Chapter 1: Introduction: Ecology, Evolution & The Scientific Method

 Ecology- scientific study of the abundance and distribution of organisms in relation to

other organisms and environmental conditions
o Greek word oikos (meaning house); refers to immediate surroundings or
environment
o May be the oldest science but is relatively recent in universities
o Ancestors relied on ecology to determine what could/couldn’t be eaten, where
to hide to be safe from predators, and how to hunt
o Ernst Haeckel (1870): “the investigation of the total relations of the animal BOTH
to its organic and inorganic environment”
o Ricklefs: “the science by which we study how organisms (animals, plants, fungi,
and microbes) interact in and with the natural world”
 Abrus precatorius, rosary pea
o They are poisonous. If you do not chew it then you are fine but if you do it is
toxic. Dead ancestors helped us know we cannot consume it.

 Ecological systems are governed by physical and biological principles

 All obey similar principles: physical & chemical attributes, regulation of their
structure and function and evolutionary
 Obey the law of conservation of matter (matter cannot be created or
destroyed, but can only change form) & law of conservation of energy
(energy cannot be created or destroyed, can only change form).
 Exist in dynamic state- gains and losses are in balance (ex: bird losing heat
in a cold environment but this loss is balanced by heat gained from
metabolized foods their body temp remains constant)
 Must evolve over time and obtain traits that increase its fitness in
environment. (Natural selection conditions: individual organisms vary in
their traits, offspring inherit parental traits & variation causes individuals
to experience higher fitness).
 Hierarchy of ecological systems
 Individual (or organism)- a living being, the most fundamental unit. It exchanges
energy and materials with its environment fundamental to its survival. It also
reproduces. The unit of natural selection.
  Population- consists of individuals of the same species living in a particular area.
Population dynamics- are they social? Is the female or male dominant? Is it a big
or small population? What makes for a growing population? Unit of evolution.
 Community- all populations of species living together in a particular area.
Scientists study all the organisms and how they interact with one another. They
decide the boundaries of the community they want to study.
 Ecosystem- composed of 1 or more communities of living organisms interacting
with their nonliving physical and chemical environments. They focus on the flow
of energy and matter. Take into account non-living factors such as how much it
rains in a year, when does the rain come, how hot or cold does it get, etc.
 Biosphere- includes all of the ecosystems on Earth.
 Studying ecology at different levels of organization
 Individual approach- the way in which an individual’s morphology (size and
shape of body), physiology and behavior enable it to survive in its environment.
Ecologists are interested in the adaptations the organism acquires to make it
well-suited to its environment.
 Population approach- examines variation over time and space in the number of
individuals, density of individuals and the composition of individuals (includes
sex ratio, distribution of individuals among different age classes, and genetic
makeup of population). Observe birth & death rates along with emigration and
immigration.
 Community approach- helps understand the diversity and relative abundances of
different kinds of organisms living together in the same place. Focuses on the
interactions between populations which can promote or limit the coexistence of
species.
 Ecosystem approach- describes the storage and transfer of energy and matter,
including the chemical elements essential to life such as oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus & sulfur.
 Biosphere approach- concerned with the largest scale in the hierarchy of
ecological systems. Tackles the movements of air & water and the energy and
chemical elements they contain over Earth’s surface.
 Organisms have roles to play
 Bacteria- have the ability to survive in environments that other organisms
cannot. They can assimilate N2 into usable nitrogen to synthesize proteins &
nucleic acids. They can use H2S as sources of energy in chemosynthesis. They can
also live in anaerobic conditions where their metabolic activities release
nutrients that can be taken up by plants. Cyanobacteria conduct photosynthesis
and they make up a large fraction of photosynthesis that occurs in aquatic
environments.
 Protists- mostly single-celled eukaryotic organisms that include algae, slime
molds & protozoans. Highly diverse that fill almost every ecological role. Algea
are the primary photosynthetic organisms in most aquatic ecosystems. Some
 protists are not photosynthetic such as the ones that live in the gut of termites
to break down cellulose.
 Plants/photosynthesizers- use the energy of sunlight, CO2 and water to produce
organic matter for all of us. Most plants photosynthesize but there are also other
plants that obtain their energy through photosynthesis and are also carnivorous
(eat invertebrates). Some plants grow by attaching themselves to other plants
(like orchids) and photosynthesize in humid environments.
 Fungi- digest (recycle) dead plant material and make nutrients available to other
organisms. They consist of hyphae (threadlike structures) that can form a loose
network and invade plant or animal tissues or dead leaves or grow together into
reproductive structures such as mushrooms. Many fungi live in mutualistic
relationships with plants (they obtain scarce nutrients from the soil and provide
them to the plant and in exchange the plant provides the fungi with products of
photosynthesis). Some fungi are pathogens and are a problem to farm crops.
 Animals- feed on other organisms or remains.
 Evolution of life on Earth

 Categorizing species based on sources of energy

 Producers/Autotrophs- can produce their own energy through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis (chemosynthetic archae and bacteria, cyanobacteria, most
algae, most plants)
  Mixotrophs (mixed nutrition)- many algae (can photosynthesize or engulf
bacteria, protists or bits of organic carbon that exist in water). Other protists,
some plants and some animals can be mixotrophs.
 Consumers/Heterotrophs- obtain energy by consuming other organisms. (Fungi,
bacteria, herbivore and carnivores).
 Habitat versus Niche
 Habitat- the place or physical setting in which an organism lives.
 Niche- the range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate (such
as temperature and humidity, plants that it eats, predators with which it
coesxists).
 Scientific Method
 Observation- observe a pattern in nature
 Hypothesis- idea about how the system works
 Predictions- arise from hypothesis. What will happen to an organism, a
population, a community, an ecosystem, under a set of circumstances?
Generalizations enable us to make predictions.
 Experiments- used to test hypothesis
 Conclusions- was the hypothesis supported or rejected?
 Proximate versus Ultimate Factors
 Proximate (how?)- aspect of the environment that an organism uses as a cue for
behavior, but does not affect the organism’s fitness (day length)
 Ultimate (why?)- aspect of the environment that directly affects the organism’s
fitness (food supply)
 Marquis and Whelan (1994) experiment
 Hypothesis: bird predation on insect herbivores reduces the amount of leaf area
consumed
 Experiment: exclude bird from trees/oaks by making bird proof cages
 Control: trees without cages
 Control for experimental effects: trees with incomplete cages
 Results: 70% more insects on bird-excluded trees. More leaf area was missing on
the trees that were bird excluded.
 Conclusion: birds reduce the abundance of insects and the damage caused by
insects.
 Alternative approaches to hypothesis testing
 Natural experiments- natural variation in the environment to test a hypothesis
 Microcosms- replicate experiment in a simplified lab/field setting
 Mathematical models- use a math model to explore the behavior of complex
systems.
Chapter 5: Climates & Soils
Earth is warmed by the greenhouse effect
 IQ: The greenhouse effect is primarily due to re-emission of infrared radiation by the
atmosphere.
 1. About 1/3 of incoming solar radiation (composed of visible and ultraviolet light)
is reflected back into space by atmosphere, clouds and Earth’s surface.
2. Remaining solar radiation is absorbed by clouds and Earth’s surface, which
becomes warmer and emit infrared radiation.
3. Much of the emitted infrared radiation from earth is absorbed by greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
4. Warmed greenhouse gases re-emit infrared radiation. Some goes out to space,
but most returns to Earth which causes the surface to warm further.
 Water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide are the most prevalent greenhouse gases.
Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3) are also GH gases. The main concern
is CO2 because it could trap IR radiation and it is prevalent in atmosphere. Methane
traps IR better (30 times better) but it is not so abundant.

 The ice that forms after years of snow consists of bubbles of air. If you pull the ice core
and sample the air bubbles you can determine the levels of CO 2 in previous years. This
diagram shows how the CO2 levels in the atmosphere have varied over the last 400,000
years. The upper limit of CO2 is a little less than 300 ppmv. The trend is exponential as
CO2 levels continue to increase.
 Greenhouse gases human effects
 The concentration of CO2 has increased over the past two centuries due to
combustion of fossil fuels.
 Agriculture, landfills, and fossil fuel combustion have also increased
concentrations of CH4 and N2O.
 Humans have produced unnatural gases (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons) that exist at
low concentrations but absorb relatively more infrared radiation and persist in
the atmosphere for hundreds of years.
 Increases in greenhouse gases could cause an increase in the average
temperature of Earth.
 Some regions may become cooler; some regions may become up to 4°C warmer.
Unequal heating of Earth by the Sun
 The path and angle of the Sun
o The equator receives the greatest amount of solar radiation and the poles
receive the least.
o 3 factors dictate this pattern
 Distance sunlight must pass through Earth’s surface- the distance sunlight
travels to hit the equator is much less than what it travels to hit the
poles. This indicates that less solar energy is removed by the atmosphere
before it hits the equator so it is warmer.
 The angle at which the Sun’s rays hit Earth- the intensity of solar radiation
is much greater at the equator because the rays hit at a 90 degree angle
so a large quantity of solar energy strikes a small area (more intense). The
sun rays hit the poles at an oblique angle so the solar energy is
distributed over a larger area so it is not as intense.
 Reflectivity of Earth’s surface- some surfaces reflect solar energy more
than others. Albedo refers to the fraction of solar energy that is reflected
by an object. Darker objects such as asphalt have lower albedo because
they absorb most of the solar energy (this can explain why pavement is
so hot in the summer). Light colored surfaces such as snow reflect most
of the solar energy so it is cooler. The low albedo of tropical forests at the
equator increases the average temperatures. The high albedo of snow at
the poles decreases the average temperatures. The average albedo of
earth is 30%.

 Seasonal heating of Earth

o The Earth’s axis is tilted 23.5 degrees with respect to the path that it follows
around the sun.
o March equinox- sun is directly over the equator
o June solstice- sun is directly over 23.5 N (Tropic of Cancer)
o September equinox- sun is directly over the equator
o December solstice- sun is directly over 23.5 S (Tropic of Capricorn)
o Solar equator- the latitude receiving the most direct rays of the Sun. It shifts
from 23.5 N (in June) and 23.5 S (in December) and causes seasons.
Unequal heating of Earth drives air currents in the atmosphere
o Atmospheric convection currents- circulations of air between the surface of
Earth and the atmosphere; caused by properties of air.
o As air temperature increases, it can hold more water vapor.
o Saturation point- the limit of the amount of water vapor that air can contain.
 Water vapor content of air exceeds SP  excess condenses and changes
phase to either liquid water or ice and produces clouds or rain
 Water vapor content of air below SP  liquid water or ice can be
converted to water vapor
 As temp. increases the amount of water vapor that can be held in the air
is greater. Hot air that suddenly gets colder loses water. Hot air can hold
more water than cold air.

o Air is more dense near Earth’s surface due to the gravitational pull on air
molecules. Increased density increases the rate of molecule collisions (higher air
pressure) and increases air temperature.
o As one moves up in the atmosphere the total number of air molecules decreases
which lowers air pressure and temperature.
o Adiabatic cooling- air moves higher up in the atmosphere and experiences lower
pressure  air expands and temperature decreases
o Adiabatic heating- air moves lower in the atmosphere and experiences higher
pressure  air compresses and temperature increases
o Latent heat release- when water vapor is converted back to liquid, water
releases energy in the form of heat and warms air.
 Formation of atmospheric convection currents
o The solar energy warms the air at the surface of the Earth during the March or
September equinoxes. The warming causes the air to expand and rise. As the air
rises into regions with lower atmospheric pressure it expands. Then the air goes
through adiabatic cooling. This leaves the air with lower ability to hold water
vapor so the excess water vapor condenses and falls back to the earth as rain.
When the WP condenses it causes latent heat release so the rising air is warmed.
As the air pressure continues decreasing with rising altitude  air temp drops.
The cool, dry air is pushed from below by more rising air and it begins to move
horizontally towards the poles. Then that air begins to sink back to earth at 30 N
and 30 S, and it compresses because of increasing pressure (adiabatic heating).
By the time the air falls to the surface, it is hot and dry (this explains why major
deserts are found at these latitudes). Once hot dry air reaches ground it flows
back toward equator and completes air circulation cycle.
 Hadley cells- 2 circulation cells of air between the equator and 30 N and
30 S latitudes
 Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)- area where the 2 Hadley cells
converge & cause large amounts of precipitation
 Latitude of solar equator determines the latitude of ITCZ. Seasonal
movement of solar equator influences seasonal patterns of
rainfall. Seasonal movement of ITCZ between Tropic of Cancer &
Capricorn leads to 1 rainy season where latitudes near equator
experience 2 rainy seasons because ITCZ passes over equator in
March & September.
 IQ: Where is the ITCZ located? Between the Tropics of Cancer &
Capricorn depending on the season.
 IQ: What factor drives the circulation of air in a Hadley cell?
Intense sunlight at the solar equator.
 Coriolis Effect
o Wind direction is also affected by the speed of Earth’s rotation, which changes
with latitude.
o Since the circumference of the planet at the equator is larger than at the poles,
the speed of rotation is faster at the equator.
o The different rotation speeds deflect the direction of surface air circulation in the
Hadley and polar cells.
o Coriolis effect: the deflection of an object’s path due to the rotation of Earth.
o Air moving along the surface of Earth within the northern Hadley cell is deflected
so that it moves from the northeast to the southwest; these winds are known as
northeast trade winds.
o Similarly, air moving along the surface within the southern Hadley cell is
deflected to the northwest; these winds are known as southeast trade winds.
o Winds in the mid-latitudes (i.e., from ~30° to 60°) tend to move from west to
east and are known as westerlies.
Ocean currents also affect the distribution of climates
 Ocean currents distribute unequal heating of Earth’s water and influence the location of
different climates.
 In general, warm tropical water circulates up along western reaches of ocean basins
toward the poles, and cold polar water circulates down along eastern reaches.
 Many factors create these currents, including unequal heating, Coriolis effects, wind
directions, ocean basin topography, and salinity.
 The El Nino-Southern Oscillation
o Normal year: strong trade wings push warm surface water away from west coast
of South America (east to west). This causes cold, deep waters to upwell along the
coast. There are a plethora of nutrients at the bottom of the ocean and when it
reaches the top the fish have access to it à explosion of life (food cycle). Great
parts for fishing.
o ENSO Year: trade wings weaken or reverse and so the warm surface waters move
west to east instead. As a result the warm surface water builds up along the west
coast of South America and prevents the upwelling of cold deep water. The
change in ocean circulation alters climates around the world.
o IQ: What process causes El Nino-Southern Oscillation effects? Weak/changed
prevailing winds in the southern hemisphere.

o Global consequences of ENSO event

  1982-1983: disrupted fisheries and destroyed kelp beds in California,
caused reproductive failure of seabirds in central Pacific Ocean, killed of
large coral areas in Panama. Precipitation was also dramatically affected in
many terrestrial ecosystems.
 1991-1992: worst drought of 20th century in Africa  poor crop
production & widespread starvation. Extreme dryness to many areas of
tropical south America and Australasia. Heat and drought in Australia 
reduced population of red kangaroos to less than ½
 1997-1998: 23,000 human deaths (mostly from famine) and $33 billion in
damages to crops & property worldwide.
 Outside tropics and subtropics ENSO events tend to increase precipitation
 boosts production of natural and agricultural systems but also causes
flooding
 North America: cooler, wetter, and often stormy weather to southern US
& Northern Mexico & warm, dry conditions to northern US and southern
Canada

Smaller-scale geographic features can affect regional and local climates

 Continental land area
o Positions of continents affect temp & precipitation
o Example: oceans and lakes cover 81% of southern hemisphere and 61% of
northern hemisphere. More rain falls in southern hemisphere than the northern
one. Temperatures in the northern hemisphere vary more than in the south
where the temperature is moderated.

o Temperatures are higher near the equator.

 Proximity to coasts
o Interior of continent experiences less precipitation than its coasts (because it is
farther from the oceans). Coastal climates vary less because it’s closer to water
(heat storage capacity).
 Rain shadows
o a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a
result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side.
Chapter 6: Terrestrial & Aquatic Biomes
 Analyzing ecology: regressions
o Regression- determines whether there is a relationship between 2 variables &
that also describes nature of that relationship; described with equation that fits
data
 Terrestrial biomes are categorized by their major plant growth forms
o Biomes: geographic regions that contain communities composed of organisms
with similar adaptations
 Convergent evolution- 2 species who descended from unrelated
ancestors look similar because they evolved under the similar
environmental conditions (ex: cacti (cactaceae found in New World) and
poinsettia (euphorbiacea found everywhere)  different plants but
similar morphology because of similar environments). (ex: shark and
dolphin  similar morphology because that is the shape you need to be
an active predator in aquatic system.
 Boundaries between biomes can be unclear
 Association between plant and animal form that live in a biome
o 9 biomes within 3 temp. ranges (<5 C, 5-20 C & >20 C)
 Climate diagrams
o Graphs that plot the average monthly temp. and precipitation of a specific location
on Earth.
o If x-axis starts w/ January-March then it is in northern hemisphere; July-October
then it’s in southern hemisphere
o Growing season- months that are warm enough to allow plants to grow (greater
than 0 C)
 Plant growth is constrained by temp. when temp line goes below
precipitation line. It is constrained by precipitation when precipitation
line is below temp. line.
o Celsius & Fahrenheit
Celsius Fahrenheit
-40 -40 (Canada cold)
0 32 (H20 freezing temp)
10 50
20 About 70
30 86
37 98.6 (human body temp)
40 104 (desert hot)
57 134 (hottest terrestrial temp)

 9 Categories of terrestrial biomes

1. Tundras- coldest biome, treeless expanse above permanently frozen soil. Upper soils
thaw during brief summer growing season. Precipitation is less than 600 mm. Soil is
acidic and nutrient poor. Plants are low to the ground for protection under snow and
ice. Bulk of it is far north in North America and Asia. (< 5 C)
2. Boreal forests- densely populated by evergreen needle-leaved trees (X-Mas trees)
with short growing season & severe winters. Rainfall is 50-1,000 mm. Litter
 decomposes slowly & accumulates, forming largest reservoir of organic carbon on
earth. Soils are acidic and podsolized. Species diversity is low, but the biome is a
major source of lumber and paper. (< 5 C)
3. Temperate grassland/cold deserts- hot, dry summers and cold winters. Dominated
my grasses, non-woody flowering plants and drought adapted shrubs (prairies,
pampas, steppes). Tallgrass praries when rainfall is high, short-grass prairies when
less precipitation. Soils low in acidity and nutrient rich with lots of organic matter (5-
20 C)
4. Temperate rainforest- mild temperatures and abundant precipitation, dominated by
evergreen forests. Warmer conditions due to nearby warm ocean currents. In north
America these forests are dominated by coast redwood and Douglas fir that can be
60-70 m tall. Some of the largest trees are found here (200 ft and above). Low
species diversity. New Zealand, far eastern side of Australia, western pacific.
5. Temperate seasonal rainforest- moderate temperature & precipitation conditions,
dominated by deciduous trees (maple, beech & oak). Conditions fluctuate because
not close to warm ocean currents. Soils are podsolized, slightly acidic, and support a
layer of small plants beneath the dominant trees.
6. Woodlands/shrublands- hot, dry summers and mild wet winters. Favors growth of
drought-tolerant grasses and shrubs. Mediterranean climate. 12 month growing
season but there are frequent fires that limit plant growth. Dominated by
schlerophyllous vegetation (small and durable leaves that resist desiccation).
7. Tropical rainforest- warm and rainy (at least 2000 mm annually) with multiple layers
of lush vegetation. Canopy of 30-40 m trees with understory containing smaller
trees, shrubs, epiphytes and vines. Species diversity is higher than anywhere else in
the world. Soils are devoid of humus and clay, retain nutrients very poorly.
8. Tropical seasonal forests/savannas- warm temperatures and pronounced wet and
dry seasons (due to ITCZ movement). Dominated by deciduous trees that shed
leaves during dry season. Long dry periods and contain grasses and occasional trees.
Fire and grazing maintain savannas. Soils don’t hold nutrients but the warm climate
favors rapid decomposition and fast growth. Two peaks of rainfall.
9. Subtropical deserts- hot temperatures, scarce rainfall, long growing seasons, sparse
vegetation. Soils are shallow and devoid of organic matter, neutral pH. Moister sites
support succulent cacti, shrubs and small trees.

 Aquatic biomes categorized by flow, depth & salinity

o Streams and Rivers
 Referred to as lotic (characterized by flowing water)
 Streams (also called creeks)  narrow channels of fast flowing fresh
water. Streams flow down from their headwaters & join with other
streams eventually growing large enough to be a river.
 Rivers  wide channels of slow flowing fresh water.
 As one moves downstream  water flows more slowly, more full
of nutrients  ecosystem more productive
  Riparian zone- terrestrial vegetation alongside rivers & streams that is
influenced by seasonal flooding & elevated water tables.
 Streams support fewer species because they are shaded & nutrient poor
and limits the productivity of algae & other photosynthetic organisms.
 Organic content depends on allochthonous inputs (leaves that
come from outside ecosystem)
 Rivers support more species & biodiversity
 Autochthonous- organic input is produced from inside the
ecosystem by algae and aquatic plants.
o Ponds and Lakes
 Characterized by non-flowing fresh water with an area of water that is
too deep for plants to rise above water.
 Ponds smaller than lakes
 Ecological zones in lakes/ponds
 Littoral zone (top)-shallow area around edge of lake or pond
containing rooted vegetation, like water lilies
 Limnetic (pelagic) zone- dominant photosynthetic organisms are
floating algae, or phytoplankton
 Profundal zone (very deep lakes have this)- doesn’t receive
sunlight  no photosynthesis  low oxygen levels
 Benthic zone- sediment at the bottom that provides habitat for
burrowing animals & microorganisms
 IQ: What might you find in a littoral zone? Aquatic vegetation
rooted in the sediment.
o Mangrove Swamps
 biome that exists in salt water along tropical and subtropical coasts that
contain salt-tolerant trees with roots submerged in water
 salt tolerance is an essential adaptation
 Mangrove trees prevent soil erosion
 home to shellfish & fish species
o Coral reefs
 Marine biome found in warm shallow waters that are 20 C year-round
 Tiny animals in mutualistic relationship with algae; corals produce CO2
and algae produce sugars.
 Hollow tubes w/ exoskeletons (contribute to reef structure) & tentacles
that collect detritus & plankton
 Rising temperatures  algal symbiont leave (coral bleaching)  coral
dies
o Open ocean
 Part of ocean away from shoreline & coral reefs
 Cover largest portion of earth’s surface
 Zones
  Neritic zone- (close to shore) beyond range of lowest tidal level,
extends to about 200 m  high productivity because strong
waves mode nutrients to sunlit areas
 Oceanic zone- beyond neritic zone. Nutrients are sparse &
production is limited
 Benthic zone- seafloor underlying neritic and oceanic zone
 Photic zone- area of neritic and oceanic zone that contain
photosynthetic algage
 Aphotic zone- area of neritic & oceanic zone where sun doesn’t
penetrate  less productive organisms but more adaptations
(chemosynthesis, bioluminescence)
 IQ: What occurs in the photic zone? Photosynthesis by algae
because of sufficient sunlight

Chapter 3: Adaptations to Terrestrial Environments

Camel Picture
 Originated in North America but about 8,000 years ago they disappeared from here
 Temperature goes up or down 6; 30-40% of body is water stored in tissues
 Need more water?  take water found in tissues & add it to blood stream
 Evaporative cooling in nasal cavity helps keep brain cooler
 Gain heat slowly & lose heat slowly
Most terrestrial plants obtain nutrients and water from the soil
 Soil nutrients
o Need oxygen carbon and hydrogen to survive & grow
o Also need inorganic nutrients: Nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium & potassium to
make proteins, nucleic acids, etc
o Nutrients obtained as ions dissolved in water in soil
o Nutrients forms: ammonium, phosphate, calcium, potassium
o Availability of ions depends on soil temp, pH, presence of other ions
 Soil structure & water
o Water potential- measure of water’s potential energy which affects the
movement of water in soil from one location to another
o Matric (or matrix) potential-potential energy generated by the attraction of
attractive forces between water molecules and soil particles (result of the
electrical charges of each). This explains why soil is able to hold water so well
against gravity.
 Units of pressure- megapascals (MPa)
 Saturated soil = 0 MPa
 Saturated soil drained = -0.01 MPa
 Force of gravity pulling water down (makes plant unhappy)
 Field capacity- maximum amount of water held by soil particles against
gravity
 When plants take up water the MPa is becoming more negative
 Past -1.5 MPA = plant wilting point because plant cannot extract anymore
water

o More soil surface area  more water soil can hold

o Clay (< 0.002), silt (0.002-0.05), sand (> 0.05)
o Smaller particles of soil have greater surface area so they bind to water very
tightly so it is difficult for plant to extract water from soil (such as clay)
o As you move from sand, silt, to clay there is an increase in field capAcity
(SALT DOES NOT HOLD WATER TIGHTLY, BUT CLAY DOES SO THAT IS WHY
FIELD CAPACITY INCREASES & WILTING POINT INCREASES BECAUSE PLANT
CANNOT OBTAIN WATER IF CLAY HOLDS IT SO TIGHTLY & THERE IS NOT
ENOUGH RAIN TO GROW)
o Loam soil (mix of soil particles)- best for growing plants because 40% sand,
40% silt, 20% clay.
  Osmotic Pressure & Water Uptake
o Osmosis- water moves from area of low solute concentration to high solute
concentration
 Example: plant with higher solute concentration than soil water will be
able to draw water in against the pull of gravity
 Plant roots- semipermeable membranes that prevents large solutes from
leaving & allows small ions and molecules to enter
 Plants living in dry areas have adaptations to be able to extract more
water from soil
 Plants living in salty environments increase concentration of solute in
roots to be able to intake water
 Salinization- process of repeated irrigation (with salty water) that causes
increased soil salinity  challenge for crop plants
 Cohesion-tension theory
o Cohesion- attraction between water molecules (result of hydrogen bonds) that
cause water molecules to pull others as the water moves up the xylem
o Osmotic potential draws in water to roots  creates root pressure that forces
water from soil to xylem and can raise water to about 20 m
o Transpiration- process by which leaves can generate water potential as water
evaporates from the surfaces of leaf cells.
 Low water potential  tension  water drawn in through xylem against
gravity and high osmotic potential of root cells
o Cohesion-tension theory- mechanism of water movement from roots to leaves
due to water cohesion & tension
o Stomata- small openings on leaf surfaces that allow CO2 to enter & water vapor
to exit. They are bordered by guard cells that close & open stomata. Close
stomata to stop excess transpiration so plant wont wilt.

Sunlight provides the energy for photosynthesis

 Available & Absorbed Solar Energy
 o Electromagnetic radiation- energy from Sun packaged into particles called
photons
 Photon energy: higher energy = greater frequency & shorter wavelength.
Lower energy = lower frequency & longer wavelength
 Visible light – only small part of spectrum (between UV rays & Infrared
rays)
 Includes photosynthetically active region where wavelengths of
light are suitable for photosynthesis from 400 nm (violet) to 700
nm (red).
 Eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms
o Chloroplasts- contain thylakoids (pancake stacks) and
stroma (fluid-filled space)
o Embedded in thylakoid membranes
 Chlorophyll- absorb red &violet and reflect green &
blue (a is primarily responsible for photosynthesis
while b, c & d are accessory pigments that capture
light energy & pass to it a; basically helpers)
 Carotenoids-absorb blue & green and reflect yellow
& orange (this gives carrots the orange color)
 Photosynthesis
o Process of combining, H2O, CO2 & solar energy to produce C6H12O6
o 6CO2 + 6H2O + photons + pigments  C6H12O6 + 6O2
o Light reactions (production of ATP and NADPH and Oxygen)
 Chlorophyll in thylakoid capture light energy  chlorophyll releases
electrons  H2O molecules split in Hydrogen (H+) and Oxygen (O2-) atoms
 Individual oxygen atoms combine w/ each other to become molecular
oxygen (O2-)  energy is collected from released electrons and splitting
of H2O to produce 2 compounds  Energy + H+ + ADP  ATP & Energy +
H+ + NADP+  NADPH (ATP AND NADPH ARE GIVEN TO CALVIN CYCLE)
o Calvin Cycle (Uses NADPH and ATP to convert CO2 into glucose)
 Takes place in stroma of chloroplast
 Several types of Calvin cycles: C3 (most plants), C4 (grasses, sedges) &
CAM (family Crassulaceae)
 C3 Photosynthesis (most plants adapted to cool, wet conditions)
 CO2 + RuBP (ribulose biphospate)  2G3P (3 carbon sugar)
 Catalyzed by rubisco (responsible for joining CO2 & RuBP)
 Low CO2 concentrations in mesophyll cells of plant leaves &
Rubisco has low affinity
o Plant packs cells with large amounts of Rubisco
o Rubisco prefers binding to O2 (this occurs when plants
close stomata & CO2 levels are low and O2 are high
because it cannot exit)
 o Rubisco binds to O2 (because stomata closed in hot & dry
environment) and results in photorespiration (bad because
it reverses the light reactions of photosynthesis)
 2G3P  RuBP + CO2
 IQ: Photorespiration is bad for plants because it leads to the
oxidation of carbohydrates to CO2 and H2O by Rubisco.
 C4 Photosynthesis
 Advantage in hot & dry conditions when carbon dioxide levels are
low
 CO2 + PEP (3 carbon molecule)  OAA
 PEP carboxylase catalyzes reaction and more efficient than
Rubisco because it has a higher affinity for CO2
 Calvin cycle takes place in internal bundle sheath of cells after
OAA is converted to malic acid
o CO2 concentration is greater in sheath cells (more CO2
than in C3 photosynthesis)
 Disadvantages
o Less leaf tissue devoted to photosynthesis
o Energy produced in light reaction is used to initiate C4
 CAM Photosynthesis (plants that inhabit water-stressed environments)
 Mesophyll cell
 Same as C4 but instead of separating CO2 assimilation between
mesophyll & bundle sheath cells, the steps are separated in night
& day.
 Daytime: stomata closed to reduce transpiration rates (organic
acids gradually broken down to release CO2 to Calvin cycle)
 Night: stomata open to exchange gases when temp is cool to slow
down transpiration
 C4 and CAM plants adapted to warm and arid conditions
o Structural Adaptations
 Shallow roots- take up water after brief rainfall events
 Long roots- access deeper water
 Resins & waxy cuticles- protect from direct sunlight & slow water loss
 Spine & hairs- provide protection & produce layer of still air that traps
moisture and reduces evaporation
 Small leaves with high density of veins- dissipate built up heat

Terrestrial environments pose a challenge for animals to balance water, salt, and nitrogen
 Homeostasis
o Organism’s ability to maintain constant internal conditions in the face of a
varying external environment
 o Negative feedback- action of internal response mechanisms that restores a
system to a desired state, or set point when the system deviates from that state
(ex: mammal)
o IQ: Negative feedback causes a system to return to its set point.

 Water & Salt Balance in animals

o Organisms must be able to acquire or remove solutes to maintain proper
concentrations of water and solutes
 Animals acquire mineral ions in water & food
 Water intake & urine excretion eliminate excess salts
 Scarce water  animals exhibit adaptations
 Desert kangaroo rat (hunt during night and stay below ground
during day; also larger kidneys to retain water)
 Marine iguana (eliminate salt in drinking water through salt-
secreting organs)
 Nitrogen balance in animals
o Aquatic animals eliminate excess nitrogen as ammonia (NH 3)
o Mammals excrete excess nitrogen as urea (CO(NH 2)2)
o Birds & reptiles excrete excess nitrogen as uric acid (C 5H4N4O3)
o Making these compounds conserves water required to remove excess N, but
they require a lot of energy.
o IQ: Mammals primarily excrete excess nitrogen in the form of urea.