, or location of a part feature or datum target. When a basic dimen- sion is used in the definition of part features, it provides the base point from which permissible variations are established by geometric tolerances: Feature A general term that applies to a physical portion of apart, such asa surface, hole or slot.Feature of Size (FOS) A cylindrical or spherical surface, or a set of two opposed elements, or op- posed parallel surfaces, associated with a size dimension: for example, the diameter of'a hole, the diameter of a shaft. Least Material Condition (LMC) () The condition in which a feature of size contains the least amount of material everywhere within the stated limits of size: for example, the smallest shaft diameter or the largest hole diameter. Maximum Material Condition (MMC) @ The condition in which a feature of size contains the most amount of material everywhere within the stated limits of size: for example, the largest shaft diam- eter or the smallest hole diameter. Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) A term that indicates a geometric tolerance applies at any increment of size of the feature within its size tolerance. In other words, a geometric tolerance applies at whatever size the part feature is produced. Virtual Condition (VC) A worst-case boundary generated by the collective effects ofa feature of size with geometric tolerances specified at MMC or LMC. Worst-Case Boundary (WCB) A general term to refer to the extreme boundary for a FOS that is the worst case for assembly. Depending upon the part dimensioning, a worst-case bound- ary can be a virtual condition, an inner boundary, or an outer boundary. Examples ofmany of the terms are shown in Figure 1-1.Worst-case Boundary = VC = 27.8 a | Mae ea [20 | orignal ae | 60 Worst-case Internal FOS : Boundary Actual local size 1-1 Fundamentals of GD&T Terminology Rules The following rules and concepts are an important part of the fundamentals 0. GD&T. Rule #1 This rule is often referred to as the “envelope rule” or “perfect form at MMC.” Rule #1 states that where only a tolerance of size is specified, the limits of size also control the limits of form. 1-4Rule #1 Applied to an External Feature of Sizé 10.8 WS Fite = O MMC Size and Form Boundary LMC Size Limit 2106 LE @ 10.8 boundary of abe TD Coperrfeect form at MMC Each two-point measurement must be within the specified tolerance Size and form must allow the part to pass thru the boundary Rule #1 Applied to an Internal Feature of Size ois ®s40 Worst-case boundary = 14.0 MMC Size and Form Boundary LMC Size Limit A Yi tolerance 1-2 Rule #1 Examples The examples above are affected by Rule #1 (or the envelope principle) as described in paragraphs a, b, & c. a. The surface(s) of a feature of size shall not extend beyond a boundary (envelope) of perfect form at MMC. This boundary is the true geometric form represented by the drawing. No variation in form is permitted if the feature is produced at its “MMC limit of size. b. Where the actual local size ofa feature of size has departed from MMC toward LMC, a variation in form is allowed equal to the amount of such departure. c. There is no requirement for a boundary of perfect form at LMC. Thus, a feature of size produced at its LMC limit of size is permitted to vary from true form to the maximum variation allowed by the boundary of perfect form at MMC. Rule #1 only applies to features of size. Rule #1 does not affect the location, orientation, or interrelationship between features of size. Therefore, the rela- tionship between individual features must be defined to. avoid incomplete drawing speciations. Geometric tolerances are often used to control the lo- cation, orientation, or interrelationship between features: To Inspection Tip When a feature of size is shown ona drawing, the effects of Rule #1 must be verified. This can be easily accomplished with a full length go-gage. 15Exceptions to Rule #1 Thete are two exceptions to Rule #1: 1. Non-rigid parts 2. Stock sizes, such as sheets, tubing, etc. How to Override Rule #1 Rule #1 always applies to features of size unless overridden. There are'two ways Rule #1 can be overridden: + By applying a straightness control to a feature of size. + By specifying a note, such as, “PERFECT FORM AT MMC NOT REQUIRED” next to a FOS dimension Rule #2 RFS applies to the tolerance condition, FOS datum references, or both, where no material condition modifier is specified. Figure 1-3 shows an example. Author’s Comment Some drawings use a general or title block note to override Rule#1 for the entire drawing. Examples All default to RFS per Rule #2 1-3 Rule #2 ExampleScrew Threads Each tolerance of orientation, tolerance of position or datum reference for a screw thread appliesto the axis of the thread derived from the pitch cylinder. Where an exception to this practice is necessary, the specific feature of the screw thread (such as MAJOR DIA or MINOR DIA) shall be stated under the feature control frame or adjacent to the datum feature symbol, as appli- cable. Figure 1-4 shows an example. M14 X 2-6H $ [g01@ [a Unless otherwise specified, on screw threads, M6 X 1 - 6H all geometric tolerances and datum references apply to the pitch diameter. 1-4 Screw Threads Gears & Splines Each tolerance of orientation, tolerance of position or datum reference speci- fied for features, such as gears and splines, must designate the specific feature of the gear or spline to which each applies (such as MAJOR DIA, PITCH DIA PD, or MINOR DIA). This information is stated under the feature con- trol frame or under the datum feature symbol, as applicable. Figure 1-5 shows an example. go.02 |A PD All geometric tolerances:and datum references specified for gears and splines must designate the specific feature to which it applies. 1-5 Gears & Splines 1-7Bonus Tolerance Whereian MMC modifier is shown, the stated tolerance applies only when the feature being controlled is at its MMC size. As the actual size departs from MMC, you may add the amount of departure to the original stated tolerance. ‘When the MMC modifier is used, the part may be checked with a funetional (fixed) gage. Figure 1-6 shows an example. a A 10.6 ® 102 @ | soa@lalalc + ee Hole cod Total 18} @ Top | Pores arial. 10.2 0.4 0 04 : 10.4 0. 02 03 10.6 O41 04 05 (Basic dimensions not shown) 1-6 Bonus Tolerance Example Figure 1-7 shows how to determine the amount of bonus tolerance permis- sible in an application. The MMC modifier in the tolerance portion of the feature control frame denotes that a bonus tolerance is permissible The maxi- mum bonus tolerance is equal to the difference between the MMC and the LMC of the toleranced FOS. 2.0 max bonus al By Denotes a bonus tolerance “Los eat is permissible e ep 0.6 max bonus 6.0 & oy AlBic Denotes a bonus tolerance, is permissible 46. 1 The max bonus tolerance is the difference between 16.0 MMC and LMG of the toleranced FOS = 0.8 |e - alBi[c Denotes a bonus tolerance is permissible (Basic dimensions not shown) 1-7 Determining the Amountof Bonus ToleranceGeometric Symbols and Modifiers There are fourteen symbols used in geometric tolerancing. The symbols and their basic application rules are shown in Figure 1-8. * When applied to a planar surface Geometric Tolerancing Reference Chart (Per ASME ¥14,5M-1994) Can be Can be Type of Geometric Symbol Can be applied toa ey cos a use feaneae. affected by| affected by, Eaves hi tie ey Feature | Feature of| doundary | reference | modiler | moditer | 200mus | shit | mcrtior (surface) size dim. Straightness — Yes Yes Yes* Yes* YesD Fiatness cz Form Circularity Oo No No No No No No. No No Cylindricity x : Perpendicularity ie Orientation Yes Yes* Yes Yes Yes* YesO YesO Yes* Yes* Yes No No No No No Runout Yes* Total Runout Profile of a Line Profle Profile of a Surface No Yes Yes** Yes Yes* YesO * When applied to a feature of size dimension A) Fora dehin reference onty “* Can also be used as a form contol without a datum reference O When a datum feature of size is referenced with the MMC modifier CO When an MMC or LMC modifier is used © 1996 Effective Training Inc] 1-8 Reference ChartAuthor's Comment In Y14.5M-1994 an option still exists to use the (S) symbol to denote RFS in position callouts. There are sevencommon modifiers used in geometric tolerancing. The sym- bols and their basic uses are described in Figure 1-9, ™) © No ‘Symbol Seven Common Modifiers Maximum Material Condition Modifier (MMC) The tolerance applies when the part feature is at max- imum material condition. Least Material Condition Modifier (LMC) The tolerance applies when the part feature is at least material condition. Regardless of Feature of Size (RFS) The tolerance applies at whatever size the part feature is produced. Tangent Plane Modifier Only a plane tangent to the high point(s) of the toleranced planar feature must be within the tolerance zone. Free State Modifier The geometric tolerance applies when the part is not restrained. Projected Tolerance Zone Modifier The tolerance zone is projected above the part surface. Diameter Symbol Replaces the word “diameter” on a drawing. It also used inside a feature control frame to denote a cylindrical tolerance zone. 1-9 Seven Common ModifiersThe Feature Control Frame The feature control frame is the basic tool used to communicate geometric tolerance information. The feature control frame consists of: 1. Type of control (geometric characteristic symbol) 2. Tolerance zone size, shape and modifiers + The tolerance zone shape (precedes the tolerance zone size) The diameter symbol (2) denotes a cylindrical tolerance zone The spherical diameter symbol (S @ ) denotes a spherical tolerance zone * The conditions under which tolerance applies (MOOOOESD) 3. Up to three datum references if applicable ((M) ,(L)) Figure 1-10 shows examples of feature control frames. [70S essence zone size Geometric characteristic symbol Ene To. Tolerance shee zone modifier Geometric characteristic symbol Tolerance zone size Feature Control Frame With a Datum Reference Feature Control Frame , [214@ ¥ [G01 oF @[s14@/A | go1@/e Two Single-Segment Feature Control Frames Composite Feature Control Frame 1-10 Feature Control Frame ExamplesThe Datum System The datum system is a key element in the language of geometric tolerancing. The fundamentals of the datum system are covered in five major topics: termi- nology, datum identification, datum referencing, datum targets, and datum concepts. Terminology The following terms are important terms related to the datum system. Datum The theoretically exact plane, point or axis from which a dimensional mea- surement is made. Inspection equipment is often used to simulate datums. Datum Feature A part feature that contacts a simulated datum. Datum Feature Simulator Asurface of adequately precise form (such as a surface plate or mandrel) that is used to simulate a datum plane or to establish an axis. A simulated datum is used as a datum for inspection purposes. Datum Targets Symbols that describe the shape, size, and location of gage elements that are used to establish datum planes or a datum axis. Figure 1-11 shows examples of datums, datum features, and datum feature simulators.Datum feature (Actual part surface) Datum plane A (True geometric counterpart of datum feature A) Surface plate aaa datum plane A (or datum feature simulator) (Plane derived from the Surface plate (or datum feature simulator) datum feature simulator) Datum feature (actual part surface) Simulated datum plane A (Plane derived from the datum feature simulator) Datum plane A (True geometric counterpart of datum feature A) Datum Axis A (RFS) Datum feature simulator Datum feature A — a (Gage element adjustable around datum feature) ‘Simulated datum axis A / is the centerline of the hole in the gage (Considered as datum axis A) Simulated datum feature A (Considered as true geometric counterpart) 1-11 Datum TerminologyDatum Identification The symbol for specifying datums is showniin Figure 1-12. This symbol is used to specify a datum plane, centerplane, or axis. The location of the sym- bol on the drawing is used to denote which type of datum is being specified. XX XX XX XX 5 ax gm E ax @/als@lE@ A! 5 --| -_ Fa J xX XX @ oe [A] c Datum Datum , Letter Type Denoted by the datum symbol touching. . . = A The edge view of a surface B Planar An extension line (must be offset from the dimension lines) c A feature control frame which is applied to the surface D An extension line aligned with the dimension Centerplane & 12 An extension line replacing one side of the dimension line and arrowhead E The surface of a diameter G The beginning of a leader line of a diameter dimension Axis H A feature control frame that is applied to a diameter J A feature control frame that is applied to a pattern of holes 1-12 Datum Identification 1-14Datum Target A datum target application uses two symbols: a datum target identification symbol and a symbol that denotes which type of gage element is to be used. The datum target identification symbol is shown in panel A of the figure below. The symbol is divided into two parts with a horizontal line. The bottom half denotes the datum reference letter and the target number associated with that datum; the top half contains gage element size information when applicable. The leader line from the symbol specifies whether the datum target exists on the’surface shown or on the hidden surface (far side) of the part. Ifthe leader line is solid, the datum target exists on the surface shown (datum targets B1 and B2, and datum target C1 in panel B of the figure below). Ifthe leader line is dashed, it denotes that the datum target exists on the hidden surface of the part (datum targets Al, A2, and A3 in panel B of the figure below). When a datum target symbol is used on a drawing, it can be accompanied by the datum identification symbol. Figure 1-13 shows an example of datum identifi- cation. A Datum Target Identification Symbol Target area size (where applicable) Datum identifying letter Target number B Datum iTargel = 1-13 Datum Target Identification. Inspection Tip When a drawing contains da- tum targets and a CMM is used to inspect the tolerances; mea- surement uncertainty is re- duced if a gage fixture is‘used to simulate the datum reference frame. Design Tip The leader line extending from a datum target does not include an arrowhead, 1-15ATT Datum Target Point A datum target point is specified by an X-shaped symbol, consisting ofa pair of lines intersecting at 90°. The symbol is shown and dimensioned on the plan view of the surface to which it is being applied (see panel A of the figure below). Where this type of view is not available, the symbolcan beshown and dimensioned in two adjacent views (see panel B of the figure below). Basic dimensions should be used to locate datum target points relative to each other and the other datums on the part. Figure 1-14 shows an example ofa datum target point. A datum target point is often simulated in a gage by a spherical-tipped pin. et aaa | | a | [is] ve | B Meaning Datum plane B oe Jatum plane A 7 I \ | 1 56 = 24 Datum plane C Spherical-tipped gage pin for datum targetC 1-14 Datum Target Point 1-16Datum Target Line Figure 1-15 illustrates the three'ways to specify a datum target line: (A) a phantom line on the plan view of a surface, (B) an Yon the edge view ofa surface, and (C) a combination ofa phantom line and an X. Basic dimensions should be used to locate the datum targets relative to other targets and da- tums. Author’s Comment Method B in Figure 1-15 can be mistaken for a datum target point. Methods A and C are preferred choices. 1-15 Datum Target Lines A datum target line is often simulated in a gage by the side of a gage pin. Figure 1-16 illustrates a gage for simulating a datum target line. Drawing Meaning Datum plane E Kes Datum plane D Datum plane F i Gage pin for datum target F 1-16 Gage for Simulating Datum Target Lines1-18 Datum Target Area There are three ways to specify a datum target area. A datum target area is designated by drawing the outline of the gage for simulating the datum target area on the part surface. The outline is shown in phantom lines, and the shape is crosshatched as shown in Figure 1-17 panel A. The shape, size, and loca- tion of the area are described with basic dimensions. If the target area is circular, the diameter may be specified in the upper half of the datum target symbol as shown in Figure 1-17 panel B. For a circular target area, an X may be shown on the part surface and the diameter of the area shown in the datum target symbol as shown in Figure 1-17, panel C. A datum target area is often, simulated in a gage with a flat-tipped gage element. wd | 1 1 ' t 1 ' 1 1 1 t Meaning 1 Datum plane C ie Datum plane A Datum plane B 1 Three flat-tipped gage 1 pins © 12:0 located by basic dimensions from the product drawing 1-17 Datum Target AreasDatum Concepts Importance of Datum Sequence When referencing datums in feature control frames, the order in which the datum references appear has a major effect on the inspection of the part. Panels | and 2 of Figure 1-18 show how using a different sequence for hold- ing the part during inspection would affect the measurements of the hole loca- tion. The sequence of the datums referenced affects the measurement obtained. g®8 8.0 Author’s Comment & [904 [A] 8] shown in panei 1 If coordinate tolerancing was OR used to locate the hole, the @ [goa [8 | %] Shown tn panet 2 datum sequence would have to be assumed by the inspec- tor. @ A= Primary datum ® 8 = Primary datum B = Secondary datum A= Secondary datum Batumi L- Datum A Actual Part re Datum B 1-18 Datum Sequence ExampleInspection Tip When inspecting a part that uses more than one datum ref- erence frame, the inspector must ensure:that each dimension is taken relative to the appropri- ate datum reference frame. Inspection Tip When inspecting a FOS, the measurement should not be relative to any datum reference frame. 1-20 Datum Related vs. Feature of Size Dimension Only dimensions that are related to a datum reference frame through geomet- ric tolerances should be measured in a datum reference frame. Ifa dimension is not associated to a datum reference frame by a geometric tolerance, then there is no specification on how to locate the part in the datum reference frame. Figure 1-19 shows a comparison between datum related and feature of size dimensions. 11.0 % Bi07 [oxx@]olelF] Datum plane F NOTE: The hole locations are measured from the datum reference frame and the 36.0-36.2 and'the 8840.1 dimensions (a FOS) should not be measured from the datum reference frame. 1-19 Datum Related vs. FOS DimensionsDatum References at MMC When a FOS datum is referenced at MMC, the gaging equipment that serves as the datum feature simulator is a fixed size. The datum axis or centerplane is the axis or centerplane of the gage element. The size of the true geometric counterpart of the datum feature is determined by the specified MMC limit of size or, in,certain cases, its MMC virtual condition. Figure 1-20 shows an example ofthe effect of using the MMC modifier. Referencing a FOS datum at MMC has two effects on the part gaging: 1. The gageis fixed in size. 2. The part may be loose (shift) in the gage. Drawing a 128 , 2120 Gage for Establishing Datum Axis A Datum axis A 1 ne (o74 Fixed size ixed size (Virtual Condition) (Virtual Condition) or : or eh (Worst-case Boundary) (Worst-case Boundary) [ Part axis 1-20 Effects of Using the MMC Modifier 1-211-22 Datum Features at Virtual Condition A virtual condition datum is when a FOS datum feature is referenced at MMC, but simulated in the gage at its virtual condition boundary. There are two cases where virtual condition boundary datums apply: Case One: When a straightness control is applied to a feature of size datum feature Case Two: When secondary or tertiary datum features of size in the same datum reference frame are controlled by a location or orientation control with respect to the higher ranking (primary and /or secondary) datum(s) Figure 1-21 illustrates these two cases. Case #4 - Straightness Applied to a Datum Feature of Size a 388 oe ont [SiON @) —]e02 @] | +—--—- Gage Element for “Establishing Datum, Axis A J Gage Datum axis A i Ty Fixed size (es) - 1212.8] Fixed size ¥ (Virtual Condition) Uaias Condition) £ v (Worst-case Boundary) Part axis (Worst-case Boundary) Case #2 - Orientation with Respect to the Higher Ranking (Primary) Datum a A ax 042 @ [202 [As] 128 8 120 1 [soz @[a 8 Gage Element for Establishing Datum Axis Bo stum axis 8 {@ 31.8] Virtual Condition Datum plane A 1-21 Virtual Condition Datum ExampleHell Datum Shift Whenever a FOS datum feature is referenced at MMC, the gage element (datum feature simulator) that simulates the perfect feature counterpart is fixed in size. Since the gage is fixed in size but the part datum feature of size may vary within its size limits, there may be some looseness between the part and the gage. Datum shift is the allowable movement, or looseness, between the part datum feature and the gage. Datum shift may resultin additional tolerance for the part. Figure 1-22 shows an example of datum shift. a4 g 128 O[21@ [A 120 Gage Element for Establishing Datum Axis A Gage Datum axis A ye oak a (itil irtual Conditio (Virtual Condition) (Worst-case or Boundary) (Worst-case Part axis Bounda a coe ») Actual Mating Diametral Envelope of Datum Datum Shift Feature A Possible MMC D126 0.0 © 12.4 0.2 122 04 LMC ® 12.0 0.6 1-22 Datum Shift Example 1-231-24 r 1-GD&T Review Tolerance Stacks Using TOP at MMC Tolerance stacks on a part that involves TOP applied at MMC can be best learned by using the gage method. The gagemethod involves using the car- toon gage to calculate part distance. A major advantage of the gage method is that the effects of bonus tolerances or datum shift are automatically included in the analysis. The gage method involves five steps: 1. Draw the cartoon gage. 2. Draw the part on the gage in the position that gives the extreme condition being calculated. 3, Label the start and end points of the distance being calculated. (The start and end points are always on the part.) 4. Establish a path of continuous known distances (either the part or the gage can be used) from the start point to the end point of the calculation. : 5. Calculate the answer. The five steps for the gage method are demonstrated in Figure 1-23. On this part, the max. and min. distance "X" is to be calculated. In step one, the cartoon gage shows the gage pins for both of the toleranced holes. Insteps two, three, and four, the part is drawn on the cartoon gage. The part is shown in the position that creates the max. or min. condition. An "X" is drawn on each plate where a part surface touches a gage surface. The stack indicator is shown on the start point of the stack. The stack path is labeled. Step five shows the calculation for the max. or min. condition.Drawing b |o02 @|A|B@) a Fae 3 ey Ado orm oa C02 (d Max distance X 30 Holes O apart PV iM ee clea Mom RU ECL eer) Min distance X Max distance X SUS CRU le Max distance X A™~- 5.0 Gage pin radius B+ 10.0 “Gage pin location C - 1.6 Gage pin radius + 3.4 Max distance X ' ' I I I 1 1 I Min distance X mOoOQmw> ++ He + LMC hole dia, Gage pin radius Gage pin location Gage pin radius LMC hole dia. Min distance X 1-23 Tolerance Stacks Using TOP at MMC Holes togetherFigure 1-24 shows another example of apart distance calculation on a part thatinvolves TOP. On this part, the max. and min. "X'"is to be calculated. The gage method was used to find the distances. Note that in the max. X calcula- tion, the upper limit of the width dimension (70.4) was used inthe calculation because it results in distance X becoming greater. In the min. X calculation, the min. of the width dimension (69.6) and the LMC hole size were used because they result in distance X becoming smaller. Drawing STEPS A - 3.5 Gage pin radius B - 60.0 Gage pin location © +70.4 Max width dimension from datum plane B + 69 Maxdistance X ‘STEPS - 86 LMC hole dia. += 8,5...Gage pin radius = 60.0 Gage pin location + 69.6 Min width dimension from datum plane 8 + 45 Min distance X com> STEPS 2, &4 1-26 1-24 Tolerance Stacks Using TOP at MMCAO CGA EXERCISE 1-1 GD8T SKILL SURVEY Questions 1-13 are multiple choice. Circle the best answer. 1. Rule #2,states that. . . A, MMC is implied for a tolerance of position. B. perfect form at MMC is required. C. RFS is the default for all geometric controls. D. Rule #1 is overridden when a geometric control is applied to a feature of size. E. surfaces shown at right angles are an implied 90°. 2. The is the condition in which a feature of size contains the least amount of material. : A. least material condition B. virtual condition C. worst-case boundary D. actual mating envelope 3. A datum target area is simulated in the gage witha gage pin. . spherical-tipped cylindrical . conical-tipped . hollow-tipped flat-tipped MOOW> 4. Referencing a feature of size datum at MMC causes two effects. The datum feature simulator isa fixed size and... . no datum shift is permissible. . adatum shift is permissible. . avariable gage must be used for the datum feature simulator. . the part is more accurate. the datum feature must be perfect. MOOD 5. Rule#! states. .. A. lines shownat 90° are an implied 90° angle. B. perfect form at MMC is not required. C. perfect form at MMC is required. D. MMCis implied unless RFS is stated. E. RFS is implied unless MMC is stated. 1-27EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY (CONT) 6. Rule #1 can be overridden by. . . A. astraightness control applied to the feature of size. B. Rule #2: C. ‘atolerance of position applied to a feature of size. D. any geometric control at MMC applied to a feature of size. E, the MMC modifier. 52 50 é 42.2 41.8 [02 [AM Questions 7 - 10 refer to the drawing above. hs Datum Ais... A. the centerplane of the 50 - 52 dimension. B, ‘aplanar datum. C. the centerplane ofa 52 wide boundary. D. illegal. E. the axis of the part, The maximum amount of bonus tolerance permissible for the TOP control is... A. 0 B. 0.2 C. 0.4 D. 0.6 E. 2.6 1-28EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY (CONT) 9. The maximum amount of datum shift permissible for the TOP controlis. . . A. 0 . 0.2 0.4 WAN) 2.6 moaw 10. The virtual condition of the 41.8 - 42.2 openingis. .. A. 41.6 B. 41.8 C. 42.0 D. 42.4 E. 44.4 [701 OA boa a 48 4007) 202 @/A[B Questions 11-13 refer to the drawing above. 11. The virtual conditionof the 4.0 - 4.8 diameter is... A. 3.8 . 4.0 48 . 5.0 0.2 moan 1-29EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY (CONT.) 12. The maximum amount of datum shift permissible with the TOP controlis. . . A.0 B. 0.2 C..0.6 D»0.8 13. E 1.0 The parallelism control. . . moOw> . limits the flatness of the surface to 0.1. overrides Rule #1. . does not control the flatness of the surface. . isillegal. may have up to 0.6 bonus tolerance. Questions 14-18 are true/false. Circle T for true and F for false. 14. 15: 16. 17: £ iB F A datum feature is a part feature. A dashed line from the datum target symbol to the datum target indicates that the datum target is movable. When a feature of size is used as a datum feature, a datum shift is always permissible. ™) is the symbol for minimum material condition. ®© is the symbol for least material condition. Questions 19-22 are multiple choice. Circle the best answer. 19. Rule #1 does not apply to. . . planar features of size. cylindrical features of size. non-rigid parts. external features of size. rigid parts. moop> 1-30EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY (CONT: 20. A bonus toleranceis. .. always available when a geometric control is used. an additional tolerance for a feature of size dimension. . always available when a feature of size datum is referenced. only available on non-tigid parts. an additional tolerance for a geometric control. BOOw> 21. When specifying datum targets, the “ ——-—--—— ” symbol denotes a datum target. .. line. area. . plane, . point. symbol. MOOD 22. The actual mating envelope ofan external diameters. . . the smallest perfect cylinder that contacts the high points of the diameter. the size ofa two-point measurement along the diameter. . equal to the MMC of the diameter. . a fixed cylinder equal to the worst-case boundary of the diameter. the Rule #1 boundary. MOAW> 1-31Chapter 1-GD&T Review EXERCISE 1-1 GDAT SKILL SURVEY (CONT) 26.6 26.2 A Questions 23-26 refer to the drawing above. Fill in the chart below. For each datum, put an “X” in the appropriate column. Acenterplane| Anillegal datum specification 1-32Chapter 1- GD&T Revie EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY (CONT.) 14.2 13.8 | 0.2 (v)| A (mM) 26.8 26.0 A Questions 27 and 28 refer to the drawing above. 27. Whatis the maximum amount of datum shift permissible with the TOP control? A. 0 B. 0.2 Cc. 0.4 D. 0.6 E. 0.8 28. Whatis the maximum amount of bonus tolerance permissible with the TOP control? A.50 B. 0.2 C. 0.4 D. 0.6 E. 0.8 1-33Chapter 1 - GD&T Review EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY-(CONT) 101 Of | 172 @ 170 o1@ | 02@) [a8 @ lL @) Questions 29-38 refer to the above drawing. For each feature control frame, indicate on figure below ifit is legal or illegal. 30. B 07 [als 32. 0.1 (M)@) 15 /a}B allel a o 8 iS Q s 3 64 x 2eo (@) [$]eo. @@® 15 > 8] 19.6 ® 10.0 OEZOE @ 140 AREAS) sae aclelalel i : a F EooooodsoooEaad EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY (CONT) © | 901M) 7 on oO L704 Questions 39 and 40 refer to the drawing above. 39. Whenchecking the location of the hole, the part will have a minimum of. point(s) of contact with the tertiary datum. A.3 van . a . 0 28.0-28.6 dimension should be measured from these datums: A. Bonly B. A,B, andC C. AandB D. None 40. Zl 1-35Chapter 1-GD&T Review EXERCISE 1-1 GD&T SKILL SURVEY (CONT) 41. Calculate the max. distance X 42. Calculate min. distance Y 1-36EXERCISE 1-2 SELF-ASSESSMENT OF GD&T, FUNDAMENTALS Rate your understanding of each topic. Place an X in the column that represents your assessment of your knowledge level. Connect your Xs with a line. List your greatest strengths and weaknesses below. Needs to be Reviewed Fully Understand ‘Skill Survey t0| 20 | s0 | 40 | 50 | 0 70 | 20 | 20 100, Topic Question # Terminology 2,14,18,22 | | | | Rules 1,5,6,19 Modifiers 13,17,18 Bonus 8,20,28 Datum Shift 91224 [7 | | ae _ i ae oe ee Be 27,3940 oa Virtual Condition Planar Datums Feature of Size Datums Datum Targets Recognizing Improper ca es Calculating Part Distances WEAKNESSES: STRENGTHS: 41-37Chapter 1- GD&T Re 1-38Importance of Product Design CHAPTER GOAL Understand the importance of product design. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: + Describe how the product design affects costs in production, assembly, administration, and engineering. + List the consequences of drawing errors. + List three advantages of GD&T.Author's Comment This text discusses design as communicated though drawings. The same design requirements apply with electronic design informa- tion. Product Design Impact Product Design Effect on an Organization Product design affects every area of an organization, as shown in Figure 2-1. The design sets the goals for a number of different departments, soifit fails to effectively communicate these goals, the entire organization is less efficient. Valuable time, money and resources are lost until everyone clearly under- stands what information the design is intended to convey. Gage Planning Machinists 2-1 Impact of Product Design on the OrganizationIn the meantime, when designs poorly communicate design intent, costs go up while profits go down. Some examples of typical costs that are affected by a product design are shown in Figure 2-2. Administrative Costs Start Up Costs, Production Delays Overhead, Profit Margin, Revisions to Purchase Orders Materials Costs Material Type, Amount. Heat Treat, ‘Special Finishes, Etc Facilities Costs ‘Shop Size, Make vs. Buy, No. of Employees, Type of Equipment Production Costs Type of Machines, Scrap Rates, Tolerances, Special Tools, Oies, Tool Life, Rework Costs Change Requests, Prototypes, Test Programs, Redssign, 0 Costs Marketing Costs ngoing ce, Service, Warantee, Legal, Product Liability, Laced latest Assembly Costs Service After Salo ‘Automatic v8, Manual Combined vs. Separated Pieces Method of Fastening No. of 2-2 Effects of Design on Cost In addition to communicating clearly, the design must represent a product that meets its technical specifications. The design team derives these specifica- tions from the stated wants and needs of the customer. The team converts the product technical specifications into product designs, which will in turn be translated into component designs.apter 2 - Importance T Author’s Comment This course only touches briefly upon simultaneous engineering, as the subject is vast and there are many books that deal exclusively with the topic. 2-4 Frequently the design process will include a process known as simultaneous engineering. Simultaneous engineering is a process where several key de- partments of the organization are actively involved in the product design, with each department adding its own specialized input. It often results in better products at lower costs. Figure 2-3 shows a simultaneous engineering model. Product Engineering + Product analysis * Product technical specifications * Problem solving + Product interface * Producticomponent design impact Test/Development + Test result feedback * Validate for production Manufacturing Base process selection Component process plans Assembly Process validation plans \ ¥v Assembly : i ‘ process plan Machine selection . i Make vs, buy decisions ee eee ‘Component design input Product vy Design a Design Pa claps ee Pome + Prototype procurement ci + Make vs. buy decisions A x oie aa + Supplier selection paid Tolerance analysis. Financial Quality * Cost tracking + Design failure mode system analysis Gaging plan Audit eng./mfg, Field report feedback Administration Manages the department interfaces Makes business decisions 2-3 Simultaneous Engineering ModelThe Need for Precise Communication FORMAL PRECISE VAGUE INFORMAL 2-4 Communications Model U.S. CONSTITUTION NEWSPAPER MENU SONG LYRICS CASUAL CONVERSATION There are many kinds of communications; some are formal and some are informal. Figure 2-4 shows a communica- tions model. A casual conversation and song lyrics are examples of informal communica- tions; they do not need to be very precise. Other types of commu- nication may be very formal and precise. The United States Constitu- tion is an example ofa highly formal type of communication. The in- terpretation of the Con- stitution has been chal- lenged in courtrooms for hundreds of years. Communications that need to be precise are often the subject of considerable debate. An engineering drawing is a communications tool that affects many parts of an organization. Itis considered a legal document; therefore, it should be treated as a very formal, precise document. An engineering drawing should fully de- fine the part, so that verbal communication of part requirements is not needed.2-6 Consequences of Drawing Errors Engineering drawings not only need to communicate precisely, they also need to be correct. A drawing error can be very costly to an organization. The following analysis is an example based on a medium-sized manufacturing firm. Figure 2-5 shows the typical costs resulting from a drawing error. Ifa drawing error is found within the design department, it can be corrected inexpensively. The cost is simply the time required to fix the error. Let’s say one to ten dollars. COST OF A DRAWING ERROR When discovered by the... Design Dept. | Model Shop | Production Group Customer $2,000 - 100,000 $50,000 - 1,000,000 }} 2-5 Cost of a Drawing Error Ifthe error is missed in the design department and is discovered in the model shop, it may cost several hundred dollars to fix it. This is because now, in addition to the time to fix the drawing, additional costs may be involved, such as lost material, machine time, gaging and tooling costs. Even worse, let’s say that a part described on a drawing that contains an error gets into production. At this stage the costs escalate quickly. Just the cost to process the paperwork for fixing the drawing error may be several thousand dollars. In addition, gaging costs, tooling costs and scrap costs can easily bring the total to over a hundred thousand dollars.ice of Product Ifa drawing error gets into the final product andit’s shipped to the customer, the costs that result from the errorcan be even higher. If a product recall is involved, it can easily cost the organization hundreds of thousands of dollars. Ifa product liability lawsuitis involved, the costs that result from the error can escalate into the millions. Drawing errors cost the organization in four ways: 1, Wasted money 2. Lost time 3. Scrapped material 4. Decreased customer satisfaction Drawing errors can and should be eliminated in the design department. Three ways to eliminate drawing errors are by: 1. Having a properly trained work force 2. Consistently using drawing standards 3. Checking or auditing drawings The Importance of GD&T Ina perfect world, there would be no need for geometric dimensioning and tolerancing. Product designs would exist on some platonic, archetypal level, inviolate and unchanging for all time. Every manufactured part would function correctly every time, conforming exactly to its design plan. There would be no need for quality control, because the quality of each part would be a forgone conclusion. © Nevertheless, the fact is that we live in a very imperfect world. Plans get garbled and misunderstood, parts come out wrong, things break down and fall apart. The beauty of GD&T is that it takes imperfection into account and factors it into the design process. Because we don’t live ina perfect world, not everything needs to be perfect. This is good news for people in industry, because it allows everyone to make more money. Let’s say that a client needs a certain part to be accurate down to the hundredth decimal place. Producing such a part is going to be highly expensive and take a great deal of time, but a client who needs this level of accuracy will be willing to pay for it. While such a part may not be perfect, it’s getting just about as close to perfect as a part can be. Con- versely, maybe another client needs a part that only needs to be accurate to the nearest millimeter. Producing such a part will be much easier, cheaper, and quicker than that in the firstexample. Using GD&T will be beneficial in both instances because it allows a designer to say exactly what he or she means. GD&T allows the right tolerance to fit the partas is dictated by its function. This in turn leads to better, more reliable products, happier clients, and increased revenues.Chapter 2 - Importance of Product Design GD&T is vastly superior to the oldistyle of coordinate dimensioning where different users ofthe same drawings may wind up with different results on the same part. This ultimately leads to lost time, scrapped pieces, and wasted money. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing allows the designer to pro- vide clear, concise, and consistent instructions for all of its users to follow. It brings us all closer to a perfect world, or at least closer to a commonunder- standing of our imperfect world. The importance of GD&T to the industrial world can not be overstated. It is currently being utilized by most medium- to large-sized manufacturing firms in the United States, companies like General Motors, the Ford Motor Company, AT&T, Hewlett-Packard, and Westinghouse—just to name a few. GD&T is an intemational language that is used by major corporations around the globe. The current revisions to the 1994 ASME standard have made GD&T seventy percent compatible with the [SO standard, thus opening the door for designers from around the world to communicate in one common language that transcends all national borders. In addition, GD&T provides the basic foundation for all manufactured products, the tools used to make these products, and the gaging equip- ment that verifies the accuracy of these products. It can truly be said that GD&T is the language of industry.Chapter 2 - Importance Product Design Advantages of GD&T Improved Communication GD&T provides uniformity in drawing specifications and interpretation, thereby reducing controversy, guesswork and assumptions. The design, production and inspection teams all work in the same language. Better Product Designs As mentioned earlier, the use of GD&T improves product designs by provid- ing designers with the tools to “say what they mean.” The Y14.5 standard also follows the philosophy of functional dimensioning which focuses the attention of the organization on the customer requirements of the product. Increased Production Tolerances GD&T increases tolerances in two ways. First, GD&T provides a “bonus” or extra tolerance under certain conditions, which can make a significant savings in the costs of production. Second, by utilizing the philosophy of functional dimensioning, designers assign tolerances to the part based upon its functional requirements. This eliminates the problems that arise when designers simply copy existing tolerances or assign unnecessarily tight tolerances because they don’t know how to determine a reasonable, functional tolerance.EXERCISE 2-1 THE IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: 1. T «FP uf ¥ T T & T 8 T #8 T & ie 2-10 Product designs are key documents in an organization because they set the goals for anumber of different departments. Simultaneous engineering is a process where several product engineers work ona design simultaneously. Engineering drawings should communicate in an informal way. The cost of a drawing error increases as the part moves closer to the customer. One of the ways an organization can reduce drawing errors is by consistently using drawing standards. . Three advantages ofusing GD&T are improved communication, better product designs, and tighter production tolerances. Product design affects assembly costs. GD&T is considered the language of industry.Understanding the Concept of Functional Dimensioning CHAPTER GOAL Understand the concept of functional dimensioning. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: * Describe the purpose of tolerances. + Explain the importance of specifying proper tolerances. + Explain the importance of a common dimensioning & tolerancing approach. “+ List the five tolerancing principles. * Describe functional dimensioning. + List six benefits of functional dimensioning.3-2 Tolerances Tolerance Information Purpose of Tolerances The purpose of tolerances is to specify how much variation (in size, lo- cation, orientation, or form) a part feature may have and still perform the system (product) functions as intended. In a perfect world there would be no need for tolerances. However, in the world in which we live, toler- ances are needed to allow parts to be produced economically. In order to insure a product will function as intended, the relationship between tol- erance and function must be understood. Tolerances are directly related to how well a part will function, and the amount of tolerance allowed also has a tremendous effect on the cost to produce and verify a part feature. Importance of Specifying the Proper Tolerances Assigning the right amount of tolerance to each part feature is a key practice in a successful organization. There is a saying that is important to remember when tolerancing a part: “If your margin of safety is too large or too small, your competition will beat you every time.” Ifa tolerance is small, it will require an expensive process to produce it and it will be expensive to measure the results. This is unavoidable when asmall tolerance is needed for the function of the part. However, ifa small tolerance is specified, and it doesn’t need to be small to achieve the sys- tem function that it is related to, resources are wasted trying to achieve the unnecessarily small tolerance. Tolerances affect about 80% of the cost of producing a part. Ifa tolerance is large and it doesn’t protect the system function, the tol- erance may be easy to produce and verify, but the product will not func- tion as intended. A product that is easy to produce but doesn’t work is of little value in the marketplace. The successful companies of the future will be those that can produce high quality products at the lowest cost. This can be achieved by assigning each part feature the largest possible tolerance that its functions willallow. Figure 3-1 shows the relationship between tolerance and function, Tolerance Tolerance larger smaller than than should be for really needed related function Happy customer but | Happy customer and Good Function high cost product fow cost product Poor Function Expensive junk Cheap junk 3-1 Function-Tolerance RelationshipChapter 3 - Concept of. Common Approach for Dimensioning and Tolerancing Assigning the proper tolerance isnot easy. Many designers and engineers assign tolerances baSed on various practices. Some of the various methods for assigning tolerances are based on: + Manufacturing process + Measurement preferences + Functional requirements » Copying from similar parts - A best guess + Acombination of the above methods Inmany organizations, there is a struggle between departments about how the tolerances will be based. Each department in a company may use different methods of tolerancing for different projects. This has a negative impact on the organization. Using various methods of tolerancing in an organization is like traveling to a destination while traveling in a zigzag path. You will get there, but it will take more effort and time. In Figure 3-2, the left side shows an organization that has a mixed perspective in dimensioning, and the right side shows an organization that has a common dimensioning perspective. Which organization will achieve its goals quickest and with minimal effort? With a common method for specifying tolerances, your designs will be integrated instead of fragmented. _ ( Without a common With a common dimensioning perspective dimensioning perspective 3-2 Dimensioning Perspectives within an Organization ctional Dimens 3-3ensioning Importance of Tolerancing Principles Principles Let’s begin by looking at the definition of a principle from the World Book Encyclopedia Dictionary: Prin-ci-ple (prin’sa-pal) n. 1. A basic truth, law, or assumption. 2. Moral or ethical standards or judgment. 3. A fixed or predetermined policy or mode of action. Every person has principles. A person’s principles guide his or her decisions throughout life. If you know what principles people use, you can understand— and often predict—their decisions. The concept of principles also applies in industry. Tolerancing Principles Often, people have different perspectives on dimensioning and tolerancing because they are basing their decisions on different principles. Ifeveryone in the organization uses the same core tolerancing principles, there will be less disagreement on tolerancing issues. Figure 3-3 lists the tolerancing principles that are used in this book: Core Tolerancing Principles 1. Each part feature must be fully defined. 2. Larger tolerances are more economical to produce and inspect. 3. The largest possible tolerance that a part feature can have is determined by the system function of the part feature. 4. A tight (or expensive) tolerance is caused by the amount of tolerance allowed, not the way a tolerance is specified. 55 The way a tolerance is specified may have a large impact on measurement uncertainty. 3-3 Core Tolerancing Principles1. Each Part Feature Must Be Fully Defined Each part feature must hayea tolerance for size, location, orientation or form as appropriate. Ifa part feature is not fully defined, the drawing is incomplete. 2. Larger Tolerances are More Economical to Produce and Inspect The second principle is proven every day in industry. It can be consid- ered acommon sense rule that “larger tolerances are more economical to produce and inspect.” From a manufacturing standpoint, with a larger toler- ance, it is easier to produce a better product. Also, a larger tolerance is easier to verify than a smaller tolerance. 3. Tolerance Based on Product Function The third principle involves the age-old paradox of whether tolerance values should be determined by process capability or part function. The rule that I recommend is, “The largest possible tolerance that a part feature can have is determined by the system functions of the part feature.” This supports the second principle and can save your organization an incredible amount of money. 4, Expensive Tolerances are Caused by the Amount of Tolerance Specified When a geometric tolerance is specified, it doesn’t raise the cost to produce the part feature. It is the amount of tolerance that increases costs, not the method used to specify the tolerance. 5. Tolerance Specifications Affect Measurement Uncertainty The way a tolerance is specified may have a large impact on measurement uncertainty. Ifa coordinate tolerance is used instead of geometric tolerances to specify a hole location, it will increase measurement uncertainty. Measure- ment uncertainty is affected by the way dimensions are specified. Designers should be aware of this and ensure that the tolerance specifications are mea- surable and repeatable Summary lencourage each organization to establish, agree upon, and adopt a set of tolerancing principles. It will help everyone to understand the core values of the manner in which parts should be toleranced. The principles in this book may be sufficient for your organization, or you may need to revise them to suit your industry,3-6 Functional Dimensioning Identify Customer Requirements and Business Goals Convert Customer Requirements Into Product Technical Specifications Convert Product Technical Specifications Into Assembly/Sub-Assembly Dimensional Requirements Assign Component Dimensions that will result in the Assembly/Sub-Assembly Dimensional Requirements 3-4 Functional Dimensioning Steps Geometric tolerancing uses a dimensioning approach called “functional di- mensioning.” Functional dimensioning is a dimensioning philosophy that defines a part based on how it functions in the final product. Functional dimensioning involves datums features and dimensional re- lationships based on the functional requirements of the product. Four general steps involved in functional dimensioning are shown in Figure 3-4. The first step involves identifying the customer’s requirements and busi- ness goals for the project. A market analysis may also be done in order to research external factors that will have an impact on the product. The second step involves converting the information into product tech- nical specifications, or the criteria that the product must meet. The third step involves converting the product technical specifications into assembly and sub-assembly dimensions. This is the stage where design engineers are most likely to become actively involved in the pro- cess. The last step involves assigning the component dimensions that will result in the assembly and sub-assembly dimensional. requirements.Benefits of Functional Dimensioning There are six important benefits of using functional dimensioning. They are shown in Figure 3-5 and explained in the following paragraphs. Benefits of Functional Dimensioning « Focuses on customer requirements + Supports DFMEA and key product characteristics + Provides larger tolerances + Prevents rejection of functional parts + Allows flexibility for manufacturing + Lowers part manufacturing and gaging costs 3-5 Benefits of Functional Dimensioning 1. Focuses on Customer Requirements Functional dimensioning defines a part based on how it functions in the final product. The system requirements are converted into part dimen- sions. 2. Supports “Design-Failure-Mode-Effects-Analysis” (DFMEA) and Key Product Characteristics Design-failure-mode-effects-analysis is a “what if’ analysis that assumes the breakdown or malfunction of certain parts. The goal of DFMEA is to determine how to prevent these malfunctions from occurring. A key product characteristic is a feature whose variation has an enormous impact on product performance, greatly affecting customer satisfaction. Specifying the dimensions and tolerances based on the customer require- ments enables key product characteristics to be specified because the dimensions are related to the product function. Dimensioning part features based on how they function allows the organization to analyze the effect the part feature variation has on the product performance.Author’s Comment When dimensions and tolerances are based on manufacturing capability, a part that doesn’t meet the specifications may still be a functional part. If the part is scrapped, you may be throwing away a perfectly usable part. 3-8 Provides Larger Tolerances Assigning tolerances to a part based upon its function often results in a larger tolerance for manufacturing. This in turn leads to greater profits for the organization. Prevents Rejection of Functional Parts When dimensions and tolerances are based on product function, a part that doesn’t meet the specifications is a part that would not func- tion. However, ifa dimension is based on manufacturing capabilities, a part that does not meet the specification, may still function; therefore, good parts may be rejected. Allows Flexibility for Manufacturing Dimensions should define the part without specifying manufacturing pro- cesses. By focusing on the end result rather than the way that a part is produced, manufacturers are free to produce the part in the way that is best and most efficient for them. Lowers Part Manufacturing and Gaging Costs The bigger the tolerance zone size, the less expensive the manufac- turing and gaging will be. Functional dimensioning does this by encourag- ing designers to assign the part tolerance based on product function. This reduces the need for expensive prototyping and brings parts closer to their specifications the first time around.Functional Dimensio EXERCISE 3-1 TOLERANCING Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: 1. a(t ~/ T 3. 2 4 5 6. T eee 8. T 9. TT 10. T E, According to the core tolerancing principles, the amount of tolerance assigned to a part feature dimension is based on the system requirements of the part feature. According to the core tolerancing principles, each part feature on a drawing must be fully defined. Using acommon approach to dimensioning and tolerancing in an organization will help it to achieve its goals quicker. A critical part feature should be specified with no tolerance to let everyone know it must be made as well as possible. Larger tolerances are more economical to produce and inspect. Ifmanufacturing wants a tolerance that is smaller than the tolerance needed for the part function, the designer should specify the tolerance requested by manufacturing. Ifa coordinate tolerance is converted into an equivalent geometric tolerance, the part will be more expensive to produce. The manner in which a tolerance is specified may have a large impact on measurement uncertainty. A smaller tolerance is more expensive to inspect. In order to ensure that a part is easy to manufacture, its tolerances should be based on the capability of the manufacturing process.EXERCISE 3-2 THE IMPORTANCE OF FUNCTIONAL DIMENSIONING Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: 1. TF Functional dimensioning is a dimensioning philosophy that defines a part based on how it functions in the final product. 2. -T F _ Inorderto functionally dimension a component, you must first identify the customer requirements and business goals. 3. T F Onebenefit of functional dimensioning is that it lowers part manufacturing and gaging costs. 4. TF Onebenefit of functional dimensioning is that it results in tighter tolerances. 3-10Dimensioning Standards CHAPTER GOAL Understand which dimensioning standards are commonly used on engineering draw- ings. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: + List four common dimensioning standards. * Describe what “ISO” stands for. * Describe what “ASME” stands for. * Describe what “MIL-STD-100F” stands for. * Describe four common purposes of corporate standards. + List three reasons why multiple versions of dimensioning standards exit.Chapter 4 - Dimensionin Four Common Dimensioning Standards Dimensioning standards play a critical role in the creation and interpretation of engineering drawings. They provide a uniform set ofsymbols, definitions, rules, and conventions for dimensioning. Without standards, drawings would not be able to consistently communicate the design intent. A symbol or note would be interpreted differently by each person reading the drawing. Itis very im- portant that the drawing user understands which standards apply before inter- preting the drawing. Most drawings use at least one of four types of dimen- sioning standards: + International standards + National standards (ASME) + Government standards Corporate standards International Standards (ISO) The international standards for dimensioning are established by a federation called ISO. ISO (the “International Organization for Standardization”) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO member countries). There are 40-50 countries that are participating members of ISO. The ISO federation publishes standards on hundreds of various topics. The work of preparing international standards is normally carried out through ISO technical committees. Each country interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations (governmen- tal and nongovernmental), in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. A draft international standard is prepared by the technical committee and circulated to the member countries for approval before acceptance as an international standard by the ISO Council. Draft standards are ap- proved in accordance with ISO procedures requiring at least 75% ap- proval by the member countries voting. Each member country has one vote. Since the ISO standards are international, they represent an agree- ment by many nations on major dimensioning practices, 4-2National Standards The ASME standards are‘established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The ASME organization publishes hundreds of standards on vari- ous topics. The ASME standards are created by subcommittees of ASME. Each sub- committee consists of representatives from industry, government orga- nizations, and academia, as well as consultants. There are typically 8 to 25 members on a subcommittee. Once a draft of a standard is created, it goes through an approval process. Part of the approval process is a pub- lic review. After the public review, comments are addressed, and the draft standard continues through the ASME approval process. ASME Dimensioning & Tolerancing Standards There are several related ASME standards that affect dimensioning and tolerancing. These related standards are referenced on engineering draw- ings and affect the interpretation of the dimensions and tolerances. Y14.5M Dimensioning and Tolerancing The latest version of this standard was published in 1994. This standard con- tains the entire topic of dimensioning and tolerancing. Y14.5.1M Mathematical Definition of Dimensioning and Toleranc- ing Principles This ASME standard was first published in 1994. This standard pro- vides a mathematical definition of geometric dimensioning and toler- ancing consistent with the principles and practices of ASME Y14.5M- 1994, enabling the determination of actual values. It is very useful for understanding how the tolerance zones can be mathematically verified. Y14.8M Casting and Forgings This latest revision of this ASME standard was published in 1996. This standard explains how to dimension castings and forgings. Many of the terms unique to these types of parts are explained. This standard has several examples of.datum targets on cast/forged parts. It even intro- duces a new symbol for a movable datum target. Author's Comment Although the ASME standards are writtenand published in the United States, they are used in many countries around the world. Ina sense, the ASME standards are international standards. O i Author's Comment The Y14.5M standard is the main ASME standard for dimensioning and toleranc- ing. The Y14.8Mand Y14.32.1 standards are application standards for certain types of parts used inindustry. These standards use the principles from Y14.5M.4-4 Government, Standards (MIL-STD-100G) The US Goverment is a very large organization with many suppliers. There- fore, using common standards is a critical part of being able to conduct busi- ness. The United States government creates and maintains standards for use with companies supplying parts to the government. Standard Practices for Engineering Drawing Practices The Department of Defense standard is approved for use by departments and agencies of the Department of Defense (DoD). The Department of Defense Standard Practice for Engineering Drawing Practices is cre- ated and maintained by the US Army Armament Research Group in Picatinny Arsenal, NJ. This standard is called MIL-STD-100G. The “G” is the revision level. This revision was issued on June 9, 1997. ee stan- dard is used on all government projects. The Department of Defense Standard Practice for Engineering Draw- ing Practices or (MIL-STD-100G) contains a number of topics in addi- tion to dimensioning and tolerancing. This standard provides: ° Standard practices for the preparation of engineering drawings, drawing formats and media for delivery * Requirements for drawings derived from or maintained by computer aided design (CAD) * Definitions and examples of types of engineering drawings to be prepared for the DoD * Procedures for the creation of titles for engineering drawings ¢ Numbering, coding and identification procedures for engineering drawings, associated lists and documents referenced on these associated lists ¢ Locations for marking on engineering drawings * Methods forrevision of engineering drawings and methods for recording such revisions * Requirements for preparation of associated lists The MIL-STD-100G references ASME or other national standards to cover a topic wherever possible. The Y14.5M standard is referenced for dimensioning and tolerancing of engineering drawings that reference MIL-STD-100G.Corporate Standards The ASME Standard (Y14.5M) is‘a comprehensive dimensioning standard; however, it is created as a national standard to cover the needs of many indus- tries. The standard contains information that is used by all types of industries and is presented in a way that is useful to most of industry. Therefore, many corporations have found the need to supplement or amend the standard to make itmore useful for their particular industry. Purpose of Corporate Standards Often, corporate dimensioning standards are supplements based on Y 14.5 with additions or exceptions described. Typically, corporate supplements include: 1. The preferred option when the Y14.5 standard offers several ways to specify a tolerance 2. The tolerancing specifications that are discouraged because they are too costly for the type of products produced in a corporation 3. A special dimensioning specification that is unique to the corpora- tion 4. Clarification of a concept that is new or vague in Y14.5 Often, the default conditions for tolerances in Y14.5 are more restrictive than needed. They do not consider product function. Corporate standards often revise the Y14.5 defaults based on product function, which in turn reduces cost. One example of this is the simultaneous requirement default in Y14.5. The rule creates simultaneous requirements as a default condition for many geometric controls, regardless of the product function. Simultaneous requirements re- duce manufacturing tolerances, which elevates the cost of production. While in some cases it may be necessary to have this type of requirement, it is often not required by the function of the part. In some corporate standards, the simultaneous requirement rule is not the default condition. In 1994, representatives from General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler formed a working group sanctioned by United States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR). They created an auto industry addendum to Y14.5M- 1994 which amends the Y 14.5 standard. The addendum creates dimension- ing conventions that are to be used by the auto industry. Standards Author’s Comment An informal poll conducted in 1998 showed that roughly 70% of U.S. companies usea short list of unique practices in addition to Y14.5 in their corporate dimensioning practices.pees Chapter 4 - 0 oi Author’s Comment Design standards are not the only place where multiple standards exist. A few common examples are standards for driving, electricity, and computer languages. 4-6 Tantei Why. Multiple Versions of Standards Exists Whenever multiple standards exist on atopic, confusion results. Two such examples are: Metric vs. English units of measurement and driving on the left vs. the right side of the road. Many toolboxes now contain two sets of wrenches, one for inch sizes and one for metric sizes, just as in industry many organiza- tions convert drawing dimensions from one set of units to the other. This is inefficient and causes confusion. Ever travel abroad? It is really strange (and dangerous) driving in a country that drives on the opposite side of the road than your own country. Once again, multiple standards for the same topic causes confusion. A similar prob- lem exists when there are four major types of dimensioning standards used in industry. It would be best to use a single standard worldwide. However, it is not easily done, for the same reasons other issues—like units of measurement and driv- ing laws—do not have a single world standard. In the case of dimensioning standards, there are three predominant reasons why multiple standards exist. Intemational standards are: Too Generic Intemational standards often cover the high level agreements between countries whereas dimensioning standards need to be quite explicit and, therefore, need to be supplemented with additional standards. Too General International (and national) standards contain information not appli- cable to a particular company. Therefore, a company often creates a supplement that uses the applicable portions of the standards and disallows the parts of the standards that are not appropriate for the products ofthe company. Not Specific Often, the actual wording ofan international standard is not sufficiently detailed or sufficiently clear to have a single interpretation ina corpo- ration; therefore, countries and major corporations create additional standards to clarify the information.Chapter 4 - Di EXERCISE 4-1 DIMENSIONING STANDARDS 1. List the four common types of dimensioning standards. 2. The international standards for dimensioning and tolerancing are written by a federation called. A IS B ISS Cc 10s D Iso 3. Theacronym “ASME” stands for. . . 4. T F MIL-STD-100G is a drawing practices standard used by the US government. 5. T F One purpose of corporate standards is to select an option when the Y14.5 standard offers several ways to specify a tolerance. 6. T F Onepurpose of corporate standards is to include a special dimensioning practice not covered in Y14.5. 7. List three reasons why multiple dimensioning standards exists. 4-74-8ISO.'and ASME Comparison CHAPTER GOAL Understand the major differences between the ASME and ISO dimensioning stan- dards. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: Describe the single-document approach for ASME dimensioning and tolerancing standards. Describe the multi-document approach for ISO dimensioning and tolerancing stan- dards. List two advantages of the single-document approach for dimensioning and toler- ancing standards. List two disadvantages of the single-document approach for dimensioning and tolerancing standards. List two advantages of the multi-document approach for dimensioning and toler- ancing standards. List two disadvantages of the multi-document approach for dimensioning and tolerancing standards. List four major differences between ISO.and ASME dimensioning standards. List three problems with using multiple dimensioning standards in industry. Describe two ways:dimensioning standards are being harmonized.er 5 - ISO & ASME Comparison 5-2 ASME Single-Document Approach The ASME standards take a single document approach for dimensioning and tolerancing. The ASME Y14.5M-1994 Dimensioning and Tolerancing Stan- dard covers all the topics of dimensioning and tolerancing. The Y 14.5 stan- dard is about 300 pages long and is updated about once every ten years. The ASME standard that is related to dimensioning and tolerancingis shown in Figure 5-1. ASME Dimensioning and Tolerancing Standards Std.Number Title Std. Date Y14.5M Dimensioning and Tolerancing 1994 5-1 ASME Standards ISO Multi-Document Approach The ISO standards take a multi-document approach. In the ISO standards, dimensioning and tolerancing is divided into a number of topics. A separate ISO standard covers each dimensioning topic. When using the ISO standards for dimensioning, it takes 10-15 standards to cover all the topics involved. The standards are often relatively short, 10-20 pages in length. A list of ISO standards that cover dimensioning and tolerancing topics is shown in Figure 5-2.ISO Dimensioning and Tolerancing Standards Vocabulary and indication on drawings 5-2 ISO Dimensioning Standards Number Title Date 728 Technical drawings = General principles of presentation 1982 129 Technical drawings — Dimensioning - General principles, definitions, 1985 methods of'execution and special indications 406 .. “Technical drawings — Tolerancing of linear and angular dimensions 1987 1101, Technical drawings — Geometrical Tolerancing — 1983 Tolerances of form, orientation, location, and runout Generalities, definitions, symbols, indications on drawings 1660 Technical drawings — Dimensioning and tolerancing of profiles 1987 2692 Technical drawings - Geometrical tolerancing — 1988 Maximum material principle 2768-1 General tolerances — Part 1: Tolerances for linear and angular 1989 dimensions without individual tolerance indications 2768-2 General tolerances - Part 2: Tolerances for features without 1989 individual tolerance indications 3040 Technical drawings ~ Dimensioning and tolerancing - Cones 1990 5458 Technical drawings - Geometrical tolerancing — 1987 Positional tolerancing 5459 Technical drawings — Geometrical tolerancing — 1981 Datums and datum-system for geometrical tolerances 7083 Technical drawings ~ Symbols for geometrical tolerancing ~ 1983 Proportions and dimensions 8015 Technical drawings - Fundamental tolerancing principle 1985 10578 Technical drawings — Tolerancing of orientation and location — 1992 Projected tolerance zone 10579 , Technical drawings — Dimensioning and tolerancing — Non-rigid parts 1993 13715 Technical drawings ~ Comers of undefined shape — 1997 5-3Author’s Comment A short revision time is a perceived advantage, but it can also’be a disadvantage. Industry needs time to integrate new standards into the workforce. Training, software development, and toultiple standards on a program all require time to address. 5-4 Advantages of the Multi-Document Standards Approach The multi-document standards approach has two advantages: 1. Shorter Creation Time Tt allows the documents to be created and/or revised more quickly. A shorter document can be created in less time than a longer document. 2. Easier to Add Topics Additional topics can be added without all the existing standards being af- fected. Disadvantages of the Multi-Document Standards Approach — i The multi-document standards approach also has three disadvantages. 1. Conflicts Between Standards Since each documentis revised independently, the newer standards often con- tain terms or concepts that conflict with other existing standards. 2. Diffucult to Know Which Standards Apply to a Drawing It becomes difficult to determine which standards apply to a drawing. In Fig- ure 5-2, the set of standards for dimensioning and tolerancing contain eight different revision levels. 3. Higher Cost/Less Accessibility of Standards The cost to purchase standards is a factor. With the multi-document standards approach, it is not uncommon to spend $1,000 for the standards needed to accommodate an engineering department. This often means that a company will only have one set of standards, which makes accessibility a problem. The single-document approach has four advantages: 1. Harmony Throughout Standard It ensures that the terms and concepts are at the same revision level at the time of publication. 2. Easier to Use All the information on dimensioning and tolerancing can be found in one docu- ment.CO) irjal tae] Cav ertacieyny 3. Easier to Know What Standard Applies to aDrawing It is easier to specify and understand which standards apply to adrawing for dimensioning and toléraneing. 4, Lower Cost/ Higher Accessibility of Standards The cost forthe Y14.5 dimensioning and tolerancing standard is under $100. This price makes the standard affordable for companies and individuals. Disadvantages of the Single-Document Standards Approach The single-document approach also has two disadvantages. 1. Longer Time Between Revisions It takes longer to update and publish a larger document. 2. Life of an Error is Longer If there is an error in the document, it will be around for a longer period of time. Major Difference Between ASME and ISO Dimensioning Standards There are four major fundamental differences between the Y14.5M-1994 and ISO dimensioning standards. 1. The manner in which they approach defining parts The Y14.5M standard uses product function as the primary basis for establishing tolerances. The ISO dimensioning standards are more slanted towards part definition based on theoretical part definition; there is less emphasis on function. 2..The level of detail in the dimensioning standards The Y14.5M standard is very comprehensive with detailed descriptions of the illustrations in the standard. The ISO dimensioning standard is much less detailed imits explanations. The ISO standards are an agreement of major points betweencountries. Many companies (or countries) that use the ISO dimensioning standard also have additional dimensioning standards to supple- ment the ISO standards. 3. A significant cost difference The ISO dimensioning standards cost between $700 and $1000 fora set. The Y14.5 standard is under $100 for a copy.5-6 4, The multi-document vs. the single-document approach With the multi-document approach, the applicable drawing standards change almost yearly. Using the single documentapproach, the applicable drawing standards change about once every ten years. This becomes a major issue because large corporations cannot handle frequent changes in dimensioning standards. Figure 5-3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of using each dimensioning standard. ASME & ISO Comparison Iso ASME Y14.5 Approach to dimensioning Theoretical definition Function of product Level of explanation Few words/many figures | Thorough explanation Cost of standards $700-1000 Less than $100 Number of standards 10-15 1 5-3 ASME/ISO Dimensioning Standard ComparisonProblems with Multiple-Dimensioning Standards Multiple dimensioning standards are a problem in industry for three reasons. First, since there are several dimensioning standards used in industry, the drawing, user must be careful to understand which standards apply to each drawing beingused. Drawing users also need to be skilled in interpreting each dimen- sioning standard. Second, the dimensioning standards appear to be similar, so the differences are often subtle, but significant. Drawing users need to have the skills to recognize the differences between the various standards and how they affect the interpretation of the drawing. Third, not only are there different standards, but there are several revision dates of each standard. Drawing users need to be familiar with each version of a standard and how it affects the interpretation ofa drawing. Harmonizing Dimensioning Standards Many efforts are being attempted to make common dimensioning standards used in industry around the world. Many major corporations are moving from using corporate standards to using national or international standards. An ad- dendum is often used to cover special needs of the major corporation. How- ever, a corporate dimensioning addendum is often only a few pages long, rather than the several hundred pages the old corporate standards used to be. The ASME and ISO organizations are continuously making revisions to bring the standards closer together. Currently, the ISO and ASME dimensioning standards are 60-70% common. It is predicted that in the next five years, the ISO and Y14.5M dimensioning standards will be 80-90% common. Some industry experts predict that eventually the two dimensioning standards will be merged into one. Most dimensioning standards used in industry are based on either the ISO or ASME dimensioning standards. These two standards have emerged as the primary dimensioning standards. In the United States, the ASME standard is used in 90% of the major corporations. However, there is increasing pressure to migrate towards international standards. Chapter 5 - ISO. & ASME Comparison 5-7Comparison EXERCISE 5-1 DIMENSIONING STANDARDS 1. The list below contains advantages and disadvantages of the multi-document approach to dimensioning and tolerancing standards. On the blank next to each statement, write A if itis an advantage or write D if it is a disadvantage. If the statement is not an advantage or disadvantage, leave it blank. Allows the documents to be created quicker. Creates terms that conflict with other terms. Allows additional topics to be added without all the existing standards being affected. The standard is complete. Cost to the user. ; Allows the ability to determine which dimensioning and tolerancing standards apply to adrawing. Allows an understanding of which revision level of the standard applies to a drawing. Usability of the standard. 2. The list below contains advantages and disadvantages of the single-document approach to dimensioning and tolerancing standards. On the blank next to each statement, write A ifit is an advan- tage or write D ifitis a disadvantage. Ifthe statement is not an advantage or disadvantage, leave it blank. Terms and concepts at the same revision level. Time between revisions. Errors in print for a longer period of time. Cost to the user. Ability to determine which dimensioning and tolerancing standards apply to a drawing. Ability to add additional topics. Understanding which revision level of the standard applies to a drawing. 3. List four major differences between the ISO and ASME dimensioning standards. 5-8Applicable Drawing Standards CHAPTER GOAL Understand which dimensioning standards apply to an engineering drawing. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: * Determine on which standards an engineering drawing is based. + List three ways to clarify a drawing when no dimensioning standard is referenced. + List four precautions a company can take to reduce confusion on dimensioning standards.How to Determine Which Dimensioning Standards Apply ‘When using an engineering drawing, one should determine which standards apply to the drawing. There are four common methods for determining which standards are applicable. The first, and most common, is to list the applicable standards in the title block. Figure 6-1 A shows an example. The second method is to list applicable standards in a note on the drawing: Figure 6-1B shows an example. The third method is to reference a document that contains a list of the appli- cable standards. Figure 6-1C shows an example. : The fourth method is to list the applicable standards, and any negotiated ex- ceptions, in the purchase order or contract. Figure 6-1D shows an example. A Standard specified in title B standard specified in block general note DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING IN ACCORDANCE WITH ASME Y14.5M-1994 1N Wit ASME Y14.5M-1994 ALL RADII £0.5R ALLANGLES = +0.5° c Standard specified in D List applicable standard in separate documents purchase agreement Purchase Order ‘#1000 DRAWING PER XYZ CORP. SPEC #1534-D Standards All drawings will be created in accordance with ASME Y14.5M- 1994 6-1 Ways to Specify Drawing StandardsChapter 6 - Applicable Drawing Standards Clarify a Drawing When No Standard is Specified O Many drawings.are deficient in specifying which standards apply. When a drawing specifies*“*ASME Y14.5M-1994,” it is only defining the dimension- ing and tolerancing standard for the drawing. Many drawings involve surface Authdc'sGofament texture, screw threads, spline information, or other topics that arenot covered | tp. concept of writing a letter by.Y14.5M. A drawing should specify all the applicable standards and the | to define which standards are version of each standard that applies. in effect can be very useful if there is a dispute after'the job The U.S. Government specifies the standards for a drawing by using the MIL- | 1 complete. The letter STD-100G. As described earlier in Chapter 4, the MIL-STD-100G stan-_} documents @ good faith effort to ensure the drawing is being dard invokes all the necessary standards and their revision levels for an engi- interpreted correctly. If you 60 neering drawing. not receive an answer, then your choice of standards If a drawing has no indication of which standards apply, or has incom- | becomes the recognized plete references to standards, you should request a drawing change to | Standard for the drawing have the applicable standards—including version date—added to the draw-_ | 7Pretation. ing. Another approach is to write a letter requesting verification from your cus- tomer stating which standards are to be used when interpreting the drawing. Also, include which standards you intend to use for drawing interpretation. If no reply is received in ten days (or some reasonable length of time) send the letter to the purchasing department, registered mail, return receipt requested. (Remember, a drawing is a legal document.)6-4 Precautions to Reduce Confusion on Dimensioning Standards There are several precautions a company can take to reduce confusion on dimensioning standards: 1. Maintain (or have immediate access to) a library of the various dimensioning standards. This applies to both current and past versions. These standards need to be readily available for the employees. 2. Ensure that each drawing used in the company is clearly iden- tified as to which dimensioning standards apply. If drawings from other companies are used, the standards that apply should also be appropriately identified. 3. Cultivate a group of several employees who are trained and fluent in the various dimensioning standards. These employees will be the company experts for drawing interpretation issues. They should also keep abreast with the new developments in the standards field. 4. Train all employees who use drawings to recognize how to deter- mine which dimensions’ standards apply and what the major dif- ferences are between the standards. How to Reduce Confusion on Dimensioning Standards * Maintain a library of various dimensioning standards Insist that each drawing clearly identify which standards apply Cultivate a group of local experts Train employees on differences between dimensioning standards 6-2 Reducing Confusion on DimensioningChapter 6 - Appli EXERCISE 6-1 APPLICABLE DRAWING STANDARDS Circle true or false for the following questions: 1.P 2a Sv T: 4.T $.T F Ona drawing, the most common place to denote which standard appliesis in the title block. The applicable drawing standards may be specified in the purchase order. One way to clarify which standards apply to a drawing is to request a change to have the applicable standard added. Maintaining a library of various dimensioning standards for employees to use-will help to reduce confusion on dimensioning standards. One way to reduce confusion on dimensioning standards is to train employees on the major differences between the standards.6-6Drawing Interpretation CHAPTER GOAL Understand the fundamentals of drawing interpretation. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: List six areas that should be addressed when interpreting an engineering drawing. List five major pieces of information in a drawing title block. List four major pieces of information in a drawing revision column. Describe how each fundamental rule affects the interpretation of a drawing. List three types of information found in general drawing notes. Determine if'a dimension applies before or after surface coating or heat treat. List four guidelines that identify ifthe datum references in a geometric control specify a valid datum system. List two common misconceptions on measuring parts that use the datum system. List four characteristics that need to be controlled for each part feature. List three proper uses for coordinate tolerancing. Recognize the guidelines for drawing specification/interpretation,Design Tip When using an engineering drawing, check the angle of projection symbol, A common mistake in today’s global workforce is to assume all drawings are made using a particular angle of projection. 7-2 Drawing Interpretation A drawing interpretation should be guided by the standards referenced on it. It is highly recommended that you take a few minutes to ensure the dimension- ing ona drawing is correct and makes sense before using the drawing. When interpreting engineering drawings, there are six areas that should be addressed: 1. Title block/revision column information 2. Fundamental dimensioning rules 3. General drawing notes 4. Datum specification 5. Symbols/feature definition 6. Use of coordinate tolerances Title Block Information The title block on an engineering drawing contains several key pieces of infor- mation that affect the interpretation of the drawing. Typical contents ofa title block are shown in Figure 7-1. The list below shows information that is often specified in the title block (or in the general notes) of an engineering drawing. * Thepart number (drawing number), which allows the drawing user to determine ifit is the proper drawing * Thename (title) of the drawing, which helps the drawing user relate the part to the drawing * The names of the designer and drawing approvers + The dates of the signatures * The standards that apply to the drawing and their revision level + Theunits (English or metric) for the dimensions * The angle of drawing projection (1* angle or 3% angle) * Reference to the design layout on which the part design is documented * The material from which the part is manufacturedDrawing standard used, Brewers iiss ‘Approval names and dates PRODUCT, aft ENGINEERING el Approved oare Hn SORMWING PREPARED NAC COROANCE ene: Saute iy EME rif 50-104 ure, aGLARK [euSTOMER, PL2v000 O.MGR MMCOAMICK ORAWH BY oaTe | _enecneoay |eena [swim Tina? ars saw to AEA WATERIAL DONOT SCALE PRINT TALES OTHER secrepiouwce | RESEARCH PROPERTY CORPORATION Toa ones (SEE CHART) int Tmo rte feersrcanaucaa— Angle of oss projection Units for “Ycxonetmievar drawing INSULATOR-INNER SHOE He i MILLIMETERS: number REL | DRAWING DRAWING NUMBE TPE or 1243569 Author’s Comment Specifying default tolerances is not a good dimensioning practice. Default tolerances are often too restrictive and have no relationship to the part function. They raise the ® DRAWING TEVEL A 7-1 Title Block Contents Revision Column Information cost of producing the part. The revision column on an engineering drawing contains several pieces of information that affect the drawing interpretation. The list below shows infor- mation that is often specified in a revision column ofan engineering drawing. Revision number or letter Revision date Description of the part information before the revision Initials of the person making the revision Initials of the person approving the revision The typical contents of a revision column are shown in Figure 7-2. Initials of person making this. Initials of persons approving the revisions jaiera sar] | Big 96 ae | BL as IC wt [oe im REESE es ie 7-2 Revision Block Contents7-4 wing Interpretation Fundamental Dimensioning Rules Whenever an engineering drawing references ASME Y14.5M - 1994 as its standard for dimensions and tolerances, a set of fundamental rules are auto- matically invoked. The fundamental rules are from paragraph 1.40f Y14.5M. A partial paraphrased version of the list is shown in Figure 7-3. Fundamental Dimensioning Rules Each dimension shall have a tolerance, except those dimensions specifically identified as reference, maximum, minimum, or stock (commercial stock) size. Dimensioning and tolerancing shall be complete so there is full definition of each part feature. : Dimensions shall be selected and arranged to suit the function and mating relationship of a part and shall not be subject to more than one interpretation. The drawing shall define a part without specifying manufacturing methods. A 90° angle applies where centerlines and lines depicting features are shown on a drawing at right angles, and no dimension is shown. A 90° basic angle applies where centerlines of features in a pattern (or surfaces shown at right angles on a drawing) are located and defined by basic dimensions, and no angle is specified. Unless otherwise specified, all dimensions are applicable at 20° C (68° F). All dimensions and tolerances apply in the free-state condition. This principle does not apply to non-rigid parts. Unless otherwise specified, all geometric tolerances apply to the full depth, length, and width of the feature. Dimensions and tolerances apply only at the drawing level where they are specified. A dimension specified on a detail drawing is not mandatory for that feature on the assembly drawing. 7-3 Fundamental Rules (partial list) These fundamental dimensioning rules are the basis for preparing and interpreting engineering drawings.Miicoreae itty General Drawing Notes Many engineering drawings contain a set of notes (usually located near the title block) that pertain to the drawing contents. These are referred to as gen- eral drawing notes. The list below shows the typical information specified in the general drawing notes of an engineering drawing. + General (or default) tolerances for drawing linear and angular dimensions that do not display a tolerance + References to standards that apply to the drawing content * The material and or heat treat for the part * Surface coatings for the part * Notes that are applied to specific part features through the use of flags The information in general drawing notes should be measurable. Each note item that applies to the part should be inspected, and ifa part parameter does not meet the note specification, the part should be rejected. If the specification in the note is vague and cannot be measured, it is a poor note and it should be clarified. An example of a vague note is “part must be free of burrs.” Ex- amples of good and poor drawing notes are shown in Figure 7-4. Good General Notes Poor General Notes UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: ANGULAR TOLERANCE 40.5* PART MUST BE FREE OF BURRS CORNER RADII R1.5 BREAK SHARP EDGES DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING IN ACCORDANCE WITH ASME Y14.5M-1994 7-4 General Drawing Notes General drawings notes are part specifications and should be treated like di- mensions and tolerances during inspection. 6 Ls Author’s Comment Flag notes are really not general drawing notes; however, they are often located in the géneral drawing notes and refer to specific part feature. Author’s Note About ISO standard on burrs: There is an excellent standard on specifying comers of unde- fined shape. It is ISO 13715,Pa ticag scaricare Flag Notes Flag notes are notes that apply to one or more specific features of apart. Flag notes often appear in the general drawing notes. They often have a symbol (flag) next to the note and next to the part feature to which they apply. The symbol or flag is the device that indicates the specific part features that are affected by the note. Often, companies invent a symbol for the “flag.” A common symbol is a triangle with a number inside. Figure 7-5 shows an example of flag notes. "s 34 32 abe: LN AN Re. f 20x Bh Ty a0 ZN Z\, PERFECT FORMAT MMC NOTREQD AX 705-10 SURFACE HARDNESS 48 HRC MIN EFFECTIVE CASE DEPTH 0.5MIN 7-5 Flag Notes Determine When a Dimension Applies There is not a fundamental dimensioning rule that defines how to interpret dimensions on plated or coated parts. The question exists on whether the dimensions apply before or after the plating or coating. Y14.5M, paragraph 2.4.1, states that a drawing should contain a note to indicate whether the dimensions apply before or after the plating. What about processes other than plating? Do dimensions apply before or after the finishing process? For processes other than plating, a note should be used to indicate if the dimensions apply before or after the process. The note is typically placed in the general notes. Figure 7-6 shows an example of typi- cal notes used to indicate when dimensions apply.Chapter 7 - Dra’ + DIMENSIONAL LIMITS APPLY AFTER PLATING + DIMENSIONAL LIMITS APPLY AFTER HEAT TREAT » DIMENSIONAL LIMITS APPLY BEFORE APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE COATINGS 7-6 Typical Notes Used to Indicate When Dimensions Apply A key point to remember is that there is no default condition in Y14.5M for plated or coated parts. If the drawing does not indicate that the dimensions apply before or after the plating (or other process), it is incomplete. On parts that are heat treated, do the dimensions apply before or after the heat treatment? In Y14.5M, there is no specific mention of the effect of heat treat on the dimensions of parts. There are a few fundamental rules that seem to imply that all dimensions apply after heat treat. However, drawings are legal documents, so implications are not a safe method of communicating part requirements. The safest way to communicate the part requirements when any type of heat treat is involved is to add a note like the one used for surface coatings. The note is typically placed in the general notes. Datum Specification When interpreting an engineering drawing, understanding the datum system for the part is very important. The datum system provides the basis for holding the part during measurement. This section explains three general concepts about datums. Most Parts Require Datums Most parts require a datum system in order to communicate a single method for inspection. If datums are not specified and referenced in feature controls frames, there is no specification on how to hold the part for measurement. Many parts require more than one datum reference frame, with each geomet- ric control on'the drawing having its own. Sometimes many geometric con- trols on a drawing may contain the same datum reference frame. In other cases, each geometric control on a drawing could contain a different one, The functional requirements of the part usually determine the datum references ofa geometric control. QO Author’s Comment A simple part, like a pin.or cube, may not need a'datum system. If a part does not require any geometric controls (that use datum references), then it doesnot need a datum teference frame. 7-7Author’s Comment Although Trefer to datums beingaused for “measurement” or “inspection” throughout this book, datums are often used for processing parts. 7-8 Valid Datum System There are two aspects of having a valid datum system, The datum specifica- tions must be valid and the datum references must be appropriate for mea- surement. The valid specification of datums is discussed in detail in Chapters 14 and 15. For now, it is important to keep in mind that the drawing user should examine each datum specification to determine its validity. Each geometric control on a drawing has its own datum references. There- fore, the potential exists for each datum reference frame to be valid or invalid, The list below provides guidelines for determining if the datum references in a feature control frame are valid. + Ifa geometric control only references a primary datum, the location and/or orientation of the toleranced feature(s) to the gage must be established by the datum feature contacting the datum feature simulator (gage). * Ifa geometric control references two or three datums, the location and/or orientation of the toleranced feature(s) (to the gage) must be established by the primary datum feature contacting the gage. The location of the toleranced feature(s) to the gage is established by the secondary and tertiary datum features contacting the datum feature simulator (gage). * Ifdatum targets are used to establish a datum plane, the datum plane cannot be referenced as a primary datum without being accompanied by secondary and tertiary datums. + Nomore thana primary, secondary, and tertiary datum can be referenced in a geometric control. ‘Commor fisconceptions About Using the Datum System During Measurement There are two common misconceptions about measuring parts thatuse the datum system. These are not necessarily drawing problems; they often occur in the measurement process. Locating the Part in the Datum Reference Frame A common misunderstanding when inspecting parts is about the way in which the part is located in the inspection equipment. It is common for gages to be designed to clamp the part during the inspection process. This is an old prac- tice and is often done to improve the gage repeatability. However, the mea- surement of'a dimension may be greatly affected by the clamping of the part if the part is deformed or altered during installation.If the part is deformed or altered during inspection, the location of the clamp, the amount of force, and the sequence of applying the force all may affect the measurement of a dimension. A part should not be restrained to the gage (clamped) unless a restraint.note is specified on the drawing. See Figure 7-7. 7-7 Locating the Part in the Datum Reference Frame The default for the measurement of all geometric tolerances is that the toler- ances apply in the free-state condition. This means that the part should not be clamped (or restrained) in any manner during the measurement process. If it is desired to have a part restrained during inspection, it should be specified on the drawing with a restraint note. The use of restraint notes is explained in Chapter 10. The Datum Specifications on the Drawing Determine the Gage Features The second common misunderstanding when measuring parts is how to con- struct the gage to hold the part. The datum specifications on the drawing indicate what features are required to locate and orient the part in the gage. The actual gage should only touch the part datum features. The difficulty is that many. gages are built to hold the part in a manner that does not reflect the drawing specifications. The part should only be touching the gage on the da- tum features as specified-on the drawing.Feature Definition/Symbols When interpreting a drawing, understanding the dimensions and tolerances for defining each part feature is very important: The geometric tolerancing system provides the language for communicating the part feature definition. Itis highly recommended that you take a few minutes to ensure that the dimensioning on a drawing is correct or makes sense before using the drawing. This section explains two concepts about defining part features. Full Definition is Required for Part Features Typically, on engineering drawings, there are four characteristics that need to be defined on all part features: size, location, orientation, and form (SLOF). Depending on whether the part surface is a feature or a feature of size, differ- ent characteristics of SLOF are applicable. If the part feature is a surface, then location (unless it is the primary datum feature), orientation, and form must be defined. Ifa part feature (or surface) is a feature of size, then size, location, orientation, and form are all applicable. See Figure 7-8. When a surface or feature of size is the primary datum feature (of the part), it does not need to have its location defined. The rest of the part surfaces and features of size are located and/or oriented relating to the primary datum fea- ture. O oe Author's Comment When a part feature is not fully defined, one of the draw- ing users makes an assump- tion on what the specification should be. 7-10 x rte 2 2x81) ee S [sO lalale xe caulk ots ([LIer ya a Pek ola] Orlentation Form 7-8 SLOF Example It is important to define each part feature and featuré of sizecompletely. When a drawing fails to define a feature completely, it has failed to communi- cate the part requirements to the drawing users. When defining the location or orientation of a surface or a feature of size, datum references must be used. For defining orientation, the datum reference specifies which feature or feature of size the toleranced feature is relative to. When defining the location ofa feature (or a feature of size) the datum refer- ences define the sequence for holding the part in the inspection equipment. Figure 7-9 shows an example.Tiicayecariitonny fek4 iG eo [G02 @Talalc | These datum references ircicate the sequence in which to hold the: Part in the inspecting equipment to [ez ta . ‘napect the cle oeation This datum reference indicates to which surface the tOleranced surface should be perpendicular 7-9 Datum References Assist in Part Definition When interpreting an engineering drawing, the drawing user should review each part feature and feature of size for definition of SLOF. If an aspect of SLOF is not defined, the part definition is not complete. On a drawing, there are four means for defining the SLOF on part features: 1, Title block tolerance 2. Rule #1 3. GD&T symbols 4. Dimensions Corporate Initiated Practices or Symbols When interpreting engineering drawings, another area that needs to be ad- dressed is the use of dimensioning practices not covered by Y14.5 or other national standards. Often, these areas are covered by corporate standards. Corporate standards are often used by major corporations to cover the spe- cial needs of their businesses. The corporate initiated practices or standards can be verified by asking the following questions: * Are there any symbols or notes shown that are not covered by the standards referenced on the drawing? * Which standards cover the interpretation of these symbols or notes? There is a risk involved when interpreting notes or symbols not covered by national or corporate standards. What appears to be obvious or common sense to one person may beinterpreted entirely differently by another person. When something goes wrong, items thatwere seemingly obvious often be- come a point of debate. If drawing notes or symbols are not covered by a standard, there is a possibility that the interpretation may be decided by a judge in a courtroom rather than by the parties involved. The interpretation of any undocumented dimensioning practices should be documented ina letter, as described in Chapter 8. 7-117-12 Proper Uses for Coordinate Tolerancing Coordinate tolerancing (commonly referred to as plus/minus tolerancing) is used on engineering drawings. The use of coordinate tolerancing is fine, as long as it is used properly on the drawings. The chart in Figure 7-10 shows appropriate and inappropriate uses of coordinate tolerancing. Coordinate Dimension Usage Type of Dimension | Appropriate Use Poor Use Size Chamfer Radius Locating Part Features Controlling Angular Relationships Defining the Form of Part Features 7-10 Coordinate Dimension Usage When coordinate tolerancing is used inappropriately, it can have serious im- pact on the interpretation of the drawing. The coordinate tolerances do not communicate a datum sequence. This forces each drawing user to come up with an assumption for how the part is to be held for measurement. When interpreting a drawing, the drawing user should review each coordinate tolerance to determine if it is appropriate. The appropriateness of each coor- dinate tolerance can be verified by asking whether the coordinate tolerance is used as recommended in the chart in Figure 7-10. If the answer is yes, the application is appropriate. If the answer is no, the coordinate tolerance is inappropriate. Ifa coordinate tolerance is inappropriate, the drawing is vague and needs clarification. Guidelines for Drawing Specification/ Interpretation Today in industry, many engineering drawings are not formally checked be- fore they are released for manufacturing. It is recommended that before an engineering drawing is used, the drawing user take some time to be familiar with the drawing content. Figure 7-11 shows a list of guidelines that are helpful in determining ifa drawing is complete and contains legal specifications.Guidelines for Drawing Specification/Interpretation Title Block Is the drawing.a released version? Do you have the right revision level? Are any parttolerances specified in the title block? Are they appropriate for all dimensions to which they apply? Whichrstandards apply to the drawing? ASME Y14.5M-1994, or another not specified? General Drawing Notes What controls the tolerance on implied right angles for this part? Are tolerances specified in the general notes? Do the dimensions apply to the part before surface coatings? Do the dimensions apply before or after heat treat? Are any notes that contain specifications not measurable? Has surface texture been specified? Datum System Are the datum specifications valid? Are datum targets used? Are the datum target specifications valid? If datum targets are specified, are they referenced as a primary datum without being accompanied by a secondary and tertiary datum reference. For each geometric control, is the primary datum repeatable? For each geometric control, do the datum references allow repeatable measurement? Feature Definition / Geometric Tolerances ls each part surface and/or feature of size fully defined? (SLOF) For each geometric control, is the syntax correct for the type of part feature to which the geometric control is applied? (The syntax includes the geometric symbol, the modifiers, and the datum references.) Are symbols or notes specified that are not covered by the standards referenced on the drawing? Are all features of size located with GD&T? Are any GD&T callouts a simultaneous requirement? Should they be * gaged simultaneously? Are all GD&T callouts displayed properly (so there is no mis- interpretation)? General Items Is the material specified? Are there any safety-related dimensions designated? To which standard are they specified? Are any critical dimensions designated? To which standard are they specified? Is a tolerance specified for burrs? Corner breaks? 7-11 Guidelines for Drawing Interpretation Author’s Comment This is a general guideline. I suggest you make a list that is specific to your company or industry. 7-13Chapter EXERCISE 7-1 DRAWING INTERPRETATION: TITLEBLOCK, FUNDAMENTAL RULES, NOTES Circle trueor false for the following questions: LJ One of the six areas that should be addressed when interpreting an engineering drawing is datum specifications. ®T/ F One of the six areas that should be addressed when interpreting an engineering drawing is the use of coordinate tolerances. Se IE Rule number eight from Figure 7-3 (page 7-4), means a rigid part may be clamped for measurement. 4T F Ifa dimension is specified on a detail drawing, it must be within specification after the part is welded into an assembly. $-T F A flag note applies to the entire drawing. oe, F A general drawing note typically applies to one (or several) specific part features. 70 6 oe The default for drawings of plated parts is that all dimensions apply after plating. 7-14EXERCISE 7-2 DRAWING INTERPRETATION: DATUMS, FEATURE DEFINITION, COORDINATE TOLERANCES Circle true or false for the following questions: A, TS IN A simple part (like a pin ora cube) may not need the datum system. avy =F A geometric control cannot have more than three datum references. 3.7 Ifdatum targets are used to establish a datum plane, the datum plane cannot be refer- enced as a primary datum without being accompanied by a secondary and tertiary datum. 4.T F Inorder to improve gage repeatability, a part may be clamped onto the gage. 5.T ££ When a part is located in a gage, it should only touch the gage on the datum features as specified on the drawing. 6:T F SLOF stands for: Size, Location, Orientation and Fit. ql F A total runout control can define the size, location and orientation of a diameter. 8.T \F Coordinate tolerancing should be used to define size, chamfers and radii ona part. oY F A general drawing notecan be used to specify the material for a part. 7-15Chapter 7 - Drawing Interpretation EXERCISE 7-3 DRAWING INTERPRETATION: GUIDELINES, VAGUE DRAWINGS Use the guidelines for drawing interpretation (Figure 7-11) to determine if there are any vague areas on the drawing below: 0.05[ A 33 — TOHOLE D Bay 98 $ [G08 @[ale@) 24.20 18.4 2 i! Aio2/ale PART MUST BE FREE OF BURRS 2 Y eS ge UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: ANGLES 40° 30° DECIMAL DIMENSIONS # 1.0 ONE PLACE £05 TWO PLACE 16.5, "155 2% D4" TOHOLE D PER ASME Y14.5 [rac | paste ADAPTER ‘Drawnay ore PAREN. puawoore | sizer mA On the drawing above, circle an example of each type of drawing weakness. . Vague note 2. Surface with no tolerance for its location 3. Improper use of coordinate tolerancing 4. Missing location tolerance 5. Symbol with datum reference missing 6. Dimension with extra trailing zeros 7. Overly restrictive tolerance 8. Meaningless datum specification 7-16Using Substandard Drawings CHAPTER GOAL Describe how to handle substandard drawings. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: + List four categories of substandard drawing specifications. + List the steps for dealing with substandard drawings. + List three things not to do when using a substandard drawing.Drawings Drawings are Legal Documents Drawings are legal documents and should be treated with the respect that is given to other legal documents. In industry, engineering drawingsarethe basis for purchase orders. Often a purchase order is written to supply a quantity of part number xxxx. The legal description of the part number is the engineering drawing. The drawing is the document to which the parts are compared in determining the acceptance of the parts. When parts are rejected, a dispute begins. The interpretation of the drawing is often challenged. In many cases, the drawing is determined to be vague and this becomes a factor in the dispute. Often, the dispute is settled by both parties sharing the expense of the rejected parts. In some cases, the dispute ends up in court and a judge decides which interpretation of the drawing is correct. Product liability lawsuits often involve engineering drawings. Ina product li- ability lawsuit, the contents of engineering drawings are scrutinized, Each revi- sion is questioned, the design intent is examined, and the interpretation is chal- lenged. If the engineering drawings and documentation are flawed, it often works against the corporation who designed the product. Unfortunately, in the design stage ofa program, the dimensioning of engineer- ing drawings is often not treated with the importance it should be. The empha- sis is to get the drawings out on time. There are often verbal agreements on part requirements. The quality of the drawings is not an issue until a problem arises with the parts, then each aspect of the drawing comes under scrutiny.Substandard Drawings A drawing is considered substandard whenever the drawing is vague, incom- plete, incorrect, or inane (meaningless, ridiculous). These problems can-occur in many forms. There are four areas where drawings are often considered substandard. 1, Vague Drawing Specifications A drawing is vague when it does not clearly communicate the design require- ments. Several common examples of vague drawing specifications are: * Poor specification ofa dimension or tolerance * Poor deductive reasoning in applying the applicable standards + Drafting or tolerancing techniques that may be valid, but are not documented in the standards referenced * Poorly worded notes + Poordrafting habits (i.e. applying tolerances in an inappropriate view) Vague specifications are dangerous because the drawing user often thinks his/ her interpretation is correct without realizing there are other possible interpre- tations. Sometimes the drawing user recognizes there are several interpreta- tions, but chooses the one that optimizes the drawing for the job. 2. Incomplete Drawing Specifications A drawing is incomplete when it does not contain all the information needed to communicate the design requirements. Several common examples of incom- plete drawings are: + References to applicable standards are missing * Dimensions or tolerances are missing * Notes or other specifications are missing Incomplete drawings are dangerous because the drawing user often makes an assumption about what the missing specification should be. After all, there is no information to say his/her interpretation is wrong. Sometimes missing infor- mation is not discovered for years. If information is missing, it is not found by an inspector, since inspectors are focused on verifying the information that is specified. 8-38-4 nets 3. Incerrect Drawing Specifications A drawing is incorrect when information specified is the wrong value or not in accordance with the standards referenced on the drawing. Some examples of incorrect drawing specifications are: + Adimension or tolerance that contains the wrong value + A tolerance that applies to the wrong type of feature * Aspecification that is in conflict with the specified standards Incorrect drawing specifications are dangerous because they are often found after a number of parts are produced, but do not fit or function as intended. 4, Inane Drawing Specifications An inane specification is a specification which is legal, but ridiculous. Two examples of inane specifications are: ; + A flatness callout with a zero tolerance + Adatum symbol applied to a centerline Inane specifications are wasteful because they are often ignored by the draw- ing user. The problem is that the proper control for the part feature was never communicated or inspected. When a drawing is substandard, it can cause much waste in the organization. Ifyou are working with substandard drawings, it is advisable to get the draw- ing problems addressed as soon as possible. The next section describes a method for addressing substandard drawings. drawing user can take to reduce the risk of using the drawing. Like most problems, the earlier it is found, the easier it is to correct. It is better to find a drawing problem: 1. Before parts are made rather than after 2. Before a contract is signed rather than after 3. Before the drawing is released rather than after Ifa drawing problem exists, confront it as early as possible.Figure 8-1 outlines a method for clarifying vague drawings. There are three basic stages: 1. Identification 2. Correction 3. Documentation ‘ldentification ] Identify the problem Confirm the problem Identify possible consequences Fix drawing ata future date and continue working Consequences significant? Correction Agreement of problems Agreement on solutions ee eet Sr Documentation Continue work with Update drawing the documented Write letter drawing agreements 8-1 Clarifying Vague Drawings * If the possible consequences can affect the safety of the product, the problem should be addressed and documented before continuing to work with the drawing.Author’s Comment To identify the possible consequences takes product knowledge and a proven methodology, like a design failure mode analysis. If you do not have adequate understanding in both of these areas, you should contact the design engineer for assistance. 8-6 1. Identification Stage The identification stage involves three items: 1. Identifying the potential problems 2. Confirming the potential problems 3. Identifying the potential consequences of the problems The identification step should be done as soon as the drawing is available. First, examine the drawing for potential problems. Then use the guidelines for drawing specification/interpretation shown in Figure 8-1. Write down the po- tential problems. Be specific. Identify the possible consequences of various possible drawing interpretations for each potential problem. Review the list with the management of your organization. Obtain agreement on the list of problems and potential consequences or create a revised list based on the new input. If the potential consequences are insignificant, the cost to correct the drawing needs to be balanced against the benefits. If the possible conse- quences are significant, the problem should be addressed before continuing work. 2. Correction Stage The correction step involves two items. Agreement needs to be reached with the drawing owners on: 1. The list of tolerancing problems (and possible interpretations) 2. Solutions to the problems Often a meeting will be sufficient to discuss the concerns on the drawing. The list of problems should be in writing and each problem should be resolved. A follow up letter should be sent to document the meeting results. A revised drawing may need to be issued. 3. Documentation Stage The documentation step records the results of the correction step. This step is critical because it documents the true drawing interpretation. The best docu- mentation is a drawing revision that reflects the solutions to the problems. If differences remain, or the drawing doesn’t adequately document the solu- tions to the issues, a letter may be necessary. The letter should state the issues and the interpretation that is going to be used unless notified otherwise.~ Substandard Drawings Three Things a Drawing User Should Not Do When a Drawing is. Substandard When a drawing is determined to be substandard, there are three things that a drawing user should not do: + Ignore the problem + Assume someone else will address the problem + Determine the possible consequences of the drawing problem without having the proper background or methodology Ignoring the problem is very dangerous. The problem will not go away by itself and there may be thousands of parts in customers’ use that have the existing problem. Another possibility is the problem may not surface for several months or years, and then it can cost an enormous amount to address. Assuming someone else will address the problem is also very dangerous. If you assume the other person is going to address the problem and the other person doesn't, once again, the problem is ignored. Extreme caution must be used when determining the possible consequences of a drawing problem. Many things can go wrong, like not finding a serious or safety-related consequence. Ifa consequence is not identified, it can result in ignoring a drawing problem that has serious consequences. 8-7RTS tirertged EXERCISE 8-1 SUBSTANDARD DRAWINGS 1. On the drawing above, circle an example of each substandard drawing component listed below. 8-8 PART MUST BE FREE OF BURRS a. Vague specification b. Incomplete specification c. Incorrect specification d. Inanespecificationtandard Dr: Circle true or false for the following statements: 2. TF iy & TA e/F Tt A EF The first step in clarifying asubstandard drawing is identification of potential problems. Agreement needs to be reached with only the inspector on the tolerancing problems. When clarifying a substandard drawing, the documentation step records the results of the correction step. Ifan employee finds a tolerancing problem on a drawing, he/she should ignore itifit doesn’t affect the job. Ifa significant drawing error exists, it is safe to assume some one else will report it. Ifan inspector notices a tolerancing problem ona drawing, he/she should determine the consequences and continue the part inspection. 7 8-98-10Rigid/Non-Rigid Parts Definitions CHAPTER GOAL Understand the difference between a rigid and a flexible (non-rigid) part. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: + Define free state. * Define restrained state. * Define a rigid part. * Define a non-rigid part. + Define anon-rigid part feature.Author’s Comment There are.some who believe that GD&T should not be used on non-rigid parts. This is not true. Although GD&T defaults to rigid parts, it should also be used on non- rigid parts with a few special techniques. 9-2 Introduction Defining and measuring non-rigid or flexible parts has been controversial in industry for many years. There are two primary. areas of controversy. The first is agreeing on what exactly anon-rigid part is. The second is agreeing on how to define and measure a non-rigid part. The subject of non-rigid parts is fur- ther complicated by the brief coverage it receives in the national and interna- tional standards. This leaves each company to improvise or create its own rules for non-rigid parts. This chapter provides definitions for rigid and non-rigid parts. I estimate 50- 60% ofall products designed contain parts or features on parts that are non- rigid. Definitions Free State Free state is the condition where tolerances apply without restraining the part. In Y14.5, free state check is the default condition for all tolerances. Restrained State - Restrained state is where a part has forces (usually with clamps or fasteners) applied to restrain it against a mating part, fixture, or gage. Rigid Part Hae alee ‘ The ASME Y 14.5 standard applies to rigid parts as a default condition. How- ever, there is no definition given for a rigid part. The term rigid part has been used in industry for so long that it has gained a definition by its general use, When most people in industry say “rigid part,” they are referring to a part that doesn’t move (deform or flex) when a force (including gravity) is applied. How much force is relative, based on the part shape, density, material, etc. In reality, all parts will deform (or flex) ifenough force is applied. Using this logic, all parts would be considered non-rigid. However, we all know thatthis is not how parts are treated in industry. In this book, the definition for a rigid part is: A rigid part is a part that does not deform or flex an amount that will impede its performance when subjected to the forces ofits intended functions. The default condition in Y14.5 is that rigid parts are checked in the free state with no clamping or restraint.Non-Rigid (Flexible) Part Now that we have defined rigid parts, let’s look at what types of parts could be considered non-rigid parts. Logically thinking, once we know what arigid partis, any part that doesn’t fit the definition ofa rigid part must be anon-rigid part. Although this is logical, it isn’t complete enough. To say that a part is non-rigid means it flexes or deforms in its assembly or intended function. Some parts (like o-rings) are very flexible, and they may not even hold their shape under their own weight. Other parts (like cast cov- ers bolted onto housings) may not appear to be flexible, even though they are when under load. (The flatness of the mounting flange changes as the bolts are torqued.) In other words, there are different degrees of part flexibility. In this text, a non-rigid (or flexible) part is defined with two statements: * Apart that must be restrained because it cannot retain its shape when mounted on its functional datums + Apart that is restrained to simulate its functional state for measurements The degree of flexibility is not as important as is the fact that the de- signer considers restraint to be necessary in order to measure the part. Once this has been established, a restraint note should be added to the drawing. Restraint notes are explained in Chapter 10. Unfortunately, there is no designation in Y14.5 to declare a part nonrigid. In this text, ifa part has a restraint note, the part is considered non-rigid. Ifa dimension has a restraint note, the part feature is considered non-rigid. The list below shows examples of parts that often use restraint notes. (They are considered to be non-rigid.) * Stampings * Large body sheetmetal parts * Thin wall parts +, Brackets * Tubes * Gaskets + Molded rubber or plastic parts + Rubber hoses Author's Comment In addition to non-rigid parts, many parts contain only certain dimensions that need to be measured in the re- strained state. Parts with non- rigid features use local restraint notes to define the restraint for measuring the non-rigid features. Author’s Comment There are a few paragraphs in Section 6.8 of Y14.5 that discuss non-rigid part dimensioning practices.9-4 Non-Rigid Part Features A partean be rigid and contain one or morenon-rigid features. For example, acast cover for a housing is often considered a rigid part. However, the flat- ness of the mounting flange is most critical when the coyer is bolted to the housing. Therefore, the flatness requirement is important when the partis in its functional state. In this case, the mounting flange would be considered non- rigid. For inspecting the flatness requirement, a local restraint note would be specified. (Local restraint notes are explained in Chapter 10.) When only one ora few features on a part are to be verified under a restrained. condition, the part isn’t considered to be non-rigid; it is a rigid part with non- rigid part features. A non-rigid part feature is a part feature that requires the part to be restrained for inspection of that feature.Chapter 9 Race BLS EXERCISE 9-1 RIGID /NON-RIGID-PART DEFINITIONS Indicate whether the following statements are true or false. tat gi A rigid part is a part that does not deform or flex an amount that will impede its performance when subjected to the forces ofits intended functions. Mead / F A non-rigid part is a part that must be restrained because it cannot retain its shape when mounted on functional datums. 5. T Be Free state is the condition where tolerances apply without restraining the part, 4. T A part that is restrained to simulate its functional state for measurement is called a non-rigid part. 5. T Ee A part that is clamped on its datum features to hold it in place for measurement is considered to be in a restrained state. 6. T Ba A non-rigid part feature is a part feature that requires the part to be restrained for inspection of the feature. 9-59-6Tolerancing Non-Rigid Parts CHAPTER GOAL Describe the requirements for tolerancing parts measured in the restrained state. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: List two additional considerations when tolerancing a non-rigid (restrained) part. List two roles of a restraint note. Describe two common strategies for determining restraining conditions on non- rigid parts. List five requirements that need to be addressed in a restraint note. Describe the difference between a general and a local restraint note. Describe when a free state symbol should be used. Describe two areas that need special attention when inspecting a non-rigid part.10-2 Tolerancing Non-rigid Parts Tolerancing a non-tigid part is similar to tolerancing a rigid part with two addi- tional. considerations: 1. The use of a restraint note 2. The use of the free state symbol The use ofa restraint note has two major roles on an engineering drawing. First, its presence is a means for communicating to all drawing users that the part is considered a non-rigid part. Second, it describes how the part is to be restrained during inspection. The details of what information is contained in a Testraint note are explained later in this chapter. The use of the free state symbol is a tool for unlocking the restraint require- ments for a particular measurement on a part that contains a general restraint note. Details for using the free state symbol are explained later in this chapter. Restraining Strategies There are two common strategies for establishing restraint conditions on non- rigid parts. One strategy is based on functional conditions and the other strat- egy is based on assembly conditions. Each strategy is used to describe a different set of design conditions. Choos- ing which strategy to follow is dependent upon the degree of part flexibility, the size of the part, the function of the part, and the method the part is aligned in the assembly. Simulating Functional Assembly Conditions Strategy The functional assembly conditions strategy is to define the restraining forces on the part features that are used to orient the part in its assembly. Using this strategy, the location and amount of restraining force represents the force that holds the component in the assembly. For example, apart like an oil pan would have the restraining forces located at the bolt hole locations of the mounting flange. The amount of restraining force would be equivalent to the force generated by the bolts that fasten the pan in its assembly. Simulating Assembly Fixture Conditions Strategy The assembly fixture conditions strategy is to define the restraining forces on the part features that are used to locate the part on the assembly fixture that defines the part orientation and location in the assembly. Using this strategy, the location and amount of restraining force represents the force that holds the component in the fixture that locates it in the assembly.For example, a part like an automobile fender would haye the restraining forces located over the primary datum targets on the part features that are used to locate the fenderin the assembly (weld) tool. Using this strategy, the fender will be held (and deflected) in the same manner in the check fixture as itis held in the assembly (weld) tool. Restraint Conditions Part restraint for non-rigid parts is usually accomplished though the use of clamps, weights, or fasteners. When defining restraint conditions, there are five requirements that need to be addressed: 1. Direction of restraining force 2. Location of restraining forces 3. Number of places the restraining force is to be applied 4, Amount of restraining force 5. Sequence of applying the restraining force Direction of Restraining Force Showing an arrow on the drawing can be used to specify the direction of force. Then, in the restraint note, the arrow is designated as the direction of force. An example is shown in Figure 10-1. In most cases, the direction of force is normal to the surface that it is applied. Location of Restraining Forces The location of the force is often specified in the wording of the restraint note. An example is shown in Figure 10-1. Depending upon the restraining strat- egy, the force can either be located on part features that locate the part, or on part features that are used to stabilize and locate the part. Number of Places the Restraining Force is to be Applied The number of places the force is to be applied is often specified in the word- ing of the restraint note. An example is showmin Figure 10-1. An ideal situa- tion is to have the number of places to which the force is applied equal to the number of places to which the force is applied in the functional location of the part(or in the assembly fixture). Amount of Restraining Force The amount of restraining force may have a significant impact on the measure- ment of part dimensions. The amount of force at each location should be specified. The force can be specified as a range or a8 amaximum. The amount of force is often determined by the amount of force the part will be subjected to during its intended function (or assembly). An example is shown in Figure 10-1. Author’s Comment In this text, the restraint conditions are specified in a restraint note shown on the face of the drawing. In industry, some companies specify some or all of the restraint conditions in corporate standards and refer to them on the drawing. O Author’s Comment If the force specifications were a maximum, the minimum force would default to zero. This would allow the part to be checkedhin the free state, and, if it passed, there would be no need to add force. If the part did not pass in the free state, then force could be added (up to the maximum) to bring the tolerance specifica- tion into conformance. 10-3Author’s Comment When a sequence for apply- ing restraining forces is not specified, some inspectors believe a logical assumption is thatit is unimportant and, therefore, at the users discretion. This is a poor practice, the sequence for applying restraining forces must be specified. Where a sequence for applying testraining forces is not specified in a restraint note (or referenced document), the drawing is incomplete. 0 Author’s Comment On some parts, gravity may be a factor for the inspection of certain dimensions. In these cases, I’ suggest adding a note to the drawing specifying the orientation of the part. The part should be measured in the same orientation that it functions. 10-4 Sequence of Applying the Restraining Force The sequence of applying the restraining force usually affects the measure- ment of dimensions; therefore, the sequence of applying the restraining force should be specified on the drawing. Specifying the sequence of restraining forces involves describing which force (clamp or fastener) is to be applie first, second, third, and so on. An example is shown in Figure 10-1. (Partial Brawing) Z " 2. SURFACES Pe esse 0.2) A ates & 24 A = B c I} 0.2 [A UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES TO BE MEASURED INA RESTRAINED STATE AS FOLLOWS. DATUM FEATURE A (2 PLACES) IS TO BE CLAMPED ON SIMULATED DATUM ‘A_ CLAMPS TO BE LOCATED OVER THE HOLES WITH A FORCE OF 10-15 KG (PER CLAMP) IN THE DIRECTION OF ARROW. CLAMP OVER HOLED FIRST AND CLAMP OVER HOLEE SECOND 10-1 General Restraint Note Restraint Notes It is the designer’s responsibility to designate whether a part is rigid or non- rigid. Ifthe designer wants the part to be considered as a rigid part, no special notation is required on the drawing. If designer wants the part to be consid- ered as anon-rigid part, a restraint note should be specified. The presence of arestraint note is the means for communicating to all drawing users that a part isnon-rigid. There are two common types of restraint notes: a general restraintnote and a local restraint note. When using either type of restraint note, the restraint con- ditions from the previous section should be addressed in the note.General Restraint Notes A general restraint note is a note that defines the restraint conditions forall applicable dimensions onthe drawing unless otherwise specified. Wheninost ofthe geometric tolerances of part are to be measured in a restrained state, a general restraint note should be used. An example of a general restraint note is shownin Figure 10-1. Local Restraint Notes A local restraint note is a note that defines the restraint conditions for speci- fied dimensions on a drawing. Usually a local restraint note is shown in the general notes as a flag note or as a note directly associated with dimensions. The flag is used to denote which geometric tolerances should be measured under restraint. When only a few of the geometric tolerances of a part are to be measured in a restrained state, a local restraint note should be used. An example of a local restraint note is shown in Figure 10-2. Author's Comment In addition to non-rigid parts, many parts contain only certain dimensions that need to be measured in the re- strained state. Parts with non- rigid features use local restraint notes to define the restraint for measuring the ate Drea: non-rigid features. [GJo2] 2surraces [e [o02 OR 8 24 A 1 i | Q 80 |_eene [fez Ta} A Author’s Comment THs OMENSION : : ou Scene ereeee | | Mvocineapentins re S]s02 (CEN ETO) eg SV EEIENETC) \SeATED OVER Tee MOLES WT A FORCE OF 1018 strained state adds cost to the Sar overvouebrnersnocumeorercee | | inspection of the part. If a part Ze doesn’t need to be checked in a restrained condition, it is more economical not to require it. 10-2 Local Restraint Note 10-510-6 Use-of the Free State Symbol () The default condition in Y 14.5 is that all geometric tolerances apply in the free state. This causes many people to question why there is a free state symbol. When a part contains a restraint note, the free state symbol may be used to unlock a tolerance from the restraint requirement. Therefore, the free state symbol should only be used on drawings that contain a general restraintnote. When a free state symbol is used, it is specified in the tolerance portion ofa feature control frame. The verification of the tolerance is done without using the specified drawing restraint. An example ofa free state modifier specified ina profile control is shown in Figure 10-3. In this example, the feature control frame that contains the free state modifier is verified with the partin the free state, and the other tolerances are verified with the part in the restrained state. In some cases, it is possible to have two specifications for a part feature: one toleranced in the free state and one toleranced in the restrained state. In this situation, each specification is an independent requirement.Corsacom (Partial Drawing) BG) 4.24 KB 440 B02 W[A[B@) SECTION A-A UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES TO BE MEASURED IN A RESTRAINED STATE AS FOLLOWS: DATUM FEATURE AIS TO BE CLAMPED ON SIMULATED DATUM A. CLAMPS TO BE LOCATED OVER HOLE D AND HOLE E WITH A FORCE OF 28- 34KG (PER CLAMP) IN DIRECTION OF ARROW C. CLAMP OVER HOLE D FIRST AND HOLE E SECOND. 10-3 Free State Modifier Examples 10-7O Author’s Comment If no restraintmote is specified on the‘drawing, the part should.be inspected without any clamping (restraining). Inspection Tip When inspecting a non-rigid part on a CMM, use a fixture to locate and clamp the part. The fixture will establish the proper part restraint condi- tions and datums. Ifa fixture is not used when inspecting non-rigid parts, it will be difficult or impossible to achieve repeatable measure- ments. 10-8 Inspecting Non-Rigid Parts When inspecting non-rigid parts, there are two areas that need special atten- tion: proper restraining of the part and determining which tolerances are checked in the restrained state. Mounting and restraining the part on the appropriate datum features is the first area. When restraining the part, the only forces that should be used are the ones described in the restraint note. The sequence for applying the restraining force specified on the drawing should be followed. The location, direction, and amount of force, should be in accordance with the restraint note. Once the part is restrained, the tolerances can be verified. When inspecting non-rigid parts, the inspector needs to determine which di- mensions and tolerances are to be checked in the restrained state. Careful reading of the restraint note will indicate if all or certain tolerances are to be checked in the restrained condition. Each feature control frame should be examined for the use of a free state modifier. Ifa free state modifier is speci- fied, the geometric control should be inspected with the part in the free state. Feature of size dimensions and bend radii as well as corner radii and cham- fers, are measured in the free state. In other words, only these dimensions related to the datum reference frame stated in the restraint note are checked in the restrained state.(Orr oae ea etary EXERCISE 10-1 RESTRAINT NOTES 1. When using a drawing; how can you determine if the part is considered non-rigid? A By the specification ofa restraint note B_-Bythe use of the free state symbol C., By the size and thickness of the part D Byholding the part in your hand 2., Two additional considerations when defining a non-rigid part are: the use ofa restraint note, and... A useofthe free state symbol. B the effects of gravity. C_ the use ofthe MMC modifier. D_ implied 90° angles. 3. One strategy for determining restraint conditions is to locate the restraining forces on the part features that... A arenon-functional. B are flat and smooth. C are used to orient the part in the assembly fixture. D _areused to orient the part in the machining fixture. 4. Using the following general restraint note, indicate any restraint requirements that are missing. Not Included Included UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: Amount of force —_ GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES TO BE Direction ior tors MEASURED IN A RESTRAINED STATE AS he. a ae FOLLOWS: DATUM FEATURE AIS TO BE Mumbergppiaces CLAMPED ON SIMULATED DATUM A. caeertplics CLAMPS TO BE LOCATED OVER EACH if HOLE WITH A FORCE OF 10-15 KG (PER ovation civoroe CLAMP) IN THE DIRECTIONS OF ARROW C. Sequence of applying the force continued on next page. . . 10-9EXERCISE 10-1 RESTRAINT NOTES Indicate whether the following statements are true or false. ue en 1. oe S.vT > 10. F 10-10 E sb) F Direction of force is a restraint condition that should be specified in a restraint note, Amount of force is a restraint condition that should be specified in a restraint note: Whether the force is mechanical or hydraulic is a restraint condition that should be specified in a restraint note. A local restraint note applies to all geometric tolerances. On anon-rigid part, the free state symbol is used to unlock the restraint requirement for a specified geometric tolerance. When inspecting a non-rigid part, two areas that need special attention are part restraint and determining which tolerances are checked in the restrained state.Restrained Part Datum Usage CHAPTER GOAL Describe the two special considerations for datum usage on restrained (non-rigid) parts. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: + Explain how to use datum targets to support, orient, and locate a restrained part in the datum reference frame. * Explain how datum shift occurs on a restrained part.11-2 Restrained Part Datum System Usage When tolerancing a restrained (non-rigid) part, the datum specifications are similar to the datum specifications of an unrestrained (rigid) part with a few exceptions. One exception is the use of datum targets and another exception is datum shift. This chapter explains these exceptions for using datums on non- rigid parts. Datum Targets on Restrained (Non-rigid) Parts When specifying datum targets on anon-rigid part, the 3-2-1 rule does not always apply. In cases where a non-rigid part is very flexible (like a large sheet-metal stamping), it may need more than three targets on the primary datum feature, or additional targets on the secondary or tertiary datum fea- tures to support the part. In the case of an automobile hood, ten targets may be used to establish the primary datum. It is logical to use more than three targets to establish a pri- mary datum in such a case because the part must be supported in order to make measurements. Without the additional support, the part would deflect and not represent its functional state. The use of three targets to establish a primary datum is important when using apart that would not easily comply to more than three contact points. In other words, the part would rock on more than three points of contact. When a part can conform to more than a three-point contact in the restrained state, or requires additional support for measurement, the specification of additional datum targets should be considered. The use of additional datum targets does not cause a problem with part rocking because the part conforms to be able to touch the additional targets. Anexample ofa non-rigid part that uses more targets than the traditional 3-2- 1 is shown in Figure 11-1. The drawing contains a restraint note, and the part is flexible enough to easily conform to more than three targets. The remaining conventions for specifying the datum targets for a restrained part are the same as the conventions for specifying datum targets for an unrestrained part.o Ol02©) URFACES. | (Basic dimensions omitted for clarity) UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES TO BE MEASURED IN A RESTRAINED STATE PER THE FOLLOWING ~ PART TO BE RESTRAINED ON DATUM FEATURE A BY CLAMPLING OVER EACH DATUM TARGET IN DIRECTION OF ARROW F WITH A FORCE OF 40-50KG. PER CLAMP, CLAMP OVER DATUM A‘ FIRST, A2 SECOND, A3 THIRD, AND A4 FOURTH. + PART TO BE LOCATED WITH VIRTUAL CONDITION PINS ON DATUM FEATURES B & C. 11-1 Datum Targets on a Non-rigid Part O Author’s Comment The concept of using more than three points of contact for a primary datum would not work ona rigid part. The part would rock and repeatable measurements could not be obtained. Therefore, more than three targets to establish a datum plane should only be used when a restraint note is specified on the drawing. o 11-3Datum Shift on Restrained Parts The.concept of datum shift on restrained parts is not exactly the same as datum shift with unrestrained parts. Wherever the MMC modifier is used in the datum portion ofa feature control frame it denotes that a datum shift is permissible. Datum shift results from the looseness or movement between the part datum features and the gage. The looseness allows the part to shift on the ‘Altgusiigyis permissible to gage. The inspector is allowed to move the part on the gage to get the toler- unclariip| move, and reclamp anced features to be within the tolerance zone. In many cases, datum shift the part, all part features that allows more tolerance for part feature. are gaged simultaneously esr ; ' F need to be measured with the | When the MMC modifier is specified in the datum portion ofa feature control part in a single position. frame on a restrained part, there is no movement between the part and the gage. The restraining of the part does not mean that datum shift is not avail- able. On arestrained part, the part may be unclamped, moved by the amount of looseness of the datum features on the gage, and reclamped. The unclamping, moving, and reclamping of the part may be repeated as many times as desired to optimize the toleranced features in the tolerance zone. An example of how datum shift can occur is shown in Figure 11-2. Author’s Comment Virtual condition Part fr ‘ Figure 10-4 gage pins ( 05.5) Clamp (2 required) Clearance between the part and gage is the amount the part can be moved and reclamped 11-2 Datum Shift on a Restrained Part 11-4Chapter 11 - Restraine 11-5EXERCISE 11-1 RESTRAINED PART TOLERANCING Using the drawing below, answer questions one through eight. 12.4 68 ® om eo ge 70.4 tA] BG9/ 302 @/Ala@lc Saleen ant $ [o02 @/AlsM|CO] a ro Aa, Az, Al fale @[cm) 68 62 & [04M A[BwW[CH + ' 388 ' + | 62 i { S02 MOA aii 1 68 . Be matt z aK oz 64 a [505 ElF@) a +> x c ’ MATERIAL SAE 1010 - 1020 STOCK THICKNESS 0.6 - 0.8 E 4X R15205 2SURFACES[(Q[15©@] UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: G GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES TO BE MEASURED WITH THE PART RESTRAINED ON[A] AND LOCATED ON AND AS FOLLOWS:PART TO BE CLAMPED ON DATUM TARGETS A1 FIRST, A2 SECOND, A3 THIRD AND A4 FOURTH (4 CLAMPS) . A FORCE OF 10-15 KG PER CLAMP IN DIRECTION OF ARROWH. List the geometric tolerances that are to be measured without clamping the part. id Should the 1.5 +/- 0.5 radii be measured in the free state or in the restrained state? Explain how you determined your answer. 11-6ee tet obs ee Bri RL When inspecting the TOP controls that reference datums B and C at MMC, what is the maximum shift tolerance permissible in the. ;. X direction? Y direction? What is the maximum amount of coplanarity error permissible for mounting flanges when the part is in the free state? When the part is in the restrained state? Explain why (in your opinion) the 6.4 - 6.6 diameter holes are dimensioned with the free state modifier. . Whatis the required flatness on datum feature E when the part is in the free state? The restrained state? . How many targets are used to establish datum plane A? . Will this part rock on more than three targets? Explain why or why not. 11-7itso 11-8Form Controls CHAPTER GOAL Understand advanced applications of form controls. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: * Calculate the flatness tolerance value for a gasketed joint application. * Calculate the cylindricity tolerance value in a support application. * Calculate the straightness tolerance value in an assembly application. * Be able to override Rule #1 to limit flatness on a thin part.“hapter 12 - Form Controls 12-2 Introduction This chapter covers advanced applications of formcontrols. There are four different applications described. The firstapplication is using a flatness control to ensure a proper seal is achieved in a pump application. This application includes calculating the flatness tolerance value on the various parts of the assembly. The next application explains how cylindricity can be used to en- sure the proper support for a needle roller bearing on a shaft. The third appli- cation is using straightness to ensure two parts will assemble. In this applica- tion, you will be evaluating a method for distributing the tolerances to accom- modate the manufacture of the part. In the fourth application, straightness is used to control the flatness ofa thin part. Each application improves your insight into geometric tolerancing and how it is used to convey product function. Seal Application In this section, the seal application shown in Figure 12-1 is explained. The gasket between the housing and the coveris a seal for the liquid in the pump. There are many factors that need to be considered in designing this seal appli- cation. The list below shows typical design factors. + The surface texture of the mating surfaces of the housing and cover * Thenumber of bolts + Bolt spacing * Bolt torque * Deflection of the cover or housing + Viscosity of fluid * Pressure of liquid to be contained * Compressibility of the gasket material * The flatness of the housing and coverVena) Housing 6 ke Gasket Cover 12-1 Pump Example The effects of the flatness of the cover and housing and the compressibility of the gasket material are covered in this section. First, the dimensioning tool (geometric tolerance) to protect the function of seal will be established. Then, the tolerance value for the geometric tolerance will be established. The decision diagram in Figure 12-2 shows how to choose the best symbol for the gasket application shown in Figure 12-1. Cylindrical Multiple Consider O 12-2 Seal Function Decision Diagram Consider Consider ay (Ea) The diagram shows that flatness is the best dimensioning tool for the sealing application in Figure 12-1. Lets look at how thetolerance values for the flat- ness callouts for the cover and housing are determined. The main focus of the thought process is system function, but input will also be used from the manu- facturing perspective. 12-3Figure 12-3 shows the effect that flatness of the sealing surfaces has on gasket squeeze. Two factors that affect the design: gasket compressibility and the flatness of the sealing surfaces. First, let’s look at gasket compressibility. When a gasket is squeezed between . > asket compressed height two plates, it compresses. The amount a gasket compresses is dependent upon the density of the material. Gas- ket manufacturers provide compress- ibility ratings for various gasket mate- tials. Ifa gasket has a free height of 1.3 and a compression rating of 20-24%, then its compressed height would be Ware . Figure 12-4 shows the calcu- lation. Z Gasket free height = F Flatness of cover Flatness of housing 12-3 Flatness Effects on Gasket Squeeze The difference between the minimum free height and the maximum compressed height ofa gasket is the amount of flatness error the gasket can fill. (These conditions represent the worst case for the gasket’s ability to seal.) Ifa gasket does not fill the void produced by the flatness error of the adjacent parts, the application will leak. In addition to the maximum compressed height of the gasket, the minimum gasket squeeze must be determined. The minimum gasket squeeze is what holds the gasket in place. If the minimum gasket squeeze is zero, and the gasket is sealing a pressurized chamber, the force against the gasket will push the gasket out and a leak will occur. The minimum gasket squeeze required in an application is aresult of many design factors: pressure being sealed, area of gasket exposed to pressure, gasket strength, etc. F = Gasket free height = te CR = Compressibility rating = 20-24% C = Gasket compressed height (100-CR.,) Cae Fae % ines rae 100 C= sx CO ie a 100 ee 100-C Cu = (eg ® ee A. | be (100 - 24) E og pels atoss 1.064 in 700 12-4 Calculation for Gasket Compressed HeightFor the calculations in this section, we will arbitrarily use 0.02 (mm) as the minimum gasket squeeze required: In a real life situation, the engineer, de- signer, and gasket material supplier would work together to determine the minimum gasket squeeze required for a specific application. Once the maximum compressed height and minimum required gasket squeeze are determined for an application, the flatness tolerance values can be calcu- lated. InFigure 12-3, distance F is the free height of the gasket. The flatness error of the-cover and the flatness error of housing are also shown. The combined flatness error of the gasket surfaces must be compatible with the gasket com- pression ora leak path will exist. The gap shown in Figure 12-3 indicates that leakage would occur. The formula for calculating the combined flatness tolerance values for the cover and the housing is shown in Figure 12-5. This formula uses the appropriate combination of gasket parameters to produce the worst case for the sealing the minimum gasket required squeeze (Smin). The answer is the total amount of flatness tolerance that can be distributed between the gasket sealing sur- faces. LT combined = Faun- (Coa * Spin) = Minimum gasket free height Gasket compressed height maximum = Minimum gasket squeeze a combined = Total amount of flatness tolerance Sample Calculation: that can be divided between the Gasket free height ane =F Sealing surfaces Compressibility rating = 20-24% = CR Minimum gasket squeeze = 0.02" = §, om 3 n Qe v “Arbitrary value used in this course Coe = Fine X (100-.CRM LF combined = Fein~ (Car * Srin) 700 LT combined = 1.4-(1.2+0.02) Oe 15 X oe = 1.2 £7 combined = 0.18 12-5 Combined Flatness Tolerance Value Formula In this case, 0.18 flatness tolerance is available to be divided between the gasket sealing surfaces. The flatness tolerance could be equally split between the two sealing surfaces, or one surface could have more tolerance and the other surface have less tolerance. This is where input from the manufacturing group is needed. How the flatness tolerance is divided has little or no impact on the function, but will have impact on the processing of the parts. The pro- cess engineer should advise the designer on the best way to divide the permis- sible flatness tolerance. 12-5‘orm Controls Sometimes, the total amount of flatness tolerance will not be large enough to satisfy the processing needs when divided between the parts involved. When this happens, there is a conflict between the design requirements and the pro- cess capabilities. Four options exist: 1. Verify the validity of the design requirement and increase the tolerance if possible. 2. Select amore capable process to make one or both adjacent parts. 3. Add another operation to increase the capability of one or both processes. 4. Redesign the application. A meeting could be held between all departments involved. In such a meeting, various alternative processes and designs can be evaluated. The example in Figure 12-6 involves the housing, gasket, and cover from Figure 12-1. It shows an example of how to calculate the flatness tolerance value for the housing and cover. The minimum required gasket squeeze is 0.02. Gasket free height = oe =F Compressibilty rating = 24-28% = CR a (100-24) _ Cpe ® 06 X SWS! = 0.456 aay 100 Siuq = 0.02 minimum gasket squeeze required (arbitrary value for this course) LT combined = Frig~(Crraxt Soin) 0.5 - (0.456 + 0.02) = 0.024 = £7 combined (assign approximately 172 of this vaiue to ‘each component) 0.024 /2 = 0.012 (round down to two places) 12-6 Flatness Tolerance Calctilation Example 12-6Support Application In this section, the support application shown in Figure 12-7 is explained. This application involves a gear that is mounted on a shaft using a full set ofneedle roller bearings. The shaft surface supports the gear loads that are transmitted to the shaftsurface by the roller bearings. Also, the shaft diameter elements must be circular within a very close tolerance for the bearing elements to function properly. In this case, the shaft surface elements must be straight and the shaft diameter sections must be circular. Gear Retaining ring Needle roller bearings: 12-7 Example of Support Application 12-7The function of support has eight recommended dimensioning tools. The de- sign diagram in Figure 12-8 shows how to choose the best dimensioning tool for the application shown in Figure 12-7, Type Consider of support Line element» desired? ar Other Sa Consider (ES Plane, Type Surface eylincrical or Planar of support Line. other? desired? any Consider Surface Cylindrical Feature of size si ‘ iad Single Consider att Muttiple Circular required? Yes Consider Consider a Consider Consider Consider Consider Consider dimension ae oh xy ° 7. 12-8 Support Function Decision Diagram fog} — 12-8Partial details of the shaft and roller bearing are shown. in Figure 12-9. The design guide from a roller bearing manufacturer recommends a cylindricity tolerance of 0.003 to be applied to the shaft, gear, and roller bearing surfaces. The 0.003 value was determined through extensive testing and then docu- mented in a bearing manufacturer's design guidelines. It represents the maxi- mum amount surface elements would have to deflect to ensure a line contact with theneedle bearing. This is a stringent requirement; therefore, it is only applied to the portion of the shaft that contacts the roller bearing. Partial Detail of Shaft 48.0 ATS 20.0 MAX AZ| 0.003 FOR DISTANCE A 10.0 MAX: Partial Detail of Needle Roller Bearing t+——ise-—| eS 12-9 Shaft and Bearing Details 12-912-10 Chapter 12 - Form Controls Assembly Application n this section, an assembly application is explained. The butterfly valve in Figure 12-10 is used. The parts involved in this application are the shaft and the housing. The shaft must assemble into the housing (and slide freely). SN Shaft ma LN Ty Ly ve Yyji4 12-10 Butterfly Valve AssemblyThe decision diagram in Figure 12-11 shows how tochoose the best symbol for various assembly applications, For the shaft and housing assembly in Fig- ure 12-10, the decision diagram indicates that two dimensioning tools could be used: (1) a size dimension on the shaft and housing diameters to control the clearance or (2) a size dimension on the shaft and housing accompanied with astraightness symbol applied to the shaft and housing diameters. A common method is to use a size dimension on the shaft outside diameter and housing hole along with the effects of Rule #1. This would be sufficient to rm Controls, protect the function ofassembly. Assembly Two: A. Consider Consider Consider Consider Consider Se aie dimen (Applied to rg FOS) Assembly Function Examples Zia |O O OO A B c D Assembly of Pattern of FOS Surface orients Coaxial FOS 2 FOS parts at assembly = FOS relative to planar datums 12-11 Assembly Function Decision Diagram 12-11Figure 12-12:shows partial dtawings of the housing and shaft of the butterfly yalve. Note the use of straightness on the housing bore and shaft diameter to protect the function ofassembly. 333 (— Basa BD EEEIONES wf a Ye Loits s cro ICO] z IN stewe 2 [5 015@) la 2 ae Io) Me . am a, 493, 902, 48.7 0 is 12-12 Assembly Application Example 12-12 In some cases, in the manufacturing of the part, it may be difficult to contain the straightness of the part within the size tolerance of its diameter. Then a straightness tolerance may be added to the diameters of each part. (Note: itis preferable to increase the size tolerance instead of adding straightness con- trol.) When using straightness to protect the function of assembly, the virtual condi- tion of the mating diameters is the key factor. The assembly function is ensured by creating a virtual condition for the hole that is larger than the virtual condi- tion of the shaft. The difference between the virtual condition of the hole and the virtual condition of the shaft is the minimum clearance between the two parts. In Figure 12-12, the virtual condition of the housing hole that the shaft as- sembles into is 19.95. The virtual condition of the shaft diameter is 19.85. Therefore, the minimum clearance between the housing hole and shaft diam- eter is 0.1.When designing parts, the thought process is a little different. Often, other design factors determine the approximate size of the shaft and housing diam- eters, then the function ofassemblyis considered. The minimum clearance is the next consideration. Let’s say a minimum clearance of 0.1 is desired, then the virtual condition of the hole must be 0.1 greater then the virtual condition of theshaft. Themaximum clearance is often a compromise between part function and manufacturing capabilities. In our example, 0.3 will be used as the maximum allowable clearance. Then, a 0.1 minimum clearance and 0.3 maximum clear- ance are the system requirements. Manufacturing input is needed to convert the system requirements into part tolerances. The system requirements may be fixed, but there are a variety of ways the tolerance can be divided between. the parts involved. Figure 12-13 shows four proposals for dividing the tolerance in a manner that protects the product function and considers manufacturing capability. Each proposal represents a different set of manufacturing conditions. Notice that for all four proposals, the system requirements shown in columns G & H must be met. In proposal #1, the process engineer had data that showed his intended pro- cess was capable of maintaining a 0.05 tolerance for size on both parts. Al- though he did feel a straightness tolerance was needed on each part, he deter- mined that 0.05 for straightness was realistic. The tolerances were assigned as shown in proposal #1 in Figure 12-13. The functional requirements were en- sured (columns G & H) and the manufacturing capabilities were accommo- dated. --—— A 8 c Do E P GS iH aoa Hs¢ usc | usc | son | shan | shot Min Max fe Dia | sapniness | virus | Dia | Staighiness | Vitua | Clearance | Clearance Condon | OgunF + © condtion | C-F=6 |A_.0,.0H =! Rew 826 | One tAage H 0,,+€=F 1 Straighiness 20.05 19.80 caee 205 | 0s | tos | 128 | oos | toes | ot 0.30 2 Use Size Tolerance 20.05 ‘None use 19.85, None use and Rule #1 19.95 Rule #1 ae) 19.75 Rule #1 tas! ot oe Tiere Tolerance for 20.10 | Nore use 19.05 | None use Hole size 19.95 Rule #1 od 19.80 Rule #1 ae es sian 4 Use Tolecances 20.15 | None use 79.00 | None use Required for Processes 20.00 Rule #1 2007 19.80 Rule #1 19:90 et 0.36 12-13 Distributing Tolerances In proposal #2, the process engineer determined that it would be beneficial to the process if the size tolerance was increased on both parts and the straight- ness was held within the size tolerance (Rule #1). The tolerances were as- signed as shown in Figure 12-13. The functional requirements were ensured (columns G & H) and the manufacturing capabilities were accommodated.12-14 In proposal #3, the process engineer determined that more tolerance should be allotted to the hole diameter than the shaft diameter. He requested 0.15 tolerance on the hole diameter because it was required for the process se- lected. The process used for the shaft outside diameter was capable of main- taining a 0.05 tolerance. Once again, the functional requirements were en- sured (columns G & H) and the manufacturing capabilities were accommo- dated. In proposal #4, the process engineer determined that the process for the hous- ing hole needed 0.15 tolerance for size. Also, the process for the shaft diam- eter required 0.1 size tolerance. Using these tolerances, the product functional requirements can not be ensured. In a case like this, steps should be taken to bring the design requirement of 0.3 maximum allowable clearance and pro- cess capabilities in line. The following steps are recommended: 1, Analyze the part measurement methods for accuracy and repeat- ability. 2. Study the process to determine if variation can be reduced. 3. Verify the validity of the design requirements. 4, Determine if another operation can be added to reduce variation in the process. 5. Determine ifa different, more capable process could be used. 6. Redesign the product. The product costs need to be analyzed to determine if the chosen solution makes sense from a business standpoint. For example, an operation can be added to a process to reduce variation, but the additional operation may re- sult in more expense than the budget can afford. Then another solution needs to be considered. Controlling Flatness on Thin Parts When designing thin parts (like stampings) it is often desirable to control how flat the part must be. The flatness symbol is the symbol that comes to mind. However, the flatness symbol doesn't always work well on thin part applica- tions because, when using the flatness control, the flatness tolerance value can not’be any greater than the size tolerance. In Figure 12-14 the maximum flatness tolerance that can be applied to surface A is 0.2. Ifa larger flatness tolerance is desired, the flatness needs to be indirectly controlled through the use ofa straightness tolerance applied to the thickness of the part.Jy SurtaceA “a | G7 |, xx [26 “| 24 12-14 Thin Part Example Figure 12-15 shows an example of straightness used to control flatness. The straightness tolerance establishes a set of parallel plates 3.4 apart that the parts must pass through. Ifa part was at MMC (2.6), it could be bent or out of flat by 0.8 and pass thru the parallel plates. If the part was at LMC (2.4), it could be bent out of flat by 1.0 and pass through the parallel plates. By using different straightness tolerance values, a number of flatness conditions can be achieved. When straightness is used to control flatness, it is an indirect flatness control. In other words, only the size and straightness is checked. The flatness is a result of the allowable variation of size and straightness. | oO a? ee ee “TP iga ' ' 1 1 1 1 ' 12-15 Using Straightness to Control Flatness oO O =i — suticea ao} 428 PERFECT FORM AT Worst-case boundary = 3.4 ‘4 MMC NOT REQUIRED, 12-16 Override Rule#i to Control Flatness. 12-15EXERCISE 12-1 CALCULATING FLATNESS TOLERANCE VALUES Housing Gasket Formula for Compressed Height 100 -C' Cray @ Ea x { ) ‘max max 100 Fillin the blank cells of the chart. CR Cover Formula for Flatness £7 combined = Fy, - (Cmax + Smin) Design Gasket Gasket Compressed | Min. Hsg..* Cover * Proposal Free Compression | Height Number . Height Rating % Gasket Flatness | Flatness Squeeze * Use approximately half the allowable flatness on each component. Round down to two places. 12-16EXERCISE 12-2 CYLINDRICITY / Gear / ;— Roller bearing =a Case Retaining ‘Surface of roller bearing Shaft surface Amount of deflection required {0 obtain line contact 1. Ifthe shaft surface contains the control] “CY | 0.004 |and the roller bearing contains the control| 4Y | 0.003 |themaximum gap between the roller bearing surface and the shaft surface would be 2. Coulda circularity control be used in place of the cylindricity control? Why? 3. The maximum recommended gap (product requirement) between a roller bearing surface and a shaft surface is 0.006. The roller bearing has a cylindricity of 0.004. The intended process for the shaft is capable ofa cylindricity of 0.007. The maximum gap between the roller bearing surface and shaft surface would be 0.011. a) Should the recommended gap be revised? b) Whatare four possible options for making the design requirements and process capabilities match? 12-17EXERCISE 12-3 STRAIGHTNESS TOLERANCE VALUES The screw shown below is used in the 7.2-7.4 dia. holes to fasten the cover and housing (from Figure 12- 10) to the main body. The designer is calculating the straightness callout tolerance value for the screw outside diameter. Various minimum assembly clearances are shown in the chart below. Complete the blank cells in the chart. (Hint: what controls the straightness of the housing holes? See Figure 12-12.) Assembly Clearance = Virtual Condition Housing - Virtual Condition Screw 1. Fillin the chart below. vine Virtual Condition Virtual Condition | Staightness Clearance | of Housing Dia of Screw Jolajance for Assembly ge on Screw 2. Could the size tolerance on the’screw be increased and use Rule #1 andthe size dimension to control the straightness? Explain why. 12-18Chapter 12- Form Controls EXERCISE 12-4 USING STRAIGHTNESS ON THIN PARTS 1. Whatis the flatness of side A limited to? 2. Whatis the flatness of side B limited to? TS 1 es 62.2 PA 62.0 63.4 Zaye & [01MA 2 o30 7 [ Bo.os@[ a [Bw] cw] 44 ‘i A—2al B 3.9 ot he 39 | |Gom) a o © [01M Al B@ BOUNDARY 16.5 16.5 3. Revise the drawing above to limit the flatness of the sides to 0.4 max. 12-1912-20The Datum System CHAPTER GOAL Understand the uses, advantages, misconceptions, and common errors of the datum system. ! CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: * Describe when to use the datum system + List two advantages of the datum system * List two common misconceptions about the datum system. « Identify three common errors in datum usage.13-2 The Datum System Introduction The datum system allows the designer to communicate two important part parameters: functional relationships and measurement instructions, This chap- ter covers uses, advantages, selection criteria, and common errors Of the da- tum system. When to Use the Datum System There are two applications where the datum system is commonly used on engineering drawings. They are shown in Figure 13-1. Use the datum system to. . . ¢ Establish a functional relationship between part features ¢ Relate the measurement of a dimension to a datum reference frame 13-1 When to Use the Datum System First, the datum system is used to communicate functional relationships be- tween part features. For example, if a hole needs to be perpendicular to a surface for assembly reasons, a datum feature identification symbol is applied to the surface and a perpendicularity control that references the datum is speci- fied on the hole. For an example, see Figure 13-2. 92 @ a6 | [ao2@) [a 13-2 Datum System Used to Establish.a Functional RelationshipAnother common use of the datum system is to relate the measurement ofa dimension to a datum reference frame. This often occurs when Coordinate dimensions are used»A coordinate dimension lacks the ability to specify a datum reference frame. This results in confusion about how to hold the part during inspection, A better way to relate the measurement of a dimension to a datum reference frame is by using profile controls. Since profile controls use the datum system, they are an excellent way to relate the measurement ofa dimension to a datum reference frame. An example is shown in Figure 13-3. Ifa coordinate dimension was sed to locate this surface ‘without specifying datum references, the inspector would have these choices ALB ‘Specifying datum references ‘communicates a single setup for inspection 13-3 Using Profile to Relate a Dimension to a Datum Reference Frame Even though the datum system is very useful, datums are not specified as often as they should be. A designer should relate most part dimensions to a datum reference frame. Each dimension should fall into one of two general catego- ries: a feature of size dimension or a datum related dimension. Figure 13-4 shows a rule of thumb for when datums should be used. Three exceptions to the rule of thumb are tangent radii, chamfers, and stock sizes. Rule of Thumb Each dimension on a drawing should be either. . . + A feature of size dimension or + A datum related dimension Three exceptions are: * Tangent Radii * Chamfers * Stock Sizes 13-4 Datum Usage Rule of Thumb PORT ESS Co Author's Comment To some people this rule of thumb is very alarming. What this means is that coordinate tolerances should not be used to locate part features or features of size. Author’s Comment Although I refer to datums being used for “measurement” or “inspection” throughout this book, datums are often used for processing’ parts. 13-3Design Tip Whenever parts are dimen- sioned based on how they function, the largest amount of tolerances available. 13-4 Advantages of the Datum System The datum system provides two very important advantages. First, the datum system allows the designer to communicate functional relationships. Without the datum system, functional relationships would require lengthy notes. The second advantage is that the datum system communicates important inspec- tion instructions. The datum system communicates the sequence (order) in which the features of the part relate to the mating part and allows the inspec- tion equipment to simulate the functional conditions during measurement. See Figure 13-5. Advantages of the Datum System * Communicates functional relationships + Communicates the sequence of part to gage setup for inspection 13-5 Advantages of the Datum System Common Misconceptions About the Datum System There are two common misconceptions about the datum system. One mis- conception is that datums actually exist on the part. The second is that datum features should be selected by the process engineer. These are shown in Fig- ure 13-6. Two Common Datum Misconceptions 1. Datums exist on the part 2. Datums should be selected by the process engineer 13-6 Two Common Datum MisconceptionsThe misunderstanding of datums existing on the part often results from two conditions. One is a lack of understanding of the datum system. The other is a lack of understanding (or disbeliefin) the ftinctional dimensioning philosophy. Datum planes and axes.doynot exist on the part. Datums are theoretical and are simulated by the inspection equipment. Datum features exist on the part. Misunderstanding the difference between datums and datum features can lead to errors in specifying datum targets and inspection of parts. The second misconception is that datum features should be chosen by the process engineer. This misunderstanding results from a lack of understanding, or belief in the functional dimensioning philosophy. Datum features should be part features which either mount and locate the part in its assembly or are involved in communicating a functional relationship for a dimension. In some cases, the datum features specified on the part (based on function) are not convenient for use during processing of the part. The process engineer is then faced with the choice of using different surfaces to manufacture the part than will be used to inspect the part, or request to revise the datum feature specifications to represent the manufacturing process. Both choices have short- comings. Ifthe datum features are revised to reflect the manufacturing process, it de- stroys the functional relationships of the dimensions. The dimensions lose their relationship to the customer requirements. On the surface, it appears the part is easier to produce. However, rearranging datum specifications to match the manufacturing process often results in less tolerance for manufacturing as well. To demonstrate this, let’s look at the example in Figure 13-7. 13-513-6 108 106 2X12 fos | 2% Dio4 15 © | go2@]alole] bc &[Go1@lalslec As ° | ! $5 80+0.3 80 + 0.05 8 8 | 10 i 10 x D9 ox ges 6.0 Partial Drawing @ | 202@[alalc | Partial Drawing $[do2@ alalc A DIMENSIONED FOR FUNCTION B_REDIMENSION AS PROCESSED Distances X & Y are important to the function of the part. The calculations below show that tedimensioning the part to match the process significantly reduces the manufacturing tolerances. MAX DISTANCE X (A) | MAX DISTANCE X (B) DATUM D A - 54 - 6.15 +15.0 - 65.0 xmax + 9.9 = XMAX! _+80.05 id 4 + 9.9 = XMAX S) 80,05 G10.3 GAGE PIN @10.2| GAGE PIN DATUM B | | | IN DISTANCE X (A) | MIN DISTANCE X (B) | I I I - 10.6 — xMIN + 5.15 - 65.0 +79.95 XMIN - 10.6 — 15 + 54 + 9.5 = XMIN +15.0 + 9.5 = XMIN 106 @ 10.2] GAGE PIN GAGE PIN Baro 13-7 Functional Datum vs. Redimensioned for ProcessIn Figure 13-7A, the part has four holes: two sets of holes.at each end of the part. One set of holes is dimensioned from datum B and the other set is di- mensioned from datum D, The function of the part requires that each set of holes be held inrelation to the edge of the part they are nearest to. Distances X and Y are important to the function of the part. If the part is processed using the datums shown, distance X would be 9.5 - 9.9 and distance Y would be 6.5 - 7,1. This tolerance range results from the position callouts that control each set ofholes to their respective datums. The resulting distances X and Y are acceptable to the function of the part. To achieve the hole relationship from each end of the part would require the part to be processed by placing it ima fixture twice. This is not a desirable condition for manufacturing. Let’s look at what happens if the part is redimensioned to optimize the pro- cess. In Figure 13-7B, the process uses different surfaces on which to locate during the manufacture of the part. Then the process and inspection will origi- nate from one set of surfaces, while the functional requirement will originate from another set of surfaces. Also, since the functional relationship of the holes to the edges of the piece must be maintained, there is considerably less tolerance available for the manufacture of the part. In order to maintain the distance X as defined above, manufacturing tolerances would have to be re- duced to allow for the tolerance stack. When all four holes are produced from datum B, then distance X is the result of two tolerances: the 80+0.3 overall height and the positional tolerance for hole location. In order to maintain dis- tance X of 9.5 -9.9, the tolerance on the 80 dimension would be reduced to +0.05 (over an 80% reduction!) and the position tolerance is reduced from. 0.2 to 0.1. The drawing should specify the datums based on function. Removing datum D from the drawing and revising the position callout to reference datum B (as shown in Figure 13-7B) does not help manufacturing or engineering. It re- quires tighter tolerances for manufacturing and masks the functional require- ments for engineering. Instead of revising the datum scheme on the part, itis better to make adjustments to the process plan. Two options exist. One option to revise the process plan is to use two operations, one for each set ofholes. The cost of the extra handling should be offset by the savings that result from the additional tolerances. If the savings do not offset the cost of the extra handling of the part, then use the following option. Leave the datums on the drawings as shown to reflect the functional require- ments of the part. Continue to process the part as planned, using different surfaces for the process than will be used for inspection. This is not a desirable condition, but it is sometimes unavoidable. Author’s Comment Although it isn’t mandatory, it is advantageous to use the functional datums for pro- cessing. Whenever a func- tional relationship is divided into two or more sub-dimen- sions to accommodate manufacturing, the sub- dimensions will have less tolerance. Also, functional parts may be scrapped. 13-7Author’s Comment Inane means meaningless or ridiculous. An inane specifica- tion may have no interpreta- tion or it may have numerous interpretations. Design Tip If the primary datum is unrepeatable for gaging, then it can’t be stable during function. 13-8 Common Errors. in Datum Usage Onengineering drawings, there are three common errors when using datums. They are listed in Figure 13-8. This section shows examples of the datum errors and suggestions on how to avoid them. Common Errors in Datum Usage + Unrepeatable datum references + Implied datum sequence + Inane datum specifications 13-8 Common Datum Errors Unrepeatable Datum References The first common error is referencing datums which are not sufficient for re- peatability. An unrepeatable datum reference occurs when the relationship of the part to the datum planes or axes in the gage is unrepeatable. One way an unrepeatable datum reference occurs is when the datum feature is not long enough to stabilize the part relative to the gage. On the washer in Figure 13-9, the primary datum feature is the inside diameter. The length of this diameter is too short to establish repeatability between the part and the gage. The part will not be in the same orientation each time it is placed on the gage. Therefore, datum A, as a primary datum is unrepeatable.| Part orientation relative to the ———> ). gage is not repeatable Expanding arbor i eh a2 | TN) | © 23 12:10 23.87 0.66 es) 0.61 |S 0.13) | A —| 0.13) 13-9 Unrepeatable Datum Example By using the face as the primary datum feature and the diameter as the sec- ondary datum (as shown in Figure 13-10), the part is oriented (stabilized) relative to the gage. Then the axis of A can be found and the part can be measured repeatedly. Part orientation is repeatable on the ' gage 1 | Expanding arbor Ee I 12.23 : © 24-13 0 ae | 23.87 K 08 \ 0.13 BIA 1 av - @le pe 0.13@) | | B | EITHER SIDE 13+10 Correction for Unrepeatable Datum 13-9Author's Comment This problem usually occurs from the misunderstanding that datum targets exist on the part. Datum targets do not exist on the part; they are gageelements. The part dimensioning must be specified to define the part to rest on the datum targets in a tepeatable manner. 13-10 A second way an unrepeatable datum error occurs is through the improper use of datum targets. The datum target specification may be proper, but the way the geometric tolerance references the datums can produce an unrepeat- able datum condition. Figure 13-11A showsa legal datum target specifica- tion, but the way the datums are referenced can produce an unrepeatable datum situation. The tolerance of position callout references all three datums, just as it should. The part would be placed in a gage contacting datum plane A primary, B secondary, and datum C tertiary, as shown in Figure 13-11B. The part to. gage relationship would be repeatable. The parallelism callout in Figure 13-11A only references datum A primary. If the part was to be placed only on datum A, the part to gage relationship would be unrepeatable. Figure 13-11C shows one possible way the part could beplaced on a gage representing datum target A. There are an infinite number of ways the part could be placed on datum target A. This problem can be corrected by using a secondary and tertiary datum reference in the parallelism callout. The important point to remember in this example is that whenever datum targets are used to establish a primary datum, all geometric tolerances that reference the datum need to include a secondary and tertiary datum refer- ence. Without referencing a secondary or tertiary datum reference, the part can move around relative to the datum targets. ZI Os > 12 19 Unrepeatable datum reference ois 2 $ | o02@) > a ° 8 WSs 13-11 Example of Unrepeatable Datum ReferencesImplied Datum Sequence The second common datum erroris an implied datum sequence. An implied datum sequence exists when the drawing doesn't specify the order in which the part is placed:in its datum reference frame for dimensional measurement. An implied datum sequence exists when coordinate dimensions are used to locate a part feature. When an implied datum sequence exists, inspectors can hold the part in different ways to make the same measurement. Implied datum sequence results in different answers for a dimensional measurement. An example is shown in Figure 13-12. The 27.8 - 28.2 coordinate dimension is establishing the location for diameter C. The coordinate dimension doesn't specify a datum sequence. Therefore, when inspecting this part, the inspector has to make an assumption as to how to hold the part for the measuring of the 27.8 - 28.2 dimension. There are two logical choices shown in Figure 13-13: the dimension could be inspected as shown in setup A or as shown in setup B. my EX] s Fry Lox miox sn 2.376.678 MINOR, S21] (21 EE ay +| a sr | 12025 is]ATS io | Prz08 ESCO 3 0@)|F ys ie Si 6.02 [S[eer@TeloOlF] 102, 98 13-12 Implied Datum Sequence ExampleAuthor’s Comment The inability to specify a datum sequence is one reason why Coordinate dimensions arenot recommended for locating part features. 13-12 Surface Plate Setup A | Setup 8 13-13 Inspection of an Implied Datum Sequence Dimension Insetup A of Figure 13-13, part feature E is first placed on the surface plate. Then, an angle plate is brought into contact with surface F, and the dimension is measured from the angle plate to the center of the hole. If any "out o squareness" exists between surfaces E and F, it will affect the measurement. [I setup B is used, the part is placed on surface F first. In this case, the measure- ment will not be affected by the squareness relationship between surfaces E and F. In Figure 13-12, the use of the 27.8 - 28.2 coordinate dimension does not communicate a datum sequence for its inspection. This can result in a serious problem, but it is easy to avoid. An implied datum sequence can be avoided by revising the 27.8 - 28.2 dimension to a basic dimension and adding a geometric tolerance to diameter C as shown in Figure 13-14. Now the loca- tion of diameter C can be inspected without any assumption as to how to hold the part. The datum sequence in the feature control frame instructs the inspec- tor to use setup A shown in Figure 13-13. Keep in mind that each time a hole location is specified, the sequence for setting up the part for inspection must also be specified.ex Lox mio 15-04 1.378.8 676 MINOR DIA. [@ [eosBTF TOE] 13-14 Eliminating Implied Datum Sequence 13-1313-14 Inane Datum Specifications The third common error in datum usage is inane datum specifications. Inane datum specifications are drawing specifications that make no sense at all. One way inane datum specifications are created is by labeling a center line as a datum feature. Before we discuss how this occurs, I would like to explain the term “center line.” A center line is a type of line shown on an engineering drawing. A center line represents the axis of symmetry for a view ora portion of a view. Every part with an axis (such as cylinders or cones) will have the axis drawn as a center line. Every circle on a drawing will have its center at the intersection of two center lines. Center lines only exist on drawings, not on actual parts. Center lines on drawings represent the part axes. Often on a drawing, one center line will represent multiple part axes. In Figure 13-15, datums B and C are inane datum specifications. The prob- lem becomes obvious when the gage to simulate the datum is considered. What part features would the gage contact to establish datum plane B? Would you use. .. * The two holes? * The large hole and one small hole? * The outside diameter of the part? @ 100 37.2 276 37.0 274 13-15 Inane Datum Specifications As you can see in Figure 13-15, there are several choices for which part features should be used to establish datums B and C. Several choices exist because the center line labeled as datum B and C is really the center line that represents the axes of the outside diameter, the small holes, and a plane cre- ated by any combination of these features.The center line labeled datum feature B represents severaliaxes from different part features. One axis exists for each diametral part feature. By labeling a center line as a datum feature, the:drawing user doesn’t know which part feature (axis) is intended to be used to establish the datum. The drawing in Figure 13-16, eliminates the inane datum specifications. The datum identification symbols are associated with a surface or a specific diam- eter of the part. 13-16 Eliminating Inane Datums Datum identification symbol A is shown applied to on the back of the flange surface; datum identification symbol B is shown applied to the large hole in the center of the part. Since this part is symmetrical, it does not require a tertiary datum. Figure 13-17 shows a gage for simulating the datums for the part shown in Figure 13-16. Simulated Datum A Simulated Datum B 13-17 Gage for Simulating Datums on Part in Figure 13-16 Author’s Comment Remember, when specifying a datum, the datum identifica- tion symbol should be placed ona surface or a feature of size. Then, itis clear which features are used to establish the datum planes or axes. 13-15EXERCISE 13-1 WHEN TO USE DATUMS 21.2 20.0 21.2 20.0 1. Does a simple part (like the one shown above) need to use datums? Explain why or why not. 2. List two reasons to use datums on a part. 3. . Does adding datums to a simple part (use the one shown above) raise or lower the product costs? Explain why or why not. 4. Doall parts need to use the datum system? Explain why or why not. 13-16EXERCISE 13-2 DATUMS: ADVANTAGES, MISCONCEPTIONS, ERRORS Select from the answers‘on the right to complete each statement. 1. Two advantages of the datum system are: : 2. Two misconceptions about datums are: 3. Three common datum errors are: : A unrepeatable datum references repeatability implied datum sequence requires knowledge of the ANSI standard datums exist in the gage communicates sequence of part to gage set-up for inspection inane datum specifications datums exist on the part communicates functional relationships meaningless datums datum feature should be selected by the process engineer 13-17EXERCISE 13-3 DATUM ERRORS tals DISTANCE _/ THIS DIAMETER THIS DISTANCE — 9.972 © g 059 — |@ 0.013 (M) is pe On the drawing above, identify the common datum usage errors. 1. Inane datum specifications 2. Implied datum sequence for a dimension 3. Unrepeatable datum 13-18Datum Feature Types CHAPTER GOAL Understand nine common datum feature types. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: * Listnine common datum feature types. * Describe when each datum feature type is typically used. * List how many degrees of freedom are restricted when each datum feature type is used. + Draw the datum feature simulator for the datum features referenced ina geometric tolerance.14-2 Introduction When dimensioning rigid parts, most applications can be covered by using ‘one or more of nine common datum feature types. These common datum feature types are used to establish datum planes or axes that make up a datum reference frame for the measurement of geometric tolerances. This chapter describes each common datum feature type and explains when these types of datum features are commonly used. It then describes thedatum feature simulators and resulting datum reference frame, and it explains the number of degrees of freedom that are constrained. If you are not familiar with the various methods for designating feature and feature of size datums, or the concept of degrees of freedom, they are de- scribed in my book, The Fundamentals of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing, 2nd Edition, published by ITT Delmar in the USA. In this text, the term “datum feature simulator” is used to describe the gage surfaces that simulate the datum plane(s) or axes. For practical purposes in industry, the datum feature simulator is often used as the datum. There are seven additional datum feature types that are possible, but less common, in industrial applications. They are listed later in this chapter, but are not covered in this text. Also, partial surfaces (datum targets) as datum fea- tures are covered in Chapter 15.Common Datum Feature Types There are nine common.datum feature types. They are shown in Figure 14-1. Each datum feature type is explained in this section. 1) Planar-surface A Berlaparsntees w 2 SURFACES 10 i 3. Offset plan ee z ay 4. Cylinder SE i A 2 3 10.4 106 ®i04 A x Ba x85 5. Coaxial — Fy Re one perme! * ° 20.8 fara ® A [a] 108 62 10.4 x 7.Width & : 8. Coplanar widths & eo (planar feature of size) > =) o}4 9. Patter of parallel ic a widths TS atak (planar features of size) x 198 * May be external (e.g. pins) ecm 10.0 ofinternal (e.g. holes) A 4 May be external (e.g. tabs) cE or internal (e.g. widths) fe) 14-1 Nine Basic Datum Feature Types 14-3Design Tip Whenever a’planar surface is used as aprimary datum feature, a flatness control should be:applied to the datum feature. This improves the stability between the datum feature and the datum feature simulator. Whenever a planar surface is used as a secondary or tertiary datum feature, orientation controls should be used to orient the secondary and tertiary datum features to the higher ranking datums. O Author’s Comment A planar surface should not be used as a datum feature for the convenience of manufac- turing or inspection. Using surfaces as datum features inappropriately may result in part dimensioning that does not represent the part function and often results in overly restrictive tolerances. 14-4 1. Planar Surface as a Datum Feature Using aplanar surface as a datum feature is very common. Itis designated on the drawing by associating the datum identification symbol with the planar surface. An example is shown in Figure 14-2. x 46 off ca a [ox@) 14-2 Surface as a Datum Feature ‘When to Use a Planar Surface as a Datum Feature There are three common applications where a planar surface is used as a datum feature: + When the planar surface orients the part in its assembly + When the planar surface locates the part in its assembly + When describing a functional relationship between a part feature and a planar surface Note that in each application listed, there is a functional reason why a planar surface is used as a datum feature. In Figure 14-2, the datum feature is used in defining a functional relationship of the hole relative to datum planes A, B, & G: The Datum Reference Frame When a planar surface is used as a datum feature and referenced ina feature control frame, a datum planeis invoked. If multiple planar surfaces are used as datum features and referenced in a feature control frame, a datum refer- ence frame is invoked. A geometric tolerance (like a parallelism control) may only use one datum reference, while another geometric tolerance (like a posi- tion control) may use twoor three datum references.It is important to be able to visualize the datum feature Simulator, datum planes, and datum reference frame for inspecting (or processing) a geometric toler- ance. Figure 14-3 shows the datum reference frame for the position control in Figure 14-2. Degrees of Freedom Constrained A part in'space has six degrees of freedom. When measuring a geometric tolerance, some or all of the degrees of part freedom must be constrained. One'geometric tolerance (like a parallelism control) may only require three degrees of freedom to be restrained, while another geometric tolerance (like a position control) may require all six degrees of freedom to be restrained. The number of degrees of freedom that are constrained for inspecting a geometric tolerance depends upon three factors, the type of datum feature(s), the num- ber of datums referenced, and the sequence of the datum references. When- ever a geometric tolerance references three planar datum features as primary, secondary, and tertiary, all six degrees of freedom are constrained. Figure 14- 3 shows the part from Figure 14-2 where all six degrees of freedom are constrained. Datum feature Zz ‘simulator Datum plane A Y x Datum plane 8 Datum feature simulator Using the TOP control from Figure 14-2 Degree of freedom Constrained Movement along the X axis YES Movement along the Y axis YES Movement along the Z axis YES Rotation around the X axis YES Rotation around the Y axis YES Rotation around the Z axis YES 14-3 Degrees of Freedom Constrained Design Tip When a planar surface is used as a primary datum feature, many parts rock (due to having a convex surface) on the datum simulator. If the designer suspects a datum feature may rock when contacting its datum simula~ tor, datum targets should be used (see Chapter 15). 14-5Chapter 14- Datum O vi Author’s Comment In most applications, no more than three coplanar surfaces should be used to establish a datum plane. Design Tip Whenever coplanar surfaces are used as a primary datum feature, a profile control should be used to limit the coplanarity and flatness of the surfaces. AAR 2. Goplanar Surfaces as a Datum Feature Using coplanar surfaces as a datum feature is common. It is designated on the drawing by applying a single datum identification symbol to the coplanar sur- faces, The number of surfaces being used as the datum feature should be indicated next to the datum identification symbol. An example issShown in Figure 14-4. 3 SURFACES >}ee | i oe] \ | 14-4 Coplanar Surfaces as a Datum Feature When to Use Coplanar Surfaces as a Datum Feature There are two common applications where coplanar surfaces are used as a datum feature: + When the coplanar surfaces orient the part inits assembly * When describing functional relationship between a part feature and the coplanar surfaces In Figure 14-4, the coplanar surfaces collectively orient the part in the assem- bly. , The Datum Reference Frame It is important to be able to recognize the datum planes or datum reference frame for inspecting a geometric tolerance. When coplanar surfaces are used as a datum feature and referenced as a primary datum ina geometric control, a datum plane is established. Figure 14-5 shows the datum reference frame for the parallelism control in Figure 14-4.Degrees of Freedom Constrained A part in space has six degrees of freedom. When inspecting a geometric tolerance, some or all of the degrees of freedom must be constrained. Ageo- metric tolerance (like a parallelism control) only requires three degrees of freedom to be restrained, while another geometric tolerance (like a position control) may require all six degrees of freedom to be restrained. The number of degrees of freedom that are constrained for inspecting a geometric toler- ance depends upon three factors: the type of datum feature(s), the number of datums referenced, and the sequence of the datum references. Whenever a geometric tolerance references coplanar surfaces as a primary datum, three degrees of freedom are constrained. They are translation along one axis and rotation around two axes. See Figure 14-5. Zz Datum plane A Datum feature simulator Using the parallelism control from Figure 14-4 Degree of freedom Movement along the X axis Movement along the Y axis Constrained Movement along the Z axis Rotation around the X axis YES Rotation around the Y axis YES Rotation around the Z axis NO 14-5 Degrees of Freedom Constrained 14-73. Offset Planar Surfaces as Datum Features Using offset planar surfaces as datum features to create a common datum plane is a familiar practice in industry. It is specified on the drawing by apply- ing two datum identification symbols. One symbol is applied to each of the offset surfaces. A different datum letter is used on each datum feature. When offset surfaces are specified as datum features, a basic dimension should be shown between the surfaces. When offset surfaces are used as datum features and referenced as a multiple datum, both datum letters are referenced asa multiple datum. An example is shown in Figure 14-6. | \ ' : Design Tip | Whenever offset planar ' 1 1 1 surfaces are used as a primary datum feature, a profile control should be used to limit the offset and flamess of the surfaces. (Partial drawing) 14-6 Offset Planar Surfaces as Datum Features When to Use Offset Surfaces as Datum Features There are two common applications where offset surfaces are used as datum features: : + When the offset surfaces orient the part in its assembly + When describing functional relationship between a part feature and the offset surfaces Note that in each application listed, there is a functional reason why a planar surface is used as a datum feature. In Figure 14-6, the coplanar surfaces orient the part in its assembly. 14-8