WEEDS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Weeds: Definitions
3.2 Classification of Weeds
3.3 Characteristics of Weeds
3.4 Losses Caused by Weeds
3.5 Beneficial Effects of Weeds
3.6 Factors Effecting Crop Competitive Ability against Weed
3.7 Dissemination of Weeds
3.8 Some Common Weeds of West Africa
4.0 Conclusion

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Understanding the nature of weeds and their characteristics is necessary to reduce the
harmful effects of weeds on crops and crop production.

This unit attempts to describe weeds, characterise, and categorise them. Questions as to
why weeds are able to persist, survive in competition with crop plant, their competitive
ability, how weeds are able to develop an efficient mechanism of dispersing their seeds
are tackled. The desirable and undesirable effects of weeds are also treated in this unit.

1.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define a weed and enumerate the harmful effects of weeds

 classify weeds based on life span and controllability
 list the beneficial and harmful effects of weeds
 name the common weeds found in the locality and in Zimbabwe
 explain the mechanisms of seeds dispersal in weeds
  recognise the most critical periods in the life of plants when
weeds infestation has the highest effect and when control
measures would produce the most desired result.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Weeds: Definitions

A weed is a plant growing where man does not want it. Almost any kind of
plant can therefore be a weed, as long as it exists in a location or situation
where it is considered undesirable. It also follows that a kind of plant may
be a weed in one situation and not a weed in another situation. Because the
concept of a weed came from humans the definition of a weed has varied,
depending on the effect that weeds are perceived to have on food
production, recreative activities and aesthetic values of humans. Generally,
it is the undesirability or unwanted aspects of those plants which also have
nuisance values that make them weeds.

3.2 Classification of Weeds

Weeds are classified in several ways that include life cycle, habitat, growth
habit, degree of undesirability or noxiousness, morphology and by
taxonomy or scientific classification.

Based on Life cycle

i. Annual weeds

These are those weeds that complete their life cycle (from seed germination
to seed production) in one year. Such weeds die off during the dry season
after completing their life cycle. Examples of annual weeds are Ageratum
conyzoides, Amaranthus spinosus, Brachiaria deflexa, etc. Some of the
characteristics of annual weeds include an ability to produce large quantity
of seeds, tendency to occur in high density, efficient methods of seeds
dispersal, and seed dormancy that prevent all seeds produced by the weed in
one year from germinating at once.

ii. Biennial weeds

These weeds require two seasons to complete their growth. They grow from
seeds and devote the first season to food storage, usually in short fleshy
roots. During the next spring they draw on the stored food to produce a
vigorous vegetative growth and to mature seeds. Among biennials weeds
are wild carrots, wild parsnip, burdock, etc.
 iii. Perennial weeds

These weeds live for more than two years. The majority of simple perennials posses root
crown that produce new plants year after year. Plants of this type depend upon
production of seeds for their spread or by means of underground part. Quack grass,
Johnson grass, and Kirikiri grass are spread by underground stems.

Other classifications include:

i. Common weeds

Common weeds are annuals, biennials, or simple perennials that are readily controlled by
ordinary good farming practices.

ii. Noxious weeds

These are those weeds which are difficult to control because of an extensive perennials
root system or because of other characteristics that make them persistent.

3.3 Characteristics of weeds

Characteristics of weeds which enable them compete effectively with crop plants and
therefore to survive over the generations in association with crop production are as
follows:

i. Weeds have the ability to flower and produce seeds in short

period of time. With this characteristic it means weeds are able to
complete its life cycle even if the favourable season for growth is
relatively short.

ii. High reproductive capacity: many annual weeds have ability to

produce large quantities of seeds for example Striga asiatica
produce 90000 seeds per plant, Striga hermonthica 42000,
Digitaria horizontalis 12000, Amaranthus spinosus 235000, etc.

iii. Seeds of many weeds species exhibit varying forms of dormancy.

Seed dormancy characteristics are survival mechanism in weeds.
They ensure that weed seeds, particularly of annual weeds, do not
all germinate during the first period in which environmental
conditions are favourable. Rather, certain percentages of viable
seeds remain dormant and are able to germinate at later dates,
often in several succeeding seasons.
iv. Weed seeds posses specialised dormancy mechanism such as
impervious seed coats the presence of growth inhibitors and
requirements for exposure to certain temperature or light
treatments. The net effect of these dormancy mechanisms is that
seed germination occurs only under conditions that will enable
the plant to complete its life cycle. Weed seeds are able to survive
in the dormant state in the soil for several years, only to
germinate and grow when they are brought to the surface or when
environmental conditions are appropriate.

v. Weed seeds posses an efficient mechanism for dispersal. The

main agents of weed dispersal are wind, animals and water. Most
weed seeds are adapted to be dispersed by one or more of these
agents.

vi. Presence of allelochemicals that inhibit the growth of crops or

other weeds, such as in Siam weed (Chromolena odorata)

vii. Weeds have a very wide adaptation therefore, has the ability to
grow and produce seeds under a wide range of environment.

viii. Weeds posses the ability to grow very rapidly, branched or tiller
profusely, and cover extensive areas example of such weed is
Andropogon spp.

ix. The presence of perennating organs such as rhizomes, corms,

tubers, and bulbs. These organs not only enable the weed to
survive from season to season but they also enable the weed plant
to re-grow each time it is cut off at soil level by the farmer.

x. Many weed species are able to propagate themselves from pieces

of stems and roots. Thus when the plant is cut into pieces during
weeding or tillage operations, each piece is able to give rise to a
new plant. For example, the ability of morning glory plant to
propagate itself in this way makes it a difficult weed to control.

xi. Weeds are persistent and resistant to control measures. Weeds

that are able to develop such resistance are additionally favoured
by the fact that the chemical usually eliminates other weeds that
would normally have competed with the resistant weed.
 3.4 Losses caused by weeds

Weeds may cause losses in several ways either direct or indirect losses:

Direct losses caused by weeds

i. Decrease in crop yield

Weeds decrease yield by competing with the crop for water, nutrients and light.
Crops yield are most depressed when either water, nutrient is in short supply making
the competition for these factors very severe. The competition for light depends on
the canopy structure of the crop and the weed and upon their relative times of
establishment. A tall- growing weed in a prostrate crop, such as goat weed in melon, is
likely to compete more severely for light than a prostrate weed in tall crop, such as
portulaca in maize.

ii. Impairment of crop quality

- The presence of weed seeds in small grains lower the

quality of the grain.

- The cost of separating seeds of weeds from crop seeds is

one of the added (indirect) costs of growing the crop.

- Green weed pieces in threshed grain raise the moisture

content so that the grain may not keep in storage.

- Weed debris sticking to harvested cotton lint tend to

reduce its quality

- Presence of weeds can also lower the quality of forages or

make them unpalatable or even poisonous to livestock for
example, weeds such as wild garlic, mustard, fan weed,
etc. consumed in hay or pastures impart undesirable
flavors to dairy products.

- Seeds of many weeds (e.g. Achyranthes aspera, Boerhavia

diffusa, B. erecta) will also reduce the quality of animal
wool.

- Spiny weeds such as wild yam and those which produce

certain kinds of pollen may also pose considerable health
hazards to humans working on the farm.
 i. Harboring of plant pest and diseases

Many weeds act as host to organisms that carry plant diseases example, the
wheat rust disease, in which the barberry weed plant is a necessary alternate
host and Curly top, a serious virus disease of the sugar beet, is carried from
such weeds as the common mallow, chickweed, and lambs quarters to the
sugar beet by the beet leafhopper, which breeds upon these weeds. Weeds
of the family Solanaceae contribute to the spread of such pests as the
Colorado potato beetle.

ii. Weeds interfere with harvest operation

Picking maize by hand is hampered if the field is infested with Rottboellia

cochinchinensis. Heavy weed infestation interferes with speedy drying of
crops and generally slows down harvest operations, thus increasing cost of
harvesting. Additional time may be required to clean crop seeds of weeds.

The presence of weeds can impede water flow in irrigation canals as

well as damage to farm machinery through clogging by weeds, these
presence of weeds can also increase the cost of irrigation through direct
costs in keeping the canals weed-free.

The cost of weed control adds considerably to the cost of crop production;
the farmer has to spend an appreciable percentage of his annual budget on
various weed control measures.

Indirect losses caused by weeds

Weeds cause many other types of losses in agriculture that cannot be

directly related to weeds. These losses are indirect in nature and include the
following:

i. Weeds serve as alternative host for many plant diseases and pest
that attack crops.

ii. The presence of weeds imposes a limit on farm size. Farmers

generally cultivate only the area that they know from experience
they will be able to keep weed-free.

iii. The presence of weeds can reduce the economic value of lakes by
preventing or limiting fishing activities.

iv. Weeds such as Imperata cylindrical, Andropogan spp,

Pennisetum spp and Hyparrhenia spp become fire hazards in the
dry season. Fires expose the soil to erosion hazards, destroy wildlife and help to
impoverish the soil.

3.5 Beneficial Effects of Weeds

Although weeds appear to have many undesirable features, there are some that are useful.

i. Weeds provide a vegetative cover that protects the soil surface

against soil erosion by rain or wind.

ii. Weeds play an important role in nutrient recycling. Roots of

weeds absorbed nutrients from the lower soil depth and return
these to the top soil surface as litter when the weeds shed their
leaves or when the entire plant dies and decays.

iii. Weeds add organic matter to the soil.

iv. Many weeds are used directly as food for humans e.g. Amaranthus
hybridus, is commonly used as vegetable in Zimbabwe.

v. Weeds play an important role as a source of drugs used in public

health.

vi. Weeds provide food and cover for animals.

vii. Weeds serve as important source of genetic materials for crop

improvement.

viii. Weeds serve as host to beneficial insects and at the same time a
source of nectar for bees.

ix. Many weed species help to beautify the landscape.

3.6 Factors effecting crop competitive ability against weed

a. Stage of crop development

Usually, the competitive ability of crop is low during the seedling and early vegetative
stages of development and are particular sensitive to weed competition. Once the stages
have been identified, the farmer ensures maximum weed control at those times, while
permitting less stringent weed control during the other less critical stages. In yam, for
example, the crop is particularly sensitive to weed competition during the first two
or three months after emergence and failure to control
weeds during that period result in lower yields than failure to control weeds
during the latter part of the season (Kasasian and Seeyave, (1969).

b. The density of the crop plant

This can also influence its competitive ability against weeds. A high
crop density, by providing a dense canopy, may control weeds by depriving
them of light. For example, closely spaced cassava experience little weeds
problem after the first three months, whereas widely spaced cassava
plantings suffer from weeds problems throughout their field life.

Persistence of weeds

Weeds usually are able to survive in competition with crop plants because
of the following:

- a wide range of adaptability to adverse environmental condition

- effective means of propagation, such as

possessing of underground parts

- many weeds produce large amount of seeds per plant

- many weed seeds remain viable in the soil for many years

- many weed seeds exhibit dormancy.

3.7 Dissemination of Weeds

The main agents of seed dispersal for weeds are wind, animals and
water.

Dispersal by wind: The possessions of feathery structures as in milkweed,

or of wings, tend to facilitate dispersal of weed seeds by wind.

i. Dispersal by water

Adaptations for water dispersal include a low density of the seed as well as
the possession of membranous structure or cork on the testa. These
adaptations enable the seeds to float on water and be carried for long
distances.
 ii. Dispersal by animal

To aid dispersal by animal, many weed seeds have hooks or barbs with which they can
stick to the skin of animal and the clothing of humans. For example seeds of Bermuda
grass are spread in this way. Weed seeds eaten by animal may pass through the
digestive tract uninjured. Cactus is spread principally by jack rabbit that eat the fruit that
contain indigestible seeds.

iii. Man made agencies of weed seeds dispersal

a. Weeds are widely spread in impure seeds. Some of the most

serious weed pests have been introduced from foreign countries
in crop seeds.

b. Spreading of fresh farm yard manure on cultivated fields may

disseminate weed seed.

c. Farm machinery may spread weed seeds. Plows, harrows and

cultivators may drag roots or seed-bearing portion of perennial
plants to other parts of a field.

d. Irrigation water may carry along with it seeds of weeds that grow
on the bank of reservoir, canals and ditches to cultivated field.

3.8 Some Common Weeds of West Africa

Table 4.1: Some Common Weeds of Africa

Common Botanical name Remarks
name
Bahama grass Cynodon dactylon Perennial, vegetative
propagation and by seeds.
Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum Perennial propagated
vegetative propagation and
by seeds.
Goat weed Ageratum conyzoides Broad leaf weed.
Guinea grass Panicum maximum Perennial, vegetative
propagation and by seeds.
Lalang Imperata cylindrica Perennial, vegetative
propagation and by seeds.
Bamboo grass Paspalum conjugatum Perennial, vegetative
propagation and by seeds.
Milk weed Euphorbia aegyptica Broad leaf weed.
Pig weed Amaranthus spinosus Broad leaf weed.
Tridax Tridax procumbens Produce numerous
seeds
 and is adapted to wind and
animal dispersal.
Goose grass Eleusina indica Annual.
Crab grass Digitaria sanguinalis Annual.
Foxtail Setaria spp Annual.
Purtulaca Portulaca oleraceae Very effective in vegetative
propagation.
Sedges Cyperus spp. Propagated by seeds and by
rhizomes.
Green amaranth Amaranthus palmeri Annual.

Morning glory Ipomoea purpurea Vegetative propagation.

or
ipomoea involucrate
Source: Onwueme, I. C. and Sinha, T. D. (1999)

4.0 CONCLUSION

Weeds are plants growing out of place. Weeds bring about a lot of harmful
and beneficial effect to the farmer. They could be classified as annuals,
biennials, perennial, common or noxious weeds. They possess some special
features that aid their adaptability, competitiveness and dispersal. Clear
understandings of weeds characteristic, classification, harmful and
beneficial effects as well as some special adaptive features of weeds and
dispersal methods of weed seeds are necessary if we are to effectively tackle
them and minimise their harmful effects.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, weed has been defined; its classification, characteristics and
adaptability are clearly stated. The harmful and beneficial effects of weeds
are highlighted. Weed seeds dispersal mechanism, a glossary of commonly
found weeds of Africa and some of their basic features are presented.
Understanding this unit is fundamental to having effective weed control
programme.
WEEDS CONTROL

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Principles of Weed Control
3.3 Cultural Weed Management System
3.4 Biological Methods of Weed Control
3.5 Chemical Methods of Weed Control
3.6 Preventive Methods of Weed Control
3.7 Integrated Weed Management System
4.0 Conclusion

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Martin, H. J. et al. (1963) reported that, weeds cost the American

farmers $5 billion annually in crop losses and in the expense of keeping
them under control. Therefore, understanding the principles of weeds
control and various methods of controlling weeds are preconditions for
successful execution of weed control programme.

In this unit the basic principles of weed control and the various methods of
weeds control are discussed. The cultural weed management system and its
various elements are explained. Chemical, biological and integrated
methods of weed control are also treated in such a way that the strength,
suitability and limitations of each method of weed controlled were stressed.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 state the basic principles of weed control

 suggest the most suitable method of weed control in a particular
crop and locality
 draw a crop rotation system that could tackle effectively a given
sets of weeds in a given locality
 identify suitable biological methods of controlling certain weeds.
 2.0 MAIN CONTENT

2.1 Definitions

i. Weed control

Refers to those actions that seek to restrict the spread of weeds and destroy or reduce their
population in a given location.

ii. Weed eradication

This refers to the complete removal of all weeds and their Propagules from a habitat.
Weed eradication is difficult to achieve and is uneconomical in most situations. There are
situations when problems posed by a noxious weed becomes so overwhelming that
eradication is a desirable long term goal. For example, Striga asiatica and Striga
hermonthica are parasitic weeds of several cereal crops throughout the tropics. These
weeds do not respond to weed control technologies available at present to farmers in the
region. An eradication program is seen as a desirable long term goal for these weed
species.

Factors necessitating weed eradication program

- Other weed control measures are ineffective.

- Weeds have many buried seeds that cannot be controlled by

conventional practices.

- The infested field is small.

- Benefits from eradication outweigh those of the alternative

methods for coping with the weed.

iii. Weed management

This is the ability to manipulate weeds so that they do not seriously interfere with the
growth, development and economic yield of crops and animals. The major components of
weed management are preventive weed control, cultural control, and biological and
chemical weed control.

2.2 Principles of Weed Control

1. The weed should be killed before it has a chance to produce

seeds. For this reason, land that is left fallow should be ploughed
at intervals in order to kill weeds before they produce seeds.
 2. Weeding should occur before the crop begins to suffer from the
competition of the weeds.

3. Perennial weeds should be attacked at the beginning of the rainy

season when the amount of reserved food present in them is
minimal.

4. The cost of controlling weeds on a crop should be weighed

against the expected loss in yield and quality if the weeds are not
controlled.

5. Crops should be properly spaced so that when the crops are fully
grown the ground is completely covered, thus depriving the
weeds of sun light, therefore can only grow slowly.

Factors affecting the effectiveness of weed control

1. The type of crop grown.

2. Timing of the weeding operation.

3. Nature of the weed problem.

4. Method of weed control.

5. Types of weeds to be controlled.

6. Cost of the operation and availability of cash resources.

7. Environmental condition before, during, and after the time of

operation.

2.3 Cultural Weed Management System

Cultural weed management system includes all aspects of good crop

husbandry used to minimise weed interference with crop. These consist of
the following:

a. Hand weeding
b. Mechanical weeding
c. Tillage
d. Mulching
e. Burning
f. Flooding
g. Crop rotation.
 i. Hand weeding

Hand weeding is one of the oldest methods of weed control and consists of hand pulling,
hand slashing and hoeing and mowing of weeds. Most of the drudgery associated with
subsistence farming in the tropics centres around the peasant farmer and his manual
weeding effort.

Problems associated with hand weeding

- A lot of drudgery and time consuming.

- Limited agricultural productivity because there is a limit to the

amount of land area that can be weeded manually.

- Organisational and other logistics and supervisory problems

associated with human labour make its use cumbersome.

Hand pulling

Hand pulling is a major weed control method used in crop production in many parts of the
tropics. It is particularly used in controlling weeds in cereal crops such as rice that are
traditionally broadcast seeded.

Advantages of hand pulling

- It requires no additional tool.

- It is best for controlling weeds in broadcast-seeded crop where

chemical weeding is not practiced.

- It is useful in removing weeds that have escaped other weed

control measures.

Disadvantages

- It is laborious and full of drudgery.

- It is expensive when cheap labour is in short supply.

- Not suitable for controlling perennial weeds.

- Weeds cannot always be completely pulled out of the soil.

 ii. Hand hoeing

This is by far the most widely used method of weed control in the tropics.
It is a faster method of weed control than hand pulling and can be used in
range of cropping systems. This method of weed control is used after the
weeds have emerged but before they get too tall to interfere with hoeing
operations. Hoe weeding is applicable to both annual and perennial weeds.
Weeding hoes can be broadly grouped into light and heavy hoes. Generally,
the short handled hoes are used in the humid part of the tropics while the
long-handled heavy hoes are used mainly in the tropical savanna for seed
bed preparations.

Advantages of hand hoeing

- Both annuals and perennial weeds are controlled.

- It is an effective weed control measure for crops in rows.

- It provides a clean seed bed and loosens the soil.

- It is suitable for small farm size.

Disadvantages

- Weeds are usually well established in crops before farmers start

weeding.

- Is labour intensive and could be expensive where cheap labour is

in short supply.

- It is unsuitable for larger farms.

- Predisposes the soil to erosion as a result of clean weeding and

loosening up of the soil.

- The propagule of perennial weeds may be buried at depth beyond

the reach of hand hoes, thus making the control of such weeds
difficult.

- Hand hoeing has a high risk of crop damage in many root and
tuber crops.

iii. Hand-slashing

This is another manual method of weed control used mainly in right of way,
non crop areas, bush clearing and in plantation crops. Hand-
slashing is used in food crops for control of over grown annual weeds. The most widely
used tool for manual slashing is the cutlass or machete and a sickle.

Advantages of slashing

- It minimises erosion.

- It is more labour efficient than hand hoeing.

Disadvantages of slashing

- Rapid regeneration of weeds is a major setback of slashing.

- Crop reduction as a result of accidental damage during slashing.

- High labour requirement.

- Drudgery.

- Is not suitable method of weed control in field crops that are

under water stress because the basal portions of the weeds
continue to deprive the crop of the limited water?

iv. Mechanical weeding

In mechanical weeding, a farmer channels energy produced by machines or animals into

weeding operations. He gets more work done with the use of this type of energy than in
hand weeding, when he not only produces the energy but also directs its use. The plough
and harrows are most often used to control weeds before the crop is planted and between
the rows of growing crop. During ploughing, weed seeds that have remained buried in the
soil are brought to the surface. They then begin to germinate and if shallow tillage is
done shortly afterwards the weed seedlings are destroyed. This is a particularly good
method for controlling annual weeds. For perennials, repeated tillage at relatively short
intervals may be necessary. Each tillage operation destroys the top growth, and forces the
weed plant to produce new growth at the expense of underground reserves. Eventually
these reserves are exhausted and the plant dies.

Tillage should be aim at destroying the weed plant before they reach the stage of setting
seeds. For this reason, even fallow or uncropped fields should be subjected to occasional
tillage as a method of controlling weeds. The point here is that if the weeds are permitted
to produce seeds on fallow fields such seeds can easily be dispersed to the cropped fields.
Those that are not dispersed may remain viable for several years and pose
a problem when that particular field is eventually cropped.

Advantages of mechanical weeding

- Increase productivity.

- Increase economic returns, consequently improving the farmers’

welfare.

- Reduces drudgery.

- Increases timeliness and precision in operations.

- More areas of land could be cultivated.

- Managing animals or machines is less problematic than managing

human labour.

Disadvantages of mechanical weeding

- The initial cost of machines is high beyond the reach of most

farmers in tropical Africa.

- It requires highly trained experts to maintain the machines.

- Availability and cost of fuel may affect the cost of running the
machines.

v. Animal drawn weeders

The use of animal-drawn weeders in the tropics is limited due to

presence of tsetse fly which transmits the parasite trypanosome spp. to cattle
in many humid and sub humid tropics. They are widely used throughout the
arid and semi-arid savanna tropics.

Advantages of using animal drawn weeders

- Low capital investment on source of power.

- Low cost of maintenance as draft animals are fed on forages

available to other animals.

- Droppings from the animal serve as rich source of soil organic

matter.
 - No specialised training is required to operate the tool and guide
the animal.

- Weeding implements is within the technological competence of

most tropical farmers.

- Animal-drawn cultivators and weeders fit into the cropping

patterns and farming systems of most farmers in many grassland
region of the tropics.

- These implements can be used in both small and large farms.

Disadvantages of animal-drawn weeders

- Productivity of the system and work output of the animals

depends on the state of their health and expertise of the handler.

- Precise cultivation and planting cannot always be obtained

because of difficulty in controlling the animals.

- The presence of tsetse fly and animal diseases makes it

impossible to use animals in some parts of the tropics.

- Religious beliefs and local customs of some parts of the tropics

may make farming with animal difficult to practice.

vi. Machine-powered weeders

Machine-powered weeding refers to all weeding operations where the power used for
removing weeds is derived from machines which in turn are using fossil fuel as source of
energy.

Advantages of machine-powered weeders

- Weeding can be done more timely, reliably and cheaply than in

manual or animal-drawn implements.

- Weeding can be done in less time and large farm land can be
weeded.

- The same engine power can be used for other farm related
activities such as tillage, planting, harvesting and transportation
of farm produce.

- The use of machines eliminates drudgery and reduces risk of

labour uncertainties.
Disadvantages of machine-powered weeders

- It is unsuitable where crops are not grown in rows.

- Heavy capital investment is required to buy and maintain the

machines and equipment.

- Service maintenance and availability of spare parts are chronic

problems facing machine-powered agricultural operations
throughout the tropics.

vii. Tillage

Cropland has for centuries been cultivated primarily to provide a good seed
bed for seed germination and seedling growth. Other reasons for tillage
include weed control. In addition to routine tillage, farmers usually carry
out two distinct types of tillage for weed control purposes.

Types of tillage for weed control

These are delayed tillage and blind tillage:

- Delayed tillage involves preparing the seed bed and waiting until
the weeds emerge before lightly cultivating the soil again and
planting the seeds. The purpose of delayed tillage is therefore to
destroy the first flush of weeds so that the subsequently planted
crop can grow at a reduced weed pressure.

- Blind tillage is when crop seeds are planted after the usual land
preparation and lightly cultivated after weeds have emerged but
before crop emergence. This type of tillage works well if weeds
germinate ahead of the crop.

Pre-planting land cultivation

This has the objectives of burying weed seeds and incorporation of organic
matter in to the soil and cut off weeds as close to soil surface as possible.
Use of tillage as a weed control method involving animal- drawn
implements is often handicapped by the inability of animal-drawn
cultivators to accomplish deep tillage satisfactorily even on light soil.
Mounds are more desirable in controlling weeds because in giant
mounds the weed seeds are buried deep in the mounds, thereby reducing
weed pressure.
 viii. Burning

Fire is used as a weed control device in practically all parts of the world, it is used mostly
to remove plant growth and plant material prior to cropping and also destroy weed seeds
lying close to the surface. Most of burning is done before crops are planted. There are
three types of pre- plant field burning that are carried out in agricultural land worldwide:

- the uncontrolled

- controlled burning

- the direct burner-assisted burning.

Uncontrolled burning refers to both the accidental forest (bush) fires and the type of
burning deliberately started in the dry season of the savanna for hunting purposes.
Uncontrolled burning damages the landscape, destroys wild life, destroys homes and
property, destroys vegetation, exposes soil to erosion and may destroy economic trees.

a. Controlled burning

This refers to agricultural fires set by farmers for the purpose of creating a favourable
environment for crop production and getting rid of unwanted vegetation. Controlled
burning is used extensively in forestry to reduce the accumulation of litter and reduce the
risk of wild fires that could destroy forests and property. This type of burning is done
when environmental conditions are favourable and winds optimum.

Hard-to kill weeds such as Imperata cylindrical, Andropogon spp. and Hyparrhenia spp.
are often burned by peasant farmers during the dry season to stimulate new growth, which
can then be fed to livestock before the cropping season begins or hoe weeded after the
crop is established.

Advantages of controlled burning

- It is a cheap way of getting rid of excess vegetation.

- It adds nutrients such as P and K to the soil.

- It reduces soil acidity.

- It destroys animal pests and pathogens that use the fallow

vegetation as alternative hosts.
 - Destroys weed seeds and soil borne pathogens.

- It stimulates re-growth in perennial grasses and may be used to

rejuvenate grass pastures.

- It is a cheap and effective way to kill woody perennials.

Disadvantage of controlled burning

- It results in rapid loss of soil organic matter.

- Loss of non-metal elements, e.g. sulphur and nitrogen as gases.

- Soil temperature, generated during burning is often not high

enough and of long enough duration to ensure complete
destruction of partially buried weed seeds and nematodes.

b. Direct burning

This is a type of controlled burning where special burners (mobile field

incinerators, propane flamers) equipped with propane gas are used for
burning plant residues.

Advantages of direct burning

- A good chance for complete and environmentally friendlier

burning because there is practically no smoke.

- The speed of the operation can be controlled.

Disadvantages of direct burning

- It is expensive to buy special burners.

- Is slower than controlled burning.

- Reduces farmer net profit due to additional cost on fuel and

machinery.

ix. Flooding

This is also an effective method of weed control, although its use is mostly
limited to paddy rice and taro. Flooding kills the weeds by depriving them
of oxygen. Since many weeds can survive flooding if they are not
completely submerged, it is important the water level is maintained high
enough so that no parts of the weeds are exposed.
Generally, several weeks of water logging are necessary to destroy the unwanted
vegetation.

Advantages of flooding

- Helps to kill some soil-borne fungi and nematodes.

- Anaerobic condition in flooded fields suffocates roots of dry-land

plants and kills weed seeds.

Disadvantages of flooding as method of weed control

- It is not effective on well established aquatic weeds that cannot

be submerged.

- It requires a terrain that is level or can be leveled.

- Could only be used in areas where water is available and can be

impounded.

x. Mulching

Mulch is a layer of non-living material placed over the surface of the soil to smother
the weeds and cut them off from direct sunlight. Mulching, in addition to this favourable
effect on soil organic matter, is useful in managing the fragile tropical soil and:

- mulching can help to conserve soil moisture

- protect the soil from erosion

- reduce soil surface temperature

- increase water infiltration

- maintain soil structure

- provide favourable environment for biological activities in the

soil.

Limitation of mulching

- It is a labour-intensive activity particularly if the mulch has to be

transported.

- Most crops do not generate enough crop residues to provide

effective ground cover.
 - To be effective, the mulching materials must cover the soil
surface and smother weeds.

- Covering the soil completely by the mulching material may

interfere with other farming operations.

- Mulching materials placed before seedling emergence may

interfere with seed germination or the growth of seedlings.

- Mulching material may serve as a trap for animal pest of crop,

including promoting termite activity.

xi. Crop rotation

Crop rotation is a valuable tool in weed control because many weeds are
associated with certain crops:

- rotation play a long term role in weed control by preventing

particular weed species from adapting to the growth cycle of
specific crops

- rotating cereals with legumes and other trap crops is

recommended for reducing Striga infestations in small holder
farms

- crop rotation also helps the farmer to rotate his herbicides, thus
ensuring that weeds resistant to a particular herbicide do not take
over in a field.

2.4 Biological Methods of Weed Control

Biological method of weed control refers to the control or suppression of

weeds by the action of one or more organisms, through natural means or by
manipulation of the weed, organism, or the environment. The most dramatic
instances are those in which natural enemies of the weed species have been
identified and are either introduced or encouraged. With this approach, the
Klamath weed is being controlled in the U.S.A with parasitic beetles; the
prickly pear cactus has been controlled in Australia by the Argentine moth
borer. This approach is, however, most efficacious where single
troublesome weed species is predominant.

Major developments in this area include biological control of weeds

with vertebrate animals (microbial control), use of microorganism such as
plant pathogens for weed control (microbial control) and live mulch. Other
areas with potential for biocontrol of weeds are exploitation of
crop canopy, density and the allelopathic effects of both weeds and crops on weeds.

i. Live mulch

Live mulch is defined as a crop production system in which a food crop is planted
directly in the living cover of an established cover crop without destruction of the
fallow (cover crop) vegetation. Perennial legume cover crops have been evaluated and
found to be suitable for use as live mulch.

Live mulch crop production aims at the following

- Suppresses weeds

- Reduces weed seeds population in the soil

- Reduces loss of soil organic matter

- Provide favourable condition for earth worm activity

- Protect the soil from erosion

- Reduces soil compaction

- As additional fodder for livestock.

Advantages of using live mulch

- Reduces the need to control weeds after harvest.

- It prevents the establishment of those weeds that colonise fallow

land.

ii. Biological control with invertebrate animals

This involves the use of insects to control weeds. Example, the Klamath weed is being
controlled in the U.S.A with parasitic beetles; the prickly pear cactus has been controlled
in Australia by the Argentine moth borer. This approach is, however, most efficacious
where single troublesome weed species is predominant.
Advantages of biological control of weeds by insects

- The effect is permanent.

- It can be used in places that are not easily accessible to man.

- It is cheaper in the long run.

- It does not pose any risk of polluting the environment.

Disadvantages of biological control of weeds by insects

- It is not suitable for food crop.

- Unfavourable weather condition or presence of predators may

prevent the insects from adapting to the new environment.

- Inability of the appropriate growth stage of the insect to

synchronise with the susceptible stage of growth of the target
weed.

iii. Biological control of weeds with vertebrate animals

Animals have been used for suppressing vegetation for centuries. Pasturing
land with sheep sometimes is an effective method for controlling certain
weeds. Sheep are able to suppress field bindweed on land seeded to Sudan
grass for pasture. They eat the bindweed in preference to the Sudan grass,
but they make good gain on the latter after eating down the weeds. Fish
consumed algae in flooded fields.

iv. Microbial weed control

Microbial weed control involves the use of microorganism such as fungi,

bacteria, nematodes and virus. Microbial control of weeds involved the
multiplication of pathogens in a controlled environment and spraying
them on the target weed as mycoherbicides.

v. Allelopathy

Allelopathy is a term used to describe the detrimental effects of chemicals

or exudates produced by one living plant species on the germination, growth
or development of another plant species or microorganisms sharing the
same habitat.
 vi. Plant canopy

The main effect of plant canopy is to shade the weeds and limit their ability to carry out
photosynthesis. Example, melon (Colocynthis citrullis) and sweet potato can provide
early ground cover and shade out weeds when intercropped with other crops.

2.5 Chemical Methods of Weed Control

Chemicals that are used for killing or adversely affecting plant growth are known as
herbicides. The practice by which weeds are killed with herbicides is called chemical
weed control

Criteria used to classify herbicides

- The time when they are normally applied.

- Whether they are selective or not.

- Whether they normally act through the shoot or the root.

1. Classification of herbicides based on time of application

There are generally three distinct times when herbicide may be applied.

i. Pre-planting application

This application that is done before the crop is planted. A preplant herbicide may be
applied broadcast on the foliage to kill fallow vegetation such as paraquat or it may be
the type, such as trifluralin, that is incorporated into the soil during tillage operations.

ii. A pre-emergence herbicide application

Is the application that is done after planting but before the crop emerged. The weeds
may or may not have emerged by the time of pre- emergence application. If the weeds
have not emerged, then a herbicide such as diuron or ametryne that acts on un-emerged
seedlings can be used. If the weeds have emerged already, a herbicide that can kill the
established weeds could be used.

iii. A post emergence herbicide application

Is the application of herbicide that is done after the crop has emerged. Again weeds may
or may not have emerged at the time of herbicide application. Example of post
emergence herbicides are 2,4-D propanil,
paraquat, etc. A post emergence herbicide must find a way to avoid
herbicide damage to the emerged crop.

2 Classification of herbicide based on type of plants killed

All herbicides kill plants either selectively or non-selectively:

i. Nonselective herbicides are those herbicides that exert toxic

effects on all plants that may come in contact with them.
Examples include diquat, glyphosate, paraquat and sodium
chlorate.

ii. Selective herbicides are those that will preferentially kill certain
plants species at recommended rates but will not harm other
plants that they come in contact with. Example, 2,4-D, diclofop-
methyl, fluometuron and metolachor.

3. Classification of herbicides based on movement in plants

i. Contact herbicides

These are herbicides that kill the tissues they touch. Contact herbicides
commonly in used in the tropics include the following: paraquat, propanil,
oryzalin and diquat.

ii. Systemic herbicides

These are those herbicides that are transported in the xylem or phloem
vessels of the treated plants. Examples of systemic herbicides are atrazine,
dalapon and glyphosate. Systemic herbicides are particularly useful in
controlling perennial weeds because underground perennating organs and
roots are killed in addition to the shoot.

iii. Soil-acting herbicides

Are those which act primarily in the soil. They are usually applied to the
soil where they retard or inhibit the germination of weed seeds. Such
herbicides usually have long residual action so that they can prevent the
growth of weeds for a substantial part of the cropping season.

2.6 Preventive Methods of Weed Control

Preventive weed control refers to those measures necessary to prevent

the introduction of new weed species into a given geographical area as well
as multiplication and spread of existing weed species. Preventive weed
control includes all sanitation measures that should be routinely
used in the farm, including the vigilance that keeps a farmer alert to the presence of a
strange plant on his farm land. Its generally accepted wisdom that it is easier to prevent
the spread of a weed to a new site than to get rid of it after it is well established.

i. Fallowing

This is an effective method of suppressing annual grasses and troublesome perennial

weeds such as speargrass. Although fallowing has been used for controlling weeds, proper
management of fallows can be used to prevent weeds from going to seed and reduce weed
population in a given ecology. An example of preventive weed management by bush
fallowing is the live mulch cropping system. In this system the living cover of legumes
such as Centrosema pubescens and Mucuna pruriens provide complete cover, smother
weeds, prevent erosion and return organic matter to the soil.

ii. Preventing weeds from setting seeds

Annual weeds and simple perennials produce large quantities of seeds that end up in the
seed bank already in the soil. Late germinating weeds in the field crops are the main
sources of weed seeds in newly harvested field because these weeds usually complete
their life cycle after crop harvest.

Methods of preventing weeds from going to seed

a. Post- harvest weed control will be necessary to prevent these

weeds from going to seed (producing seeds).

b. Enlightening the farmers on the adverse effects that seeds

produced by these volunteer weeds will have on their subsequent
use of the land.

c. Repeated mowing and hand-slashing can be used to deplete the

food reserve in the storage organs of perennial weeds there by
reducing their competitiveness.

Preventing the spread of weeds and their propagules by

a. Use of clean seeds for planting.

b. Weed spread through the use of contaminated crop seeds can be

prevented by keeping crop plants in the field weed-free.
 c. By thoroughly cleaning the seeds intended for planting in the
following cropping season.

d. Planting weed-free crop seeds is one way of avoiding the

introduction of new weed seeds to the newly cleared crop land.

e. Cultivating tools play a role in spreading weed seeds and

vegetative perennating organs. Routine sanitary measure
involving careful cleaning of farm machinery immediately after
use is an important preventive measure for weed control.

f. Seeds of many weeds are spread by animals. Care should be

taken by the farmer to organise carefully the transfer of farm
animals between fields.

g. Preventive weed control can also be achieved by screening

irrigation canals to prevent weed seeds from being transported
from infested fields to clean areas.

h. Well-decomposed manure is unlikely to contain viable weed

seeds but poorly prepared manure which is a potential source of
weed seeds, therefore, should be avoided.

i. Strict enforcement of quarantine laws is necessary to prevent the

accidental introduction of noxious weeds through seeds and
propagules.

2.7 Integrated Weed Management System

Integrated weed management (IWM) is neither a method nor a system of

weed control, but a philosophy whose goals is to use all available
knowledge in weed science to manage weeds so that they do not cause
economic loss to humans and subsequently minimising hazards to the
environment.

Reasons that made IWM desirable

i. Inability of any one method of weed control to completely solve

the weed problem of a given crop at all times and without adverse
effect.

ii. The ability of weeds to develop resistance to a herbicides that is

frequently used.
 3.0 CONCLUSION

By now you must have learnt the different methods of weed control including
cultural, biological, chemical or integrated weed control programme. The emphasis
has been on “Prevention is better than cure” so your knowledge of weed science
should help you to manage weeds so that they do not cause economic loss to the
farmer and subsequently minimise hazards to the environment. Understanding the
different types of herbicides, their mode of action, time of application and types of
plants they commonly kill is essential for an effective weed control programme. The
integration of cultural, biological and chemical methods of weed control in other
words integrated weed control is the most sustainable and effective method of weed
control programme.