DESIGNING A POWER SUPPLY

A project report submitted to the Department of

Instrumentation & USIC, Gauhati University, for
the partial fulfilment of MSc 1st semester
examination.

Submitted by-
MSc 1st Semester
NAME: PRIYANKA SARMAH
ROLL NO.: PS-191-822-0029

Supervised by-
NAIRIT BARKATAKI
Department Of Instrumentation & USIC,
Gauhati University

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to be certify that PRIYANKA SARMAH, MSc 1st Semester, Roll

No. PS-191-822-0029, carried out a project on “DESIGNING A POWER
SUPPLY”, as a partial fulfilment of the 1st semester MSc course
(Instrumentation & Applied Physics) of Gauhati University. All the
necessary fabrication of the project with design, modification was done in
the department. Necessary experiments have been conducted and have
been completed under my supervision.

Nairit Barkataki
( )
Assistant Professor,
Department of Instrumentation & USIC
Gauhati University
 Acknowledgement

A project is like a bridge between theoretical and practical working and I am

very glad that I could be a part of this project “ POWER SUPPLY”. I would like to
express my heartiest gratitude to my mentor, Mr. Nairit Barkataki,
Assistant Professor, Department of Instrumentation & USIC, without whose
help it would have not been possible to complete the project. I would also like to
express my thankfulness to Dr. Utpal Sarma, Head Of Department,
Department of Instrumentation & USIC, Gauhati University for his
constant guidance and support.

I also owe a thanks to all the staff members of the Department Of

Instrumentation for their cooperation and help.
Lastly, I would like to thank all my fellow mates and my family
members without whose contribution this project would have been
incomplete.
Contents
Certificate ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract vii
1. Introduction 1-6
1.1 History
1.2 Components of Regulated Power Supply
1.2.1 Transformer
1.2.2 Rectifier
1.2.3 Filter
1.2.4 Voltage regulator
1.3 Types
1.3.1 DC Power Supply
1.3.2 AC Power Supply
1.3.3 Bipolar Power Supply

1.4 Power supply design

2. Tools and Hardware 7-10
2.1 Computer Aided Design(CAD)
2.2 FR4 Board
2.3 CNC Accurate-421
2.4 Soldering iron

3. Components Used 11

4. Designing the PCB in DipTrace 12-13

5. Fabricating the PCB 14

6. Theory of Operation 15-19
6.1 Transformer
6.2 Rectifier
6.2.1 Factors Determining Rectifier Performance
6.2.2 Types of Rectifier

6.3 Filter
6.4 Voltage Regulator

7. Assembling the System 20

8. Test Results 21

9. Cost of Production 22

10. Conclusion 23

11. Bibliography 24

12. APPENDICES 25-26

a) Circuit Schematic and Layout
 ABSTRACT

The 220V AC voltage that we get in our house cannot be used

directly in our electronic gadgets. Thus, a DC power supply is required to
convert the high AC voltage to low DC voltage.

The aim of this project is to design a DC 5V, dual 12V and a variable
power supply. For this purpose a rectifier circuit is assembled at the output
of a step down transformer that converts the AC voltage to DC voltage and
filters the output voltage, which is then connected to the inputs of the 5V,
dual 12V and variable voltage regulator circuits simultaneously. The
output of these circuits serve as the desired power supplies.

The DC power supply has wide applications in the modern world. In

our day to day lives we need to charge our mobile phones, laptops, etc. All
these requires power supply to operate.

Power supplies also find their applications in communication

systems, security, railway signals, etc.
CHAPTER 1

Introduction
The term “power supply” refers to an electrical device that supplies electrical
power to an electrical load. The primary purpose of a power supply is to convert
electric current from a source to the correct voltage, current and frequency to power
the load. Hence, they are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. All
power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy from a source,
and one or more power output connections that delivers energy to the load depending
on its design.

1.1 History
Back in the early 1920s, the first “B” battery eliminators were developed
to power radios in both commercial and consumer markets. With the need
for built-in power supplies for radios, the market for separate power
supplies evaporated around 1929. During the 1930s and 1940s, the
dominant technology was vacuum tube linear regulators. Power supplies
used vacuum tubes for both the power and control elements.
Around the mid 1940s, three companies, Lambda, Sorenson and Kepco
were set up in Queens, New York.
With the introduction of semiconductors in power supplies, a
milestone occurred in the industry in 1950s. But products using transistors
were limited to low voltage models at moderate power levels. Thus, in the
1950s and early 1960s, power supply products adopting Mag-Amp
technology were used in applications requiring higher power. This same
period also brought the concept of the first remotely programmable power
supplies. Dr. Kenneth Kupferberg, one of the founders of Kepco, was a
pioneer in this field.
In the 1960s, bipolar (four quadrant) source/sink units, and the concept of
ferroresonance for correction of source voltage variation were introduced
in a highly reliable, low parts count package.
In the 1970s, an energy crisis affected the entire industrial world providing
the switching power supply an opportunity to establish a significant
position in the electronic market place. The big breakthrough during this
period was the development of low loss ferrite (transformer core material),
coupled with the high speed silicon transistors which could operate at
frequencies higher than 20KHz.
During this same decade, the high-gain series pas linear power supply was
enhanced with an ability to follow instructions from a host computer on a
standard communication bus.
In the 1980s, many new start-up companies entered the market producing
switch-mode products. Many of these new companies were based in the
Pacific Rim, first in Japan and eventually shifting to Taiwan, and Hong
Kong. During this period, FETs replaced bipolar transistors and as a result
the quality and performance of the switchers were substantially increased.
Operating frequencies also increased from the 25-50KHz range to 100KHz
and even 1MHz.
More than half way into the 1990s, many new developments evolved. The
industry produced switching products which operated at higher frequencies
and are constructed using surface mount technology (SMT), substantially
reducing their physical size. These products also offered features such as
wide range input, active power factor correction, to minimize harmonic
distortion on power lines, and forced current sharing, to provide these
products with the capability of fault-tolerant operation.
Modern fault-tolerant power systems employ a technique known as
parallel N+1 redundancy. It has the ability to distribute power and
minimize stress on individual units. Another technique, referred to as
point-of-use stabilization, distributes power at some intermediate voltages
(48V,150V,400V). This technique has lowered the system wire count
making the product easier to build and reducing the overall size.
1.2 COMPONENTS OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

Fig. 1.1 Components of regulated power supply

The basic regulated power supply consists of:

A step down transformer
Rectifier circuit
DC Filter circuit
Regulator circuits

1.2.1 Transformer

Electrical transformers are machines that transfer electricity from one

circuit to another with changing voltage level but no frequency change.
Transformers help improve safety and efficiency of power systems by
raising and lowering voltage levels as and when needed.

1.2.2 Rectifier Circuit

A rectifier is an electrical device comprising of one or more diodes which

allow the flow of current in only one direction i.e.it converts alternating
current to direct current. There are mainly three types of rectifier: half
wave rectifier, full wave rectifier, full wave bridge rectifier.
Half wave rectifier:

The half wave rectifier consists of a simple diode .When a standard AC

waveform is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half of the AC
waveform remains. Half-wave rectifiers only allow one half-cycle
(positive or negative half-cycle) of the AC voltage through and will block
the other half-cycle on the DC side. But we loss our one half of the input
information.

Full wave rectifier:

A full wave rectifier converts both halves of each cycle of an alternating

wave (AC signal) into pulsating DC signal.
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge. During the positive half-
cycle, the terminal 1 becomes positive, and terminal 2 becomes negative.
This will cause the diodes A and C to become forward-biased, and the
current will flow through it. Meanwhile diodes B and D will become
reverse-biased and block current through them. The current will flow from
1 to 4 to 3 to 2. So, we get the first half cycle of the output graph.
During the negative half-cycle, the terminal 1 will become negative, and
terminal 2 will become positive. This will cause the diodes B and D to
become forward-biased and will allow current through them. At the same
time, diodes A and C will be reverse-biased and will block the current
through them. The current will flow from 2 to 4 to 3 to 1. From this we
will get the second half of the output cycle.
From this we can see that the input sine wave has transformed into
pulsating dc; what we required from the filter circuit.
1.2.3 Filters:

The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having

very high ripple content. But a pure ripple free DC waveform is required
as output. Hence a filter is used. Different types of filters are used such as
capacitor filter, LC filter, π type filter.

1.2.4 Voltage Regulators:

A regulator will maintain the output constant even when changes at the
input or any other changes occur. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX (such as the
IC 7805) are used to obtain fixed values of voltages at the output.
With IC’s like LM 317 and LM 337, the output voltage can be adjusted to
a required constant value. The figure below shows the LM317 and LM337.

1.3 TYPES OF POWER SUPPLY

1.3.1 DC power supply: A DC power supply supplies constant DC

voltage to its load. It is mainly of three types- AC to DC supply, Switched
mode power supply, linear regulator.
1.3.2 AC power supply: The input of an AC power supply is obtained
from mains supply. A transformer is used to step up or step down the
voltage to a desired level.
1.3.3 Bipolar power supply: A bipolar power supply operates in all the
four quadrants of the current/voltage Cartesian plane. That is, it generates
both positive and negative voltage and current.
1.4 Designing the power supply:
For designing any electronic device , a circuit schematic is extremely
necessary. So for designing the circuit schematic of the power supply,
Diptrace was used. The Rectifier circuit, 5V, 12V and the adjustable output
circuit were designed separately and converted to their corresponding PCB
layouts. The gerber file of the circuits was generated and the circuit layouts
were printed on FR4 board. The components were soldered using a
soldering iron and the circuits were ready for assembling into a box.
An 18-0-18V transformer was used to step down the household supply
voltage of 220V to an rms value of 18V AC signal. The AC signal is then
rectified using the rectifier circuit and then capacitors are used to filter and
reduce ripples in the signal. The regulator circuits are used to produce a
stable 5V, 12V and Adjustable DC output. Such power supply are very
handy and has many applications.
Chapter 2: Tools and Hardware used
2.1 Computer Aided Design(CAD)- DipTrace

DipTrace is an EDA/CAD software for creating schematic diagrams and

printed circuit boards. The developers provide a multi-lingual interface and
tutorials (currently available in English and 21 other languages). DipTrace
has 4 modules: schematic capture editor, PCB layout editor with built-in
shape-based auto-router and 3D-preview & export, component editor, and
pattern editor.

2.2 FR4 Board:

FR-4 (or FR4) is a NEMA grade designation for glass-reinforced epoxy
laminate material. FR-4 is a composite material composed of
woven fiberglass cloth with an epoxy resin binder that is flame resistant.
"FR" stands for flame retardant, and does not denote that the
material complies with the standard UL94V-0 unless testing is
performed to UL
94, Vertical Flame testing in Section 8 at a compliant lab. The designation
FR-4 was created by NEMA in 1968.
FR-4 glass epoxy is a popular and versatile high-pressure thermoset plastic
laminate grade with good strength to weight ratios. With near zero water
absorption, FR-4 is most commonly used as an electrical insulator
possessing considerable mechanical strength. The material is known to
retain its high mechanical values and electrical insulating qualities in both
dry and humid conditions. These attributes, along with good fabrication
characteristics, lend utility to this grade for a wide variety of electrical and
mechanical applications.
2.3 CNC ACCURATE-421
Nowadays it's hard to find a product without electronic components, and
they are getting smaller day after day. Consequently the printed circuit
boards used on these products are getting more complex and with thinner
tracks. There are many ways to produce these boards and one of them is
through electrochemical corrosion, but it does not produce good results. A
better process is with milling and a CNC machine. CNC milling machines
are used for printed circuit boards with low manufacturing costs for
domestic use.
2.4 Soldering Iron:

A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to

melt solder so that it can flow into the joint between two workpieces.
A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle.
Heating is often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current
(supplied through an electrical cord or battery cables) through a
resistive heating element. Cordless irons can be heated by combustion of
gas stored in a small tank, often using a catalytic heater rather than a
flame. Simple irons less commonly used today than in the past were
simply a large copper bit on a handle, heated in a flame.
Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and limited
production work in electronics assembly.
Chapter 3
Components Used:

Table 1: List of components with specification

Components Specifications Quantity

TRANSFORMER 18-0-18V, 1A 1

DIODES 1N5408 4
1N4007 8
LED 5

POTENTIOMETER 5k ohm 2

RESISTORS 220 ohm 2

1k ohm 2

CAPACITORS 0.1uF /104(Ceramic) 2

1uF 2
10uF 5
100uF 2
1000uF 2

REGULATORS LM7805 1
LM7812 2
LM7912 1
LM317 1
LM337 1

TERMINAL BLOCKS 1x2 2

1x3 8

FR-4 BOARD 8x8 inch 1

SWITCH

FUSE
CHAPTER 4

Designing the PCB in DipTrace

The first printed circuit boards (PCBs) can be traced all the way back to
the early 1900s. The designing of PCB was quite different from how we do
it now. The first step was to draw the schematics. The schematics were
created by electronic draftsmen. An electronic stencils were used to create
the same component each time, be it a capacitor, a resistor or anything
else. After this the stencil is used to draw the schematic and wired up using
the T-square. After the schematic is ready, it is checked for accuracy and
brought to the PCB designer, who then starts the layout process. In order to
layout the board, a booklet of component decals and Mylar sheets were
required. These decals were of standard component packages and sizes.
These were placed on the sheet like stickers or drawn. For routing, the
designer used coloured pencils first as a rough draft. Once satisfied they
would use coloured tapes between different layers. A red and colour
combination were often used for a two-layer board.
As time progressed, things became simpler with new technologies. Such a
new technology is Computer Aided Designs (CAD). Computer-aided
design (CAD) is a computer technology that helps to design a product and
document the design’s process. It can produce either 2D or 3D diagrams,
which can then be rotated to get the view from any angle.
CAD has many advantages over manual PCB designing. It has the
ability to produce very accurate designs. Drawings can be created in 2D or
3D and rotated. With CAD, drawing becomes efficient. One can choose
from a variety of drawing tools, circles, curves, and more. Exact
dimensions can be obtained with CAD. One can easily modify the design
and also check for any error by running stimulation.
DipTrace is a Computer Aided Design software for designing
schematic diagrams and printed circuit boards. It was developed by
Novarm Ltd. and released initially in August 2004. It is available in 22
languages and can operate in Windows, macOS and Linux. Real-time 3D
PCB and advanced verifications with real-time DRC are also some
interesting features of this software. A version of DipTrace is available for
free with all the functionalities of the full package except that it is limited
to 300 pins and non-commercial use and two signal layers. Version 3.2 has
length matching rules, layer stackup table, meander tool for any trace, easy
resizing and moving of meanders.
For designing the PCB, I have used the free version of DipTrace as it is
easy to install and use. It can be used in Windows.
For designing a PCB in DipTrace, the following under mentioned steps are
done-
First, we need to install the free version of the DipTrace software in our
computers or laptops.
After installation, we can design the schematic of our circuit with the help
of the components present in the library of DipTrace.
We can check if the circuit is okay or has any error by stimulation.
Next, we can convert the schematic to PCB layout by clicking the “convert
to PCB” option.
We can then route the connections between the components on either top
or bottom layer, whichever is required.
We can also label the components with their names and values for our
convenience.
At last, we place a copper board and fix the dimensions of the PCB board
according to our needs.
The PCB layout is now ready to be used.
Chapter 5: PCB fabrication:
Printed circuit boards are typically made with copper. Depending on the
requirements, the copper is plated to a substrate and carved away to expose
the design of the board. The design basically signifies the connections
between the different electrical components.
Here are steps to be followed for fabricating a PCB:
1) First , the electronic circuit for making a particular electronic device
(say power supply in this case) must be created.
2) The components required for the circuit design along with their
proper specifications must be listed. This could be found out using
the datasheets of the components.
3) Next the circuit schematic must be made using appropriate
components using a CAD software (in this case DipTrace was used).
And finally converting into PCB layouts.
4) The gerber files are then generated for the PCB layouts.
5) The next work is to choose the material for the board and the number
of layers for the circuits. In this case, Fibre-glass Resin
laminate(FR4) was used along with a single sided copper layer.
6) There are many ways of making a PCB. Etching is one of the easiest
and inexpensive ways of doing so. While the other way is using a
milling and drilling machine for PCB designing. In this case , a CNC
A421 milling and drilling machine was used. Some features of the
protyping machine are as follows:
a) Automatic or manual (semiautomatic) tool change.
b) Precise depth penetration control, fully programmable.
c) High precision positioning system with servo feedback from linear
encoders or pre-calibrated screw-motor assemblies.
d) Simple, fast, smart, stable and easy-to-use software. The best gerber
interpretator on the market.
e) High speed 60K / 100K rpm spindle.
f) After the PCBs are made, the components have to  be soldered in the
circuits and it's ready to be tested.
CHAPTER 6: Theory of operation
6.1 Transformer
A transformer is an electrical component that works on the principle of
Faraday’s law of induction by converting electrical energy from one value
to another. The main principle of operation is mutual induction. Mutual
induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a
voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it.
A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils
of wire, one called the “Primary Winding” and another called the
“Secondary Winding”. In single-phase voltage transformer the primary is
usually the side with the higher voltage.
These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead
wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the
“core”.
The two coil winding are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to
be transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current is passed
through the primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which induces
a voltage into the secondary winding.
A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the
voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to
“increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the
primary, it is called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease”
the voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the primary it is
called a Step-down transformer. A third condition exists in which a
transformer produces the same voltage on its secondary as it is applied on
its primary. This is used for impedance matching and this type of
transformer is called “Impedance Transformer”.
The difference in voltage between the primary and secondary
windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the primary
winding (Nₚ) compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary
winding (Nₛ).
6.2 Rectifier

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts Alternating Current (AC) to

Direct Current (DC).

6.2.1 FACTORS DETERMINING RECTIFIER PERFORMANCE

 Ripple factor- Ripples are the periodically fluctuating components

superimposed on the DC current to give the actual load current. The
ripple factor gives a measure of these fluctuating components.

rms value of the alternating cpmponents of the load current

γ=
average value of the load current

 Rectification efficiency - the efficiency of rectification is defined to

be the ratio of the DC output power (Pₘ) to the AC input power (Pₙ)
of the rectifier.
Pₘ
η= ×100 %
Pₙ
 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) – PIV refers to the maximum voltage a
diode can withstand in the reverse biased condition before
breakdown.
6.2.2 TYPES OF RECTIFER

a)Half wave rectifier

b)Full wave rectifier
c) Full wave bridge rectifier

6.3 Filter
The filter of the power supply is used to keep the ripple component from
appearing at the output. It is designed to convert the pulsating DC signal
from the rectifier circuit into a suitably smooth DC signal. Filter circuits
used in power suppliers are of two general type: Capacitor input and
Choke input. There are several combinations that may referred to by
different names (Pi, RC , L section , etc).
The Capacitor input filter uses capacitor in parallel with the load resistor.
It keeps the output voltage at a high level. The Choke input filter uses an
inductor in series in the load resistor. The inductor opposes changes in
current to provide smoother output for the load. Thus, a capacitor input
filter is used where voltage is the prime factor and the choke input filter is
used where a steady flow of current is required.
6.4 Voltage Regulator IC

A voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. It

regulates the fluctuations of the voltage source. Some IC regulators give
fixed output value while some allows the user to set the desired output
level. The first is called a fixed voltage regulator while the latter is called
adjustable voltage regulator.

IC 7805 and IC 7812 – These two are the members of 78xx series of fixed
linear voltage regulators. The xx in 78xx represents the output voltage.
Thus, the output voltage of 7805 is 5V and the output of 7812 is 12V.
These ICs have three terminals along with a heat sink. These ICs support
an input voltage from around 2.5 volts to a maximum value of 35 to 40
volts. The input current is 1 – 1.5 amperes.

IC 7912 – This IC belongs to the 79xx series of fixed negative voltage

regulators. The xx in 79xx denotes the maximum output voltage of the IC.
Thus, a 7912 IC provides an output voltage of -12 V. The input current of
7912 is 1A and the input voltage is (14.5-27) V.

IC LM 317 and LM 337 – These ICs are called adjustable voltage

regulators as they have the ability to give a variety of output voltages
depending on the choice of the user. They give an output voltage from (1.2
- 37) V. The IC LM 317 has a positive polarity while LM 337 has a
negative polarity.

In my project, I made four separate circuits. The first one the rectifier
circuit. I used full wave bridge rectifier has it produces almost the double
output voltage as a full wave centre-tapped transformer rectifier using the
same secondary voltage. Also it is less bulky as centre-tapped transformer
is not required. In the rectifier circuit, I used a capacitor shunt filter to
smoothen the ripples present in the rectified DC voltage. The other three
circuits are the voltage regulator circuits. The first one is a 5V fixed
voltage regulator circuit using IC 7805. The next one is a 12V dual voltage
regulator circuit using ICs 7812 and 7912. The last one is an adjustable
voltage regulator circuit using ICs LM 317 and LM 337.
I used a step down 18V transformer to which the rectifier circuit is
connected. The output of the rectifier circuit is connected simultaneously
to the three voltage regulator circuits.
CHAPTER 7

Assembling the system

After the designing and fabrication of the PCB, the next step is to assemble
the circuits.
The rectifier circuit, the 5V voltage regulator circuit, the dual 12V voltage
regulator circuit and the variable voltage regulator circuit are made
separately. The rectifier circuit provides the input voltage to the three other
circuits.
All the four circuits are connected using connecting wires and placed in a
PVC electrical switch box along with the transformer. A fuse is used to
protect the circuits from overcurrent. The fuse is connected between the
AC mains and the transformer primary. Separate output terminals are
provided for all the regulated voltage supplies in the box. A switch is
connected in the box for switching purpose. An AC cable is used to
connect the primary of the transformer with the AC mains supply.
CHAPTER 8

Test results

Power Supply Output Voltage (V)

5V fixed power supply 4.96V

12V dual fixed power supply -11.92V,+11.92V

Variable power supply

CHAPTER 9

Cost of production

Cost of components 874/-

Cost of etching and fabricating 0

Cost of assembling

Extra expenses 50/-

Total 924/-
CHAPTER 10

Conclusion
This project has opened a lot of opportunities for me. I have understood
the basic working of a power supply.
I have used a transformer which steps down the 220V AC voltage to
18V AC voltage. The rectifier circuit then converts the AC voltage to a
23V DC voltage. This DC voltage is given to the 5V voltage regulator
circuit, 12V dual voltage regulator and variable voltage regulator circuits.
The output of the 5V voltage regulator gives a maximum output of 4.80V,
the 12V dual voltage regulator gives a maximum output 12V and -12V and
the variable voltage regulator gives a maximum 13V and -13.6V.
I have seen that the variable power supply gives an inaccurate output.
Also, in the schematic I have used the potentiometer as a voltage divider,
but in the practical circuit I have used it as a variable resistor.
Thus, I conclude that while designing a power supply the schematic
should be designed properly. Also, the components should be checked
beforehand.
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Appendix:
Circuit Layout

Fig: 5V Layout

Fig: +/-12V Layout

Fig: Adjustable Layout

Fig: Rectifier Filter Circuit