Graphing

Techniques & Transformations

Part I – Graph Transformations

Background

In this section, you are required to memorize the various transformations that can be
applied to a graph, and the corresponding changes in its equation.

Types of Questions

1. Given the equations of a graph before and after transformation, state the
transformations applied in the correct order.
2. Given a graph and a list of transformations, sketch out the resultant graph after
transformation.
3. Given a graph and a list of transformations, sketch out the original graph before
transformation.
4. Comparing original and new graphs, write out the equation of new graph, and vice
versa.

Notes on Graph Drawing

Always remember to:

• Label axial intercepts

• Label asymptotes
• Label stationary points
• Label start and end points (if a fixed range is given)

Types of Transformation

1. Translation along x-axis.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Replacing 𝑥 with (𝑥 + 𝑎)
Replacing 𝑥 with (𝑥 − 𝑎)
shifts in negative x-axis by 𝑎
shifts in positive x-axis by 𝑎

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎)

𝑎 𝑎

2. Translation along y-axis.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Replacing 𝑦 with (𝑦 + 𝑎) Replacing 𝑦 with (𝑦 − 𝑎)

shifts in negative y-axis by 𝑎 shifts in positive y-axis by 𝑎

𝑦 + 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 − 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑎
𝑎

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 3. Scaling along x-axis.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
,
Replacing 𝑥 with -/. Replacing 𝑥 with .
,

scales parallel to x-axis by factor of 1/𝑎 scales parallel to x-axis by factor of 𝑎
qq

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(1/𝑎) 𝑦 = 𝑓( )
𝑎
𝑑/𝑎 𝑎𝑑

4. Scaling along y-axis.

𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)
1/𝑎
0
Replacing 𝑦 with -/.
𝑑
scales parallel to y-axis by factor of 1/𝑎
𝑎

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑 𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎

𝑎𝑑

0
Replacing 𝑦 with .
scales parallel to y-axis by factor of 𝑎
qq

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 5. Reflection

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Replacing 𝑥 with −𝑥 Replacing 𝑦 with −𝑦

reflects about y-axis reflects about x-axis

𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) −𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

6. Modulus

a. 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)|

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)|

• Keep parts above the x-axis the same

• Reflect parts below x-axis upwards

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 b. 𝑦 = 𝑓(|𝑥|)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑓(|𝑥|)

• Keep parts on the right side of y-axis the same

• Replace the left side of the y-axis with a mirror image of the right side
(This is because all negative x-coordinates will now be converted to positive
values first before it is input into the function to calculate y-value)

7. Transforming 𝑓(𝑥) into 1/𝑓(𝑥)

a. Comvert vertical asymptotes to x-intercepts, and x-intercepts to vertical

asymptotes
i. When 𝑦 = ∞, 1/𝑦 = 0
ii. When 𝑦 = 0, 1/𝑦 = ∞
b. Change y-intercepts 𝑦 = 𝑏 to reciprocal 𝑦 = 1/𝑏
c. Change horizontal asymptotes 𝑦 = 𝑏 to horizontal asymptotes 𝑦 = 1/𝑏;
change oblique asymptotes to horizontal asymptotes 𝑦 = 0
d. Change maximum point (𝑎, 𝑏) to minimum point (𝑎, 1/𝑏)
e. Change minimum point (𝑎, 𝑏) to maximum point (𝑎, 1/𝑏)
f. Increasing portion of the curve becomes decreasing on the new curve;
decreasing portion of the curve become increasing on the new curve

• Any parts of the graph originally above the x-axis will remain above the axis,
likewise parts below the axis will remain below. (i.e. converting 𝑦 to 1/𝑦 does
not change positive and negative signs)

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 8. Transforming 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to 𝑦 7 = 𝑓(𝑥) or 𝑦 = ±9𝑓(𝑥)

a. The parts of the original graph below the x-axis is gone. (since we cannot take
square root of negative values).
b. It is replaced with a mirror image of the parts of the graph above the x-axis.
c. All original y-values have square root applied to them.

(0.2, 2)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

(0.2, √2)

𝑦 = 9𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = −9𝑓(𝑥)

(0.2, −√2)

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Part II – Rational Functions

Background

=(,)
A rational function is any function that can be expressed as >(,), where both the numerator
?
and denominator are polynomial expressions of 𝑥, or as >(,), where 𝑘 is a constant.

The graphs of such functions typically have vertical, horizontal or oblique asymptotes that
you have to find before sketching the curves.

Types of Questions

1. Given the equation of a rational function, draw the graph.

2. Given the equation of a rational function with unknowns, draw the graph.
3. Drawing of 2 curves to deduce solution for certain equation
4. Prove using discriminant which regions the rational curve does not touch.
5. Graph transformation involving rational functions.

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Identifying Asymptotes of Rational Functions

A rational function has at most one horizontal or oblique asymptote, and possibly many
vertical asymptotes.

• Vertical asymptote: find any values of 𝑥 that will equate the denominator to 0.
If both the numerator and denominator are 0, compared the multiplicities of 0.

-
Example: 𝑦 = ,A7 is undefined when 𝑥 = 2.

\ 𝑥 = 2 is a vertical asymptote.

, B AC,DE (,A-)(,AE)
Example: 𝑦 = , F AE, B D7, = ,(,A-)(,A7)

\ 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2 are vertical asymptotes, but not 𝑥 = 1.

• Horizontal and oblique asymptote: identify the quotient after long division.

E, E
Example: 𝑦 = ,D- = 3 − ,D-. As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → 3.

\ 𝑦 = 3 is the horizontal asymptote.

7, B D- -
Example: 𝑦 = ,
= 2𝑥 + ,.

\ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 is the oblique asymptote.

A quick comparison of the degrees (the power on 𝑥 term) of the numerator and
denominator can tell us what kind of asymptote exists:

deg(num)
Example Asymptote
-deg(den)
1
< 𝟎 𝑦= 𝑦 = 0
𝑥7 +1

2𝑥 7 − 1 7
= 𝟎 𝑦= 𝑦 = ratio of degree = E (horizontal)
3𝑥 7 + 1

2𝑥 7 + 5 5
= 𝟏 𝑦= = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = quotient = 2𝑥 (oblique)
𝑥 𝑥

2𝑥 C No linear asymptote, but a curvilinear

> 𝟏 𝑦= 7
3𝑥 + 1 asymptote exists (not in syllabus)

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Part III – Conics

Background

A conic section is a curve obtained as the intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane.

The three types of conic section are the hyperbola, the parabola, and the ellipse; the circle
is a special case of the ellipse.

Types of Questions

1. Identifying the type of conic and drawing it out.

2. Manipulating the equation of the graph into the general equation.
3. Graph transformations with conics.
4. Find common solutions between a conic and another function.

Source: https://undergroundmathematics.org/circles/conic-sections-in-real-life

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Parabolas

Given by equations of forms:

• 𝑦 7 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑎 ≠ 0 (symmetrical about x-axis) or

𝑦 7 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑎 < 0 𝑦 7 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑎 > 0

• 𝑥 7 = 𝑎𝑦, 𝑎 ≠ 0 (symmetrical about y-axis).

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 7 , 𝑎 > 0

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 7 , 𝑎 < 0

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Ellipses

(,AO)B (0A?)B
• + = 1, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0.
.B PB

𝑎 (semi-major axis)

𝑏 (semi-minor axis)

(ℎ, 𝑘)

• Ellipses are symmetrical about lines 𝑥 = ℎ and 𝑦 = 𝑘.

• When ℎ = 𝑘 = 0, ellipsis is centered on origin.
• When 𝑎 = 𝑏, ellipsis is a circle with radius = 𝑎 = 𝑏.

• (𝑥 − ℎ)7 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)7 = 𝑟 7

• Whenever possible, label any axial intercepts, lengths of radii/axes and center of
ellipses (if not centered at origin).

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Hyperbolas

(,AO)B (0A?)B
• − = 1
.B PB

𝑏
𝑦= 𝑥
𝑎

(ℎ, 𝑘)

𝑎
𝑏

𝑏
𝑦=− 𝑥
𝑎

(0A?)B (,AO)B
• PB
− .B
= 1

𝑏
𝑦= 𝑥
𝑎

𝑎
(ℎ, 𝑘)

𝑏

𝑏
𝑦=− 𝑥
𝑎

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 • To find the equations of the asymptote,
o Let the equation of the hyperbole be equal to 0
(,AO)B (0A?)B
§ i.e. .B
− PB
= 0
o Rearrange to make 𝑦 the subject of the formula, which will be the equation of the
asymptote.
o
• To find the vertices of the hyperbola, use the box and the values of 𝑎 & 𝑏 to guide you. The
asymptotes will cut through the 4 corners of the box.

• Like ellipses, hyperbolas are symmetrical about lines 𝑥 = ℎ and 𝑦 = 𝑘.
• Asymptotes intersect at (ℎ, 𝑘).

• Whenever possible, label any axial intercepts, asymptotes and centers (if not
centered at origin).

A quick comparison of the degrees and coefficients of 𝑦 & 𝑥 can tell us what kind of conic
we are dealing with:

If there is… Example Type of Conic

𝒚𝟐 & 𝒙 or 𝒙𝟐 & 𝒚 𝑦 7 = 𝑥 + 1 parabola

𝒙𝟐 & 𝒚𝟐 subtracting 𝑦 7 = 𝑥 7 − 1 hyperbola

𝒙𝟐 & 𝒚𝟐 adding 𝑦 7 + 2𝑥 7 = 1 ellipse

𝒙𝟐 & 𝒚𝟐 adding, with same coefficients 𝑦 7 + 𝑥 7 = 1 circle

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Part IV – Parametric Equations

Background

A parametric equation is a function defined with one or more independent variables

called parameters.

Occasionally it is easier to express 𝑦 & 𝑥 in terms of a third variable (e.g. 𝑡, 𝜃) rather than
each other. For example, 𝑡 is the parameter in:

𝑥 = 𝑡 E
Y
𝑦 = 𝑡 7 − 𝑡

Types of Questions

Parametric equations will be encountered more in the later chapters, e.g. differentiation
and integration.

For this chapter, it suffices to know how to obtain graphs of parametric equations.

Graphing Parametric Equations with Graphing Calculators

1. Press ‘mode’ to go to mode menu

2. Select ‘Parametric’
3. Press ‘Enter’ to confirm
4. Press ‘2nd’ ‘mode’ to return to home screen
5. Go to ‘Y’ and key in equations for 𝑦 & 𝑥
6. Press ‘window’ to adjust your range of values
7. Use ‘trace to move along the curve to find points of interest

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