Your Author

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As a mechanical engineer, Professor Emeritus and
standards developer, Don has dedicated his career to the

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advancement of GD&T. From satellites to sump pumps
Dedication

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thousands of design, production and quality personnel have
This text is dedicated to my parents, Hyland and benefitted from his entertaining instruction.

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Dorothy and my big brother, Roger. Thank you for my
dairy farm upbringing which has grounded me in utilizing
Introduction

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The GD&T Hierarchy textbook is intended to aid in the
common sense, hard work and humor. You taught me to
instruction of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing

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take pride in my work and that work can be fun.
(GD&T) in accordance with the ASME Y14.5-2009 standard.
Acknowledgements

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Where this text refers to “the Standard” it is referring to
A special thanks to my family, friends and colleagues the ASME Y14.5-2009 standard. Coverage also includes
who graciously agreed to review this text. Your corrections

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selected topics from ASME Y14.41 and ASME Y14.36.
and suggestions took this text to a higher level that could Many of the drawings are intentionally incomplete and
not have been achieved without your assistance.

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should not be used as a basis for design criteria or part
Judy Day Wendy Patterson acceptance.

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Frank Bakos James Sykes
Brett Lance David Honsinger Written by: Don Day

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Dean Watts Published by: Tec-Ease, Inc.
888-832-3273 (within USA and Canada)

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Where to Get More Help

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www.tec-ease.com
You can find extensive, free Tips on GD&T at www.

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tec-ease.com/gdt-tips.htm. About this Text
The geometric tolerances have been highlighted in

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New Tips are added each
month. Your suggestions for yellow. This is to make it easier to find the GD&T on the
drawings although they would not be highlighted on an

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additional Tips are always
welcome. Just email your actual drawing.

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suggestions to info@tec-ease. Use of brackets: Any reference to sections of the
ASME Y14.5-2009 standard appear in blue and are placed

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com.
For a quick reference in [ ]. The text found here is intended to put the concepts of

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to GD&T see “The GD&T the Standard into plain English without sacrificing technical
Hierarchy Pocket Guide-2009” accuracy.
and other related texts by Don Where a concept is new to the 2009 revision of the
Day. Don Day Standard it will have a shaded background.

Revised: 3-29-10 Introduction to The GD&T Hierarchy 1-1

 Table of Contents Chapter 4 - Datum Feature Controls [4.9] 4-1

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Chapter 1 - Introduction and Course Objectives 1-5 Affect of Modifiers 4-7
Why GD&T Hierarchy? 1-5 Rotational Constraint [[4.16] 4-9

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Introduction - Geometric Shapes 1-5 Datum Translation, [4.11.10] 4-17

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Multi-functional Design Team 1-8 Chapter 5 - Datum Concepts 5-1
What Is GD&T? 1-11 Simultaneous Requirements [4.19] 5-2

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Geometric Tolerances [1.3.62] 1-13 Restraint Clarified [4.20] 5-4
Datum Targets [4.6] 5-5

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Evolution of Engineering Drawings 1-14
Basic Dimensions [2.1.1.2] 1-18 Movable Datum Targets [4.24.6] 5-7

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GD&T Symbols 1-20 The Coordinate System 5-8

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Statistical Tolerancing 1-23 Labeling the Coordinate System [4.21] 5-8
The GD&T Hierarchy 1-29 Degrees of Freedom 5-9
Customized Datum Reference Frame [4.22] 5-10

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Chapter 2 - Features 2-1
Actual Envelopes 2-2 Mathematically Defined Surface [4.13] 5-13

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Features of Size [1.3.32] 2-4 Clarifying Applicable Boundaries [4.11.6.3] 5-13
Irregular Features of Size 2-5 Repetitive Patterns of Features 5-14

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Material Condition Modifiers 2-7 Chapter 6 - Form: ,,and 6-1
The Feature Control Frame [1.3.33] 2-8 Flatness,  [5.4.2] 6-1
Flatness Applied to a Size Dimension [5.4.2.1] 6-4

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Boundaries [1.3.2 and 1.3.5] 2-11
Individual Feature of Size, Rule #1 [2.7.1] 2-14 Former Practice 6-4

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Continuous Feature [2.7.5] 2-16 Straightness,  [6.4.1] 6-7
Independency Symbol [2.7.3] 2-17 Circularity,  [5.4.3] 6-11

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Virtual Condition [1.3.67] 2-20 Cylindricity,  [5.4.4] 6-12

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Applicability of Modifiers [2.8] 2-23 Chapter 7 - Orientation: ,  and  [7] 7-1
Screw Thread Rule [2.9] 2-27 Perpendicularity,  [6.3.3] 7-2

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Some Inspection Terms 2-28 Parallelism,  [6.3.2] 7-8
Angularity,  [6.3.1] 7-11

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Chapter 3 - Datums 3-1
Degrees of Freedom [4.2] 3-2 When to Use Orientation Controls 7-15

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Datum Feature Simulators 3-4 One Orientation Symbol [6.6] 7-16
Tangent Plane, [6.5] 7-18

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Degrees of Freedom Chart [4.3] 3-6
Datum Precedence [4.4] 3-12 Chapter 8 - Profile:  and  [8] 8-1
Multiple Datum Features [4.12] 3-16 Profile as a General Requirement [8.2.3] 8-4
Datum Feature Selection [4.18] 3-18 Application Options for Profile Summarized 8-5
Datums Must Be of Sufficient Size! [4.8] 3-22 Unequally Disposed Profile [8.3.1.2] 8-6

1-2 © Tec-Ease, Inc., 2009 The GD&T Hierarchy-2009

Unilateral Profile Tolerance 8-6 This symbol is shown where the author

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Composite Profile Tolerancing [8.6.1] 8-9 offers a Rule-of-Thumb based on his decades
Combined Controls [8.8] 8-15 of experience applying GD&T and helping

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Coplanarity [8.4.1.1] 8-16 develop national standards on geometric

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Non-Uniform Zone [8.3.2] 8-22 dimensioning and tolerancing. The origin of
Profile per Unit Length [8.3.2.1] 8-23 Rule-of-Thumb refers to one of the numerous

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Chapter 9 - Position,  and Symmetry,  [7] 9-1 ways that thumbs have been used to estimate things -
Position,  [7.2] 9-2 judging the alignment or distance of an object by holding the

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Surface Interpretation [7.3.3.1] 9-5 thumb in one's eye-line, the temperature of brews of beer,

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Pattern Location [7.5] 9-6 measurement using the estimated inch from the joint to the

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Composite Position Tolerancing [7.5.1] 9-7 nail, etc. The Rules-of-Thumb are meant to be a guide to
Inspecting Position 9-10 using GD&T but do not reflect requirements of the Standard.
Projected Tolerance Zone,  [7.4.1] 9-13

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Symmetry,  [7.7.2] 9-14 Three characters have been used to help explain the

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Chapter 10 - Coaxial Features 10-1 concepts of GD&T. Max is the one you will
Position, [7.6.1] 10-3 see most. His symbol, M in a circle, means

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Concentricity,  [7.6.4] 10-4 Maximum Material Condition. He will provide
FIM (Full Indicator Movement) [1.3.18] 10-5 translations of feature control frames into plain
Runout,  and  [6.7] 10-5 English.

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Runout Summary 10-9

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Profile Controlling Coaxiality [Fig. 6-17] 10-10 Leasa will appear when the Least Material
Condition, LMC, concept is presented. Her

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symbol is L in a circle. This concept does not
Graphics Used in this Text

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apply very often on drawings so you won't see her
When you see this
much.
graphic it means there is

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an exercise for you to do to
RuFuS has been around a long time. His

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test your understanding of
symbol, an S in a circle, meant Regardless of
the material. GD&T is like

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Feature Size. This condition is now implied for
the flu - not everybody gets
all geometric tolerances unless MMC or LMC is

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it. Actively participating in
added to the tolerance. Since this is the default
the exercises will help make
for all geometric tolerances, the symbol is no
certain that you "get it".
longer needed. RuFuS will be around when a
former practice is mentioned.

Introduction to The GD&T Hierarchy 1-3

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The GD&T Hierarchy-2009
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Preface

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In accordance with the ASME Y14.5-2009
standard on Dimensioning and Tolerancing This text has been prepared to promote the

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understanding and application of geometric dimensioning

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and tolerancing, GD&T, throughout the world.

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The title, The GD&T Hierarchy, describes the principle

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difference between this and other texts on the subject of
Written by: Don Day GD&T. Most available texts provide the rules, terms and

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President definitions found in the ASME Y14.5 standard. They do not
Tec-Ease, Inc. however present the relationship which exists between the

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Senior Level GDTP geometric characteristics. This relationship has been given

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the name The GD&T Hierarchy by this author.
Professor Emeritus, Monroe Community College
By understanding the Hierarchy of GD&T the appropriate

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application of GD&T becomes clear. By first establishing

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origins of measurement, controlling the features used

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to establish these origins and locating all other features

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relative to these origins, all of the geometry of a part
may be clearly defined with one clear meaning. This is

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Copyright © Tec-Ease, Inc., 2009
accomplished using the concept of datums and only a few
of the geometric tolerances. Only when necessary should

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
the other geometric tolerances be applied. All of this is done
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

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with the goal of defining parts which meet design intent,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
are producible and may be verified at the lowest cost and

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photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
highest quality possible.
written permission of the publisher.

ISBN 978-0-9792781-6-7
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First printing: October, 2009
Sodus Point, NY Don Day

1-4 © Tec-Ease, Inc., 2009 The GD&T Hierarchy-2009

 Chapter 2 Features
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Chapter 2 - Features
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It is essential to determine if 3. Locate other features to

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a surface or center of a feature the datum reference framework.
needs to be controlled or is being

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Once the origins of measurement
controlled by a geometric tolerance. are clear, all other features must be

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This chapter will provide tools to tell located relative to these origins of
the difference. measurement.

GD&T really can be as easy

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as 1-2-3 and sometimes 4.

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When applying GD&T or
starting to read a drawing, follow
these three or four steps.

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1. Identify datum features.

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This will allow the establishment

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of origins of measurement. If the

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origins of measurement are not
clear, those making and inspecting

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the part must guess at the best way

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to set up the part to assure that it
meets the specifications. Datums

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are covered in Chapters 3-5.

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2. Control the datum features
as required. Datum features

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A fourth step that could be
are features on the part, and like
added is:
all other features, they must be
4. Refine with auxiliary datum
controlled. See Chapters 3-5.
reference frames and geometric
controls if necessary.

Features 2-1
 The “Feature of Size” Side o
of the Pyramid Unrelated envelopes are free to float (not constrained to

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The key to identifying which features are a datum reference frame) to find the best fit of the envelope to
features of size is by understanding
unders actual an actual feature of a part.

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envelopes. If a feature o or collection of Purpose of unrelated envelopes:

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features can contain or o be contained by • Establish a primary datum where an individual feature is
envelope, it is a feature of
an actual envelope the datum feature

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size. Many of tthese features of • Determine the center of a feature of size when
inspecting geometric tolerances

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size may establish
es a center
which can
ca be located using • Determine additional tolerance (bonus) where MMC has

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position control. If
the po been applied to a geometric tolerance

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a ffeature is not a Here are some common unrelated envelopes.
feature of size, In addition to
these simple

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the surface of the
feature must be directly
featu shapes, an

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toleranced—usually by
tolerance envelope can
surface. This chapter
profile of a surf be the inverse

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will focus on features
feature of size that are of any shape
covered by the side of TheTh GD&T Hierarchy that may
contain or be

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Pyramid shown.
contained by

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Actual Envelopes

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a feature of
An actual envelope is a perfect shape (often the inverse size.

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of a feature) that contacts either the high or low points of a

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feature when inspected.
Actual envelopes are used to define features of size. In

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addition, during inspection they are used to: Related envelopes are constrained in orientation or
• Establish datums location to a datum reference frame.

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• Establish axes, center planes and center points Purpose of related envelopes:

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• Determine additional geometric tolerance (bonus) • Establish datums from features of size.
There are several types of envelopes which include: Mating envelopes exist outside the material of the

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• Mating – MMC/MMB and RFS/RMB applications feature and only contact the high points of the feature.
• Minimum Material – LMC/LMB applications Applicable when:
• Related to a datum reference frame • Maximum Material Condition (MMC) or Regardless of
• Unrelated to a datum reference frame Feature Size (RFS) applies to a tolerance.

2-2 © Tec-Ease, Inc., 2009 The GD&T Hierarchy-2009

 • Maximum Material Boundary (MMB) or Regardless of The balloons on the Where Applied to a Feature of Size

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Material Boundary (RMB) applies to a datum reference. (See next drawing indicate
Chapters 3-5). whether the geometric Geometric Characteristic Applies to

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• Minimum material envelopes exist inside the material tolerance and datum 

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and just contact the low points of the feature. Applicable when: feature symbol applies Axis

• Least Material Condition (LMC) applies to a tolerance. to the surface, axis or Center

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• Least Material Boundary (LMB) applies to a datum. or center plane. The  Plane
(See Chapters 3-5). directly ± toleranced

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
dimensions are the size

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dimensions. Notice that 
Centers and Surfaces Derived

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Geometric tolerances and datum feature identification they are being controlled 
by position tolerances. Median
may be applied directly to surfaces or indirectly to centers.  Points
Other than the datum

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All features are made up of surfaces. As was just pointed
out, some features and collections of features may establish features B and C, the 

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a center. This center might be a center point, axis or center surfaces are located
plane of an actual envelope. Where it is possible to determine using profile of a surface.

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a center, the Standard allows the datum feature identification
symbol and certain geometric tolerances to be applied

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indirectly to this center. This is because the application and
meaning of some geometric tolerancing depends on where

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the tolerance is applied. A geometric tolerance applied to a

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surface, controls the surface. No matter where circularity,
cylindricity and the runout tolerances are applied, they are

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surface controls. A geometric tolerance or datum feature
identification symbol associated with a size or similar type

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dimension applies to the center, axis, center plane or one of

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the boundaries of the feature.
This chart shows geometric tolerances that may control the

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centers of features.

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The other geometric tolerances of,,,, and 
can only be used to control surfaces. In addition, ,, ,
andmay also be applied to surfaces. The tolerance zones
for these characteristics are on the surface where the feature
control frame is applied to a surface.

Features 2-3
Features of Size [1.3.32] Finding an Axis or Center Plane

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There are two categories of features of size. Regular Chapter 1 demonstrated the difficulty in finding the axis
features of size and irregular features of size. or center of the radius shown. If the feature had been a hole,

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In the past, features of size had three attributes. These an inspector could have simply found the largest gage pin

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were: that would fit. By touching the surface of the gage pin, the
¾ Use Rule #1 to define size, (See page 2-14) axis of the pin could be found. The axis of the pin would be

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¾ Have a reproducible center point, axis or center plane considered the axis
¾ May have some of their geometric tolerances modified

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of the hole. Finding
at MMC or LMC the axis again could

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These are now called the regular features of size. easily be reproduced.

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Caliper Rule — Opposed Points In the case of this
This rule is not found in the Standard but radius, determining

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it is pretty helpful when identifying regular the diameter of a
features of size. The left end of the caliper gage pin that would

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shown is used if the feature being measured “fit” the radius would
has directly opposed points. Since these be very subjective

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features have a toleranced dimension and and would not be
contain directly opposed points, they are regular features reproducible. So, in

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of size. Toleranced dimensions that are measured using the order to find a center
probe on the reproducibly requires

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other end of that either the feature
the caliper can enclose or be

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do not have enclosed by an actual

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opposed mating envelope that
points and are is a sphere, cylinder or pair of parallel planes. Establishing

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not regular a center point, axis or center plane is extremely valuable in

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features of many geometric controls and during establishment of origins of
size. measurement (datums).

F o * Even though envelopes are being described in terms of gage

elements, it is recognized that an envelope may be simulated by
probing or using optical methods on a feature.

2-4 © Tec-Ease, Inc., 2009 The GD&T Hierarchy-2009

Irregular Features of Size

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The irregular features of size have some but not all of
the attributes of a regular feature of size. Irregular features

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of size do not rely on Rule #1 to define the meaning of size.

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The feature’s size might be controlled by profile of a surface
or a combination of size and position. Also, some irregular
Actual

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features of size do not have a clearly defined or reproducible
mating

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center, axis or center plane.
Irregular features of size are features or collections

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of features that may either contain or be contained by an envelopes

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actual mating envelope. If the irregular feature actual mating
envelope is a sphere, cylinder or pair of parallel planes, a

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center, axis or center plane respectively will be obvious.
This new category of features of size greatly

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enhances the application of datums and geometric

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tolerances by:
¾ Better defining the application of Rule #1
¾ Expanding the types of features that may have

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geometric tolerances which are modified at MMC or

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LMC

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¾ Clarifying the features that may establish a

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datum center point, axis or center plane.
The Standard offers many options of how to

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tolerance a part. It nearly always depends on how
the part will be used or what the intended function of

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the part is. This is referred to as design intent. All

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of these features have surfaces. They all could have
been toleranced using profile of a surface. The best

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approach to dimensioning and tolerancing should

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be driven by the design intent. It is necessary to
assure that parts can be economically produced and
inspected but the bottom line is that the parts must
satisfy design intent. If the parts do not work, there is
no point in making them.
Features 2-5
 Here are some terms that will be used throughout the rest

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of the text.
Axis of a Feature [1.3.28]

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A straight line established by the axis of the unrelated

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actual mating envelope of a feature. In other words, the largest
inscribed (for a hole) or smallest circumscribed (for a shaft or

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boss) cylinder that makes contact with the extremities of the

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feature. An axis is also the intersection of two datum planes
which will be discussed in Chapters 3 through 5.

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Where a geometric tolerance of or is applied

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to a feature of size that may establish an axis, the geometric
tolerance is controlling that axis.

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Where concentricity () is applied it is controlling the
derived median points. These points are halfway between

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opposed elements in the feature’s surface.

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Derived Median Line and Point [1.3.31]R
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An imperfect line (abstract) that passes through the center

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points of all cross sections of the feature. Where a geometric
tolerance of straightness () is applied (regardless of feature
size) to a size dimension of a cylindrical feature, the geometric
tolerance is controlling the derived median line.

2-6 © Tec-Ease, Inc., 2009 The GD&T Hierarchy-2009

Center Plane of a Feature [1.3.29] Material Condition Modifiers

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A center Regular features of size have a tolerance applied to their
plane is a size dimension. As shown earlier, this tolerance establishes

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plane half way high and low limits that may not be violated when the part is

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between the produced. These limits are called the material conditions.
two parallel Some features may have a greater geometric tolerance than

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planes of the one stated on the drawing depending on the produced size

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the actual of the feature and the specified material condition modifier (
unrelated or). For instance, a clearance hole might need to be located

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mating with a tight tolerance if it is made at its smallest allowable size.

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envelope. However, it would not have to be located as accurately if the
Where hole were made near the high limit of size.

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a geometric
Maximum Material Condition,  [1.3.39]
tolerance of 
The limit of size that would

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or is
result in the feature containing
applied to a feature of size that may establish a center plane,

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the most material is called the
the geometric tolerance is controlling that center plane.
maximum material condition,
Derived Median Plane [1.3.30] MMC. Maximum material

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An irregular (warped) plane established by the centers condition doughnuts would have
(derived median points) of all opposed points of a feature.

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small holes and

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Where large outside

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a geometric diameters to
tolerance of  maximize the

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or (RFS) mass of the
is applied to a

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doughnut.
size dimension,

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the geometric
tolerance is

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On this drawing, the MMC
controlling the of the hole is the smallest limit

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derived median of size which is 19.9. The MMC
points. of the outside diameter is the
largest limit of size which is 40.2.

Features 2-7