UNIT 1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 49

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 1

GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS OF ax + by = c

Positive gradient These equations can be rearranged to find the

gradient (m) and the y-intercept (c).
To plot, simply substitute x = 0 then y = 0
to produce two points.
rise y −y
Gradient = = m= 2 1 y
run x2 − x1 rise

run
5

Negative gradient 3
3y + 2x = 6
2 (0, 2) y-intercept

Parallel lines have the same gradient. 1

Horizontal lines have a gradient of 0. (3, 0) x-intercept

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
Vertical lines have an infinite gradient. -1

-2
PLOTTING STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS
-3

GRAPHS OF y = mx + c -4

-5
The equation of any straight line can be expressed
-6
in this form where m is the gradient and c is the
y-intercept.
When plotting a straight line, three widely separated
points are enough. Plot 2x + 3y = 6:
y = – 2x + 5 has a gradient of –2 and crosses the x = 0 ⇒ 3y = 6 ⇒ y = 2 also y = 0 ⇒ 2x = 6 ⇒ x = 3
y-axis at (0, 5). (0 , 2) and (3, 0) are the two points on the axes.

REAL-LIFE STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS

STRAIGHT-LINE CONVERSION GRAPHS
These graphs replace x and y with variables which
represent real-life values such as weight, length, time, A conversion graph is an easy way of converting
speed etc. from one unit to another, for example converting
If a uniform rate is given, then the graph is from pounds to dollars.
a straight line. Because readings are taken from a graph, the
When drawing a graph of two variables, for example p answers are not exact.
against q, it is normal practice to draw the first named Not all conversion graphs pass through the origin.
variable (p) on the vertical axis.
136 CHAPTER SUMMARY UNIT 2

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 2

STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

To find the equation of a straight line: To solve simultaneous equations graphically:

• If the gradient is m then the equation is y = mx + c. • Draw the graphs for both equations on one set
of axes.
• To find c substitute a point that lies on the line.
• Only plot three points for a straight-line graph.
• If the line passes through the origin c = 0 so y = mx.
• The solution is where the graphs intersect.
y
• If the graphs do not intersect, there is no solution.
m
rise • If the graphs are the same, there is an infinite
number of solutions.
run
0 x 5 y
c y = mx + c
rise 4
m=
run
Solution y=x+1
3

SKETCHING STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS 2 2x + 3y = 8

Sketch means show the position and slope of the

1
line without plotting points.
x
A sketch is drawn roughly to scale by eye – it is –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
not exact. –1

The straight line y = mx + c has gradient m and crosses The solution to the simultaneous equations y = x + 1
the y-axis at (0, c). and 2x + 3y = 8 is x = 1, y = 2.
To sketch the straight line ax + by = c find where
it crosses the axes.
212 EXAM PRACTICE
CHAPTER SUMMARY UNIT 3

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 3

DISTANCE–TIME GRAPHS SPEED–TIME GRAPHS

A B A B
10 10
Distance (m)

Speed (m/s)
C C
O 2 6 11 O 2 5 9
Time (s) Time (s)

Gradient of slope = speed (constant) Gradient of slope = acceleration (constant)

Speed: Area under graph = distance travelled

10
Gradient OA = 2
= 5 m/s Acceleration:
0 10
Gradient AB = 4
= 0 m/s Gradient OA = 2
= 5m/s2 (speeding up)
10 0
Gradient BC = − = −2 m/s Gradient AB = 3
= 0 m/s2 (constant speed)
5
10
(negative implies returning) Gradient BC = − 4
= −2.5 m/s2 (slowing down)

Average speed:
1
distance travelled × (3 + 9) ×10 2
2
Average speed = = = 6 m/s
time 9 3
270 CHAPTER SUMMARY UNIT 4

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 4

QUADRATIC GRAPHS y = ax2 + bx + c

Parabolas
y y
a>0 a<0

x x

SOLUTION OF 0 = ax2 + bx + c
y
Roots are Quadratic graphs can be drawn by producing two types of table.
x = p or
y = ax 2 + bx + c You need to be able to understand and use both types; these are shown below.
x=q

Draw the graph of y = x2 + 2x – 1 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.

p q x

All cells shown:

x –2 –1 0 1 2
x 2
4 1 0 1 4
+2x –4 –2 0 2 4
–1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1
y –1 –2 –1 2 7

x and y values only shown:

x –2 –1 0 1 2
y –1 –2 –1 2 7

y
Some calculators have functions
6
that enable the y-values to be
found quickly and accurately 4
by producing a simple table.
2

x
-2 -1 0 1 2

-2

REAL-LIFE GRAPHS

The variables y and x can be changed to represent real-life values such as time, weight, money etc. and these
graphs can be used to understand situations from everyday life.
 UNIT 5 CHAPTER SUMMARY 337

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 5

REPRESENTING INEQUALITIES GRAPHICALLY MID-POINTS

Find the line representing the inequality. The mean of the coordinates gives the coordinates of
the mid-point.
If points on the line are required, draw a solid line.
Otherwise draw a dotted line. The mid-point between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
⎛ x1 + x2 y1 + y2 ⎞
Find the required region by using any point that is not ⎜ 2 , 2 ⎟. (x2, y2)
⎝ ⎠
on the line.

( x +2 x , y + y2
• Find the region satisfied by the inequalities
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, x + y ≤ 3 and y < 2 by drawing
1 2 1

2
)
suitable lines and shading the unwanted regions.
M Mid-point
The solid line means that solutions can lie on the line (ø)
y
(x1, y1)
3 x1y53
y52
2
USING PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM
Solutions in The broken line means
this region that the solutions cannot
y
0 3 x lie on the line (,)

(x2, y2)
PERPENDICULAR LINES

When two lines are perpendicular, the product of d

the gradients is −1. y2 – y1

If one line has a gradient m1 then the gradient of

1
any perpendicular line is m2 = − .
m1
(x1, y1) x2 – x1

d= ( x2 x1 ) + ( y2 y1 )
2 2

Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the distance

between two points.
 UNIT 7 CHAPTER SUMMARY 139

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 6

CUBIC GRAPHS y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d

A cubic function is one in which the highest power of x is x³.

All cubic functions can be written in the form y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d where a, b, c and d are constants.

y y
a.0 a,0

y y
x x
a.0 a,0

x x
a AND y = __
RECIPROCAL GRAPHS y = __ a
x x2
a or y = __
A reciprocal function is in the form __ a where a is a number.
x x2
y y y y
a.0 a,0 a.0 a,0

x x x x

a
y = __ a
y = __
y x y x2
a.0 C (A, Baand
B + __ ,0
Graphs of type y = Ax + __ C are constants):
x2 x3
Draw the graph of y = 2x + __3 − __
4 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
x x2 x3 x
Create a suitable table of values, plot the points and draw a smooth curve.

y
x −2 −1 0 1 2 50
3 − __
y = 2x + __ 4
x2 x3 40
2x −4 −2 0 2 4 30
20

3
__
10
x2
0.75 3 3 0.75
–2 –1 0 1 2x
–10
4
− __ 0.5 4 −4 −0.5 –20
x3
–30
–40
y −2.75 5 1 4.25 –50
 UNIT X8 CHAPTER SUMMARY 227

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 7

USING GRAPHS TO SOLVE QUADRATIC EQUATIONS y
10
The graph of y = x2 can be used to solve quadratic equations of the form 9
ax2 + bx + c = 0 y = 2 – 2x
8
y = x2
7
Rearrange the equation so that x2 = f(x), where f(x) is a linear function. 6
5
Draw y = f(x) and find the x co-ordinates of the intersection points of the 4
curve y = x2 and the line y = f(x) 3
2
Solution
To solve x2 + 2x − 2 = 0, rearrange the equation so that one side is x2 1 Solution

x = 2 − 2x
2 x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

Draw the line y = 2 − 2x and find where it intersects y = x2

The graph shows the solutions are x ≈ −2.7 or x ≈ 0.7

USING GRAPHS TO SOLVE OTHER EQUATIONS 6 y

The graph of one quadratic equation can be used to solve other quadratic
equations with suitable rearrangement. 4
y=x–1
If the graph of y = x2 − 3x − 4 has been drawn, then the x co-ordinates
of the intersection with y = x − 1 will solve 2

x2 − 3x − 4 = x − 1 or x2 − 4x − 3 = 0
x
The graph show that the solutions are x ≈ −0.6 and x ≈ 4.6
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The graph of one cubic equation can be used to solve other cubic equations
with suitable rearrangement. –2

If the graph of y = x3 – 2x2 + 4x – 3 has been drawn, then the x co-ordinates

of the intersection with y = 2x – 5 will solve x3 – 2x2 + 4x –3 = 2x – 5 or –4
x3 – 2x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
–6
y = x2 – 3x – 4

–8

USING GRAPHS TO SOLVE NON-LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS y = x3 + 1

3 y

To solve simultaneous equations graphically, draw both graphs on one set

of axes. The co-ordinates of the intersection points are the solutions of the 2

simultaneous equations.
1 simultaneously draw both graphs.
To solve y = x3 + 1 and y = __ 1
x
The graphs show the solutions are approximately (−1.2, −0.8) and (0.7, 1.4) x

–2 –1 0 1 2

–1

–2
1
y = ––
x

–3
322 CHAPTER SUMMARY UNIT 9

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 8

GRADIENT OF A CURVE AT A POINT REFLECTING GRAPHS

Use a ruler to draw a tangent at the point. The graph of y = −f(x) is a reflection of y = f(x)
in the x-axis.
Curve
The graph of y = f(−x) is a reflection of y = f(x)
Equal angles
in the y-axis.

Point STRETCHING GRAPHS

STRETCHING GRAPHS IN THE y-DIRECTION

The gradient of the tangent is an estimate of the
gradient of the curve at the point.
The graph of y = kf(x) is a stretch of the graph y = f(x)
with a scale factor of k parallel to the y-axis
(all y-co-ordinates are multiplied by k).
TRANSLATING GRAPHS
If k > 1 the graph is stretched by k.
TRANSLATING GRAPHS IN THE y-DIRECTION
If 0 < k < 1 the graph is compressed by k.
The graph of y = f(x) + a is a translation of the graph
of y = f(x) by (0)
a STRETCHING GRAPHS IN THE x-DIRECTION
The graph of y = f(x) − a is a translation of the graph
The graph of y = f(kx) is a stretch of the graph y = f(x)
of y = f(x) by ( 0 ) 1 parallel to the x-axis
−a with a scale factor of __
k 1)
(all x co-ordinates are multiplied by __
k
TRANSLATING GRAPHS IN THE x-DIRECTION 1
If k > 1 the graph is compressed by __
k
The graph of y = f(x + a) is a translation of the graph 1
If 0 < k < 1 the graph is stretched by __
of y = f(x) by ( )
−a k
0
The graph of y = f(x − a) is a translation of the graph
of y = f(x) by ( )
a
0
394 CHAPTER SUMMARY UNIT 10
X

CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 9

GRADIENTS AND DIFFERENTIATION
dy
If y = xn, the gradient function ___ = n x n−1, where n can be any real value.
dx
dy
___
If y = kxn = nk x n−1
dx
dy dy
___
If y = kx ___ =k If y = k =0
dx dx

y y

y = kx (0, k)
y=k

x
0

STATIONARY POINTS
dy
At a stationary point, the gradient = 0 and is found at the point where ___ = 0
dx
It can be classified as a maximum or a minimum point by

◼ Knowing the shape of the curve

dy
◼ Finding the gradient close to the stationary point on either side of it using the gradient function ___
dx

Quadratic curves of type y = ax2 + bx + c have the following shapes depending on the value of the coefficient a.

Maximum point Maximum point

Minimum point Minimum point

A quadratic function with a > 0 A quadratic function with a < 0

 UNIT
UNIT10
X CHAPTER SUMMARY 395

Cubic curves of type y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d have the following shapes depending on the value of the coefficient a.

Maximum point Maximum point

Minimum point Minimum point

A cubic function with a > 0 A cubic function with a < 0

MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN A STRAIGHT LINE

s displacement Distance from a fixed point O.

v velocity Rate of change of displacement; ± indicates particle’s direction.

a acceleration Rate of change of velocity.

Velocity is the rate at which displacement changes with time.

ds
v = ___ (Gradient of distance–time graph is velocity)
dt
Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes with time.

dv
a = ___ (Gradient of velocity–time graph is acceleration)
dt
Displacement differentiate Velocity differentiate Acceleration

(s) → ds)
(v = __ → dv)
(a = ___
dt dt
dv = 0
Maximum velocity occurs when acceleration = 0 i.e., vmax occurs when ___
dt