1/21/2020

Operating System
B.Tech
Introduction
Delhi Technological University
Instructor: Dr Divyashikha Sethia
divyashikha@dtu.ac.in

Course Details

• Overview of Operating System an various Modules

• Text Book: Operating System Concepts (Galvin)

• Punctuality and transparent communication

1
 1/21/2020

Syllabus

Introduction
• What is Operating System?
• Computer-System Organization
• Computer-System Architecture
• Operating-System Structure
• Operating-System Operations
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• Storage Management
• Protection and Security
• Distributed Systems
• Special-Purpose Systems
• Computing Environments

2
 1/21/2020

Objectives
• Tour of major operating systems components
• Basic computer system organization

What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of
a computer and the computer hardware.

 Operating system goals:

• Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier.
• Make the computer system convenient to use.
• Efficient usage of computer hardware

3
 1/21/2020

Four Components of Computer System

Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components
1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
2. Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users
3. Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing problems
of the users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
4. Users
• People, machines, other computers

4
 1/21/2020

Operating System Definition

 OS is a resource allocator
• Manages all resources
• Decision for conflicting requests for efficient & fair
resource use

 OS is a control program
• Controls program execution prevent errors and improper
usage

Operating System Definition (Cont.)

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating

system” is good approximation

 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is

the kernel. Everything else is either a system program
(ships with the operating system) or an application program

5
 1/21/2020

Computer Startup

 Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

• Typically stored in ROM or EEPROM, generally known as
firmware
• Initializes all aspects of system (CPU registers, device
controllers, memory contents
• Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
• Must know where the OS is located on the disc
• For linux executes the first process “init” and waits for an
event

Computer System Organization

Computer-System Operation

Storage Structure

I/O Structure

6
 1/21/2020

Computer System Organization

Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles

Computer-System Operation

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type.
 Each device controller has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt.

7
 1/21/2020

Computer System Organization - Interrupts

Occurrence of an event is signaled from either
- hardware: send signal via system bus to CPU
- software: by invoking system call
• Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine
generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines.
• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction.
• Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is
being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
• A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an
error or a user request.
• An operating system is interrupt driven.

Computer System Organization -

Interrupt Handling

• The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

storing registers and the program counter.
• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
– polling
– vectored interrupt system
• Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt

8
 1/21/2020

Interrupt Timeline

Storage Structure
a) Main memory(RAM) – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly.
- Contains program to execute
- Too small for storage of all programs permanently
- Volatile storage
b) Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides
large nonvolatile storage capacity.
c) Magnetic disks –rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
– Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors.
– The disk controller determines the logical interaction
between the device and the computer.

9
 1/21/2020

Storage Hierarchy
a) Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
– Speed
– Cost
– Volatility
b) Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary
storage.

Storage-Device Hierarchy

10
 1/21/2020

I/O Structure
General computer consists of CPU & multiple device
controllers each controller single of multiple devices &
connected through common bus.

Device controller helps moving data between peripheral device

and local buffer storage.

OS has a device driver for each device controller and provides
a uniform interface to device to the rest of OS.

I/O Structure
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion.
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
• Wait loop (contention for memory access).
• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous
I/O processing.
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion.
• System call – request to the operating system to allow user to
wait for I/O completion.
• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating
its type, address, and state.
• Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.

11
 1/21/2020

I/O Structure
Small data:

• Device driver loads registers of device controller

• Controller examines registers to determine action (eg: read char

from keyboard)

• Starts data transfer from device to its local buffer and after
completion informs device driver via interrupt.

• Device driver returns control to OS returning status information

(eg: data or pointer to data if operation was read)

I/O Structure

Bulk transfer uses DMA (Direct Memory Access)

• Device controller transfers entire block of data directly to/from its

buffer storage to memory with no intervention from CPU.

•On operation completion single interrupt generated for block instead of

interrupt for each byte.

•CPU is not blocked for long during the transfer process.

12
 1/21/2020

Computer Architecture

 Single Processor Systems

Multiprocessor Systems

Clustered Systems

Operating System Structure

Operating System provides environment within which programs are
executed
a)Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
– Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all
times
– Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
– A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
– One job selected and run via job scheduling
– When it has to wait (eg: for I/O), OS switches to another job

13
 1/21/2020

Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System Structure

b) Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which
CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with
each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
– Response time should be < 1 second
– Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
– If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU
scheduling
– If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them
in and out to run
– Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely in memory

14
 1/21/2020

Operating-System Operations
 No process of I/O – OS idle
 Interrupt driven by hardware
 Software error or request creates exception or trap
• Division by zero, request for operating system service
 Ensuring Error in a program does not affect others:
• Other process problems: infinite loop
• processes modifying each other or operating system

Operating-System Operations
• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
– User mode and kernel mode (supervisor/system/privilege mode)
– Mode bit provided by hardware
*Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
*Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode to protect OS from errant users (eg: switch from
user to kernel mode, timer managements, I/O control, interrupt
management)
*System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user

15
 1/21/2020

System Call
•Provides means for user program to ask the OS to perform tasks
reserved for OS on the user program’s behalf
•Leads to invocation of trap to specific location in the interrupt
vector.
•Control passes to service routine and mode bit is set to kernel
mode
•After execution control set back to user mode.

Transition from User to Kernel Mode

• User mode: computer executing on behalf of user
• Kernel mode: User requests service from OS transitions to this
mode
• On trap /interrupt hardware switches from kernel to user mode

16
 1/21/2020

Transition from User to Kernel Mode

Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
– Set interrupt after specific period
– Operating system decrements counter
– When counter zero generate an interrupt
– Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

Process Management
• A process is program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task
– CPU, memory, I/O, files
– Initialization data
• Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
• Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
– Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
• Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
– Concurrency by multiplexing CPUs among processes / threads

17
 1/21/2020

Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Memory Management
• All data in main memory before and after processing
• All instructions in main memory in order to execute
• Memory management determines what is in memory when
– Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
• Memory management activities
– Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
– Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move
into and out of memory
– Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

18
 1/21/2020

Storage Management
• OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
– Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
– Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
– Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer
rate, access method (sequential or random)
a) File-System management
– Files usually organized into directories
– Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
– OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Mass-Storage Management
• Disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data
that must be kept for a “long” period of time.
• Proper management is of central importance
• Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and
its algorithms
• OS activities
– Free-space management
– Storage allocation
– Disk scheduling
• Some storage need not be fast
– Tertiary storage (large capacity, slower access and low cost)
includes optical storage, magnetic tapes
– Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)

19
 1/21/2020

Caching
• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)
• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
– If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
– If not, data copied to cache and used there
• Cache smaller than storage being cached
– Cache management important design problem
– Cache size and replacement policy

Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

20
 1/21/2020

Migration of Integer A: Disk to Register

• Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,
not matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

• Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
• Distributed environment situation even more complex
– Several copies of a datum can exist
– Various solutions covered later

I/O Subsystem
• One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
• I/O subsystem responsible for
– Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts
of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)
– General device-driver interface
– Drivers for specific hardware devices

21
 1/21/2020

Protection and Security

• For multiple users, concurrent execution of multiple processes, access
to data needs to be regulated.
• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of system against internal and external attacks
– Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can
do what
– User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
– User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
– Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
– Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more
rights

Misc

Distributed Systems
Special Purpose Systems

22
 1/21/2020

Computing Environments
• Traditional computer
– Blurring over time
– Office environment
o PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe
or minicomputers providing batch and timesharing
o Now portals allowing networked and remote systems access
to same resources
– Home networks
o Used to be single system, then modems
o Now firewalled, networked

Computing Environments (Cont.)

Client-Server Computing
• Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
• Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients
• Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services
(i.e. database)
• File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files

23
 1/21/2020

Peer-to-Peer Computing
• Another model of distributed system
• P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
– Instead all nodes are considered peers
– May each act as client, server or both
– Node must join P2P network
• Registers its service with central lookup service on network,
or
• Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for
service via discovery protocol
– Examples include Napster and Gnutella

Web-Based Computing
• Web has become ubiquitous
• PCs most prevalent devices
• More devices becoming networked to allow web access
• New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar
servers: load balancers
• Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have
evolved into Linux and Windows XP, which can be clients and
servers

24
 1/21/2020

THANKS

25