Operating Systems

Lecture 1: Introduction to Operating Systems

© Fall 2024 – Dr. Alyaa Hamza

Alyaa.hamza@sut.edu.eg
 References

• Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne, Operating system

concepts, Tenth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2018
 LMS

● Course Materials: Lectures and Lab Assignments

● Online Quizzes
● Project Submission
● Lab Assignment Submission
 Grades

● Midterm: 15 Degree
● Activities
○ Project: 20 Degree
○ Quizzes (Practical/LMS): 20 Degree (4 quizzes)
○ Practical Assignments : 20 Degree (LMS + Discussion)
● Final Exam: 25 Degree
 Chapter 1

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Chapter 1: Introduction
● What Operating Systems Do
● Computer-System Organization
● Computer-System Architecture
● Operating-System Structure
● Operating-System Operations
● Process Management
● Memory Management
● Storage Management
● Protection and Security
● Computing Environments
● Open-Source Operating Systems
Objectives

● To describe the basic organization of computer systems

● To provide a grand tour of the major components of operating systems
● To give an overview of the many types of computing environments
● To explore several open-source operating systems
What is an Operating System?

● A program that acts as an intermediary between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware.

● Operating system goals:

○ Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
○ Make the computer system convenient to use
○ Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer System Structure
● Computer system can be divided into four components:

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources

CPU, memory, I/O devices

2. Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users

3. Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to
solve the computing problems of the users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games

4. Users
People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
What Operating Systems Do

● Depends on the point of view

● Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
○ Don’t care about resource utilization
● But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep
all users happy
● Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
● Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and
battery life
● Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
Operating System Definition

● OS is a resource allocator
○ Manages all resources
○ Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use

● OS is a control program
○ Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer
Operating System Definition (Cont.)

● No universally accepted definition

● “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is
a good approximation
○ But varies wildly
● “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.
● Everything else is either
○ a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
○ an application program.
Computer Startup

● bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

○ Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
○ Initializes all aspects of system
○ Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
● Computer-system operation
○ One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
○ Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles
Computer-System Operation

● I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

● Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
● Each device controller has a local buffer
● CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
● I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
● Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt
Common Functions of Interrupts

● Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,

through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines
● Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
● A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by
an error or a user request
● An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling

● The operating system preserves the state of the CPU

by storing registers and the program counter

● Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

○ polling
○ vectored interrupt system

● Separate segments of code determine what action

should be taken for each type of interrupt
Storage Structure
● Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
○ Random access
○ Typically volatile

● Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large

nonvolatile storage capacity

● Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording
material
○ Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
○ The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer

● Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile

○ Various technologies
○ Becoming more popular
Storage Hierarchy

● Storage systems organized in hierarchy

○ Speed
○ Cost
○ Volatility

● Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main

memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

● Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O

○ Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching

● Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in

hardware, operating system, software)
● Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
● Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information
is there
○ If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
○ If not, data copied to cache and used there
● Cache smaller than storage being cached
○ Cache management important design problem
○ Cache size and replacement policy
Direct Memory Access Structure

● Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information

at close to memory speeds

● Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage

directly to main memory without CPU intervention

● Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the

one interrupt per byte
How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

Computer-System Architecture
● Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
○ Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
● Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
○ Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
○ Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance

○ Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
● Multi-chip and multicore
● Systems containing all chips
○ Chassis containing multiple separate systems
Clustered Systems

● Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working

together
○ Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
○ Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
■ Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
■ Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
○ Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
■ Applications must be written to use parallelization
○ Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations
Clustered Systems
Operating System Structure

● Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency

○ Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
○ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
○ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
○ One job selected and run via job scheduling
○ When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

● Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches

jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
○ Response time should be < 1 second
○ Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
○ If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
○ If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
○ Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Operations

● Interrupt driven (hardware and software)

○ Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
○ Software interrupt (exception or trap):

■ Software error (e.g., division by zero)

■ Request for operating system service
■ Other process problems include infinite loop,
processes modifying each other or the operating
system
Operating-System Operations (cont.)
● Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and
other system components
○ User mode and kernel mode
○ Mode bit provided by hardware
■ Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
■ Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable
in kernel mode
■ System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets
it to user
● Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
○ i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
● Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
○ Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
○ Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
○ Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
○ When counter zero generate an interrupt
○ Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that
exceeds allotted time
Process Management

● A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the

system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
● Process needs resources to accomplish its task
○ CPU, memory, I/O, files
○ Initialization data
● Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
● Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
○ Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
● Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
● Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
○ Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management:

● Creating and deleting both user and system processes

● Suspending and resuming processes
● Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
● Providing mechanisms for process communication
● Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management

● To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in

memory
● All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
● Memory management determines what is in memory and when
○ Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
● Memory management activities
○ Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
○ Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of
memory
○ Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage Management
● OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
○ Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
○ Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
■ Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer
rate, access method (sequential or random)
● File-System management
○ Files usually organized into directories
○ Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
○ OS activities include
■ Creating and deleting files and directories
■ Primitives to manipulate files and directories
■ Mapping files onto secondary storage
■ Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management
● Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data
that must be kept for a “long” period of time
● Proper management is of central importance
● Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
● OS activities
○ Free-space management
○ Storage allocation
○ Disk scheduling
● Some storage need not be fast
○ Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
○ Still must be managed – by OS or applications
○ Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

● Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no

matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

● Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware

such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache.
● Distributed environment situation even more complex
○ Several copies of a datum can exist
○ Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
I/O Subsystem
● One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices
from the user
● I/O subsystem responsible for
○ Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing
data temporarily while it is being transferred), caching
(storing parts of data in faster storage for performance),
spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input of
other jobs)
○ General device-driver interface
○ Drivers for specific hardware devices
Protection and Security

● Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or

users to resources defined by the OS
● Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
○ Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of
service
● Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
○ User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per
user
○ User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access
control
○ Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed,
then also associated with each process, file
○ Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights
Computing Environments - Traditional

● Stand-alone general purpose machines

● But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e., the Internet)
● Portals provide web access to internal systems
● Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
● Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
● Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use firewalls
to protect home computers from Internet attacks
Computing Environments - Mobile

● Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

● What is the functional difference between them and a “traditional”
laptop?
● Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)
● Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
● Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for
connectivity
● Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android
Computing Environments – Distributed

● Distributed computing
○ Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems networked
together
■ Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
● Local Area Network (LAN)
● Wide Area Network (WAN)
● Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
● Personal Area Network (PAN)

○ Network Operating System provides features between systems

across network
■ Communication scheme allows systems to exchange messages
■ Illusion of a single system
Computing Environments – Client-Server

Client-Server Computing
Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to client to request services
(i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files
 Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer

● Another model of distributed system

● P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
○ Instead all nodes are considered peers
○ May each act as client, server or both
○ Node must join P2P network
■ Registers its service with central lookup
service on network, or
■ Broadcast request for service and respond to
requests for service via discovery protocol
○ Examples include Napster and Gnutella, Voice
over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
Computing Environments - Virtualization

● Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes

○ Vast and growing industry
● Emulation used when source CPU type different from target type
(i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
○ Generally slowest method
○ When computer language not compiled to native code – Interpretation
● Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest OSes
also natively compiled
○ Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running applications, all on native
WinXP host OS
○ VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization services
Computing Environments - Virtualization

● Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple

OSes for exploration or compatibility
○ Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
○ Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple systems
○ QA testing applications without having multiple systems
○ Executing and managing compute environments within data centers
● VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
○ There is no general purpose host then (VMware ESX and Citrix XenServer)
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

● Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

● Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base for it
functionality.
○ Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
● Many types
○ Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
○ Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
○ Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
○ Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via the
Internet (i.e., word processor)
○ Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use via
the Internet (i.e., a database server)
○ Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

● Cloud computing environments composed of traditional

OSes, plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
○ Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
○ Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications
Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

● Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of

computers
○ Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-time OS
○ Use expanding
● Many other special computing environments as well
○ Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
● Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
○ Processing must be done within constraint
○ Correct operation only if constraints met
Open-Source Operating Systems

● Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just

binary closed-source
● Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM)
movement
● Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU Public
License (GPL)
● Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X),
and many more
● Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox (open
source and free on many platforms - http://www.virtualbox.com)
○ Use to run guest operating systems for exploration
 End of Chapter 1

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