1 Multiplication by zero in a field

Theorem 1. Suppose F is a field and 0 ∈ F is the additive identity in F.

Then ∀a ∈ F, 0 · a = a · 0 = 0.

Proof. By distributivity:

a · (0 + 0) = a · 0 + a · 0

However, 0 + 0 = 0 from Axiom 3:

a·0=a·0+a·0

Adding −a · 0 to both sides:

a · 0 + (−a · 0) = (a · 0 + a · 0) + (−a · 0)

But a · 0 + (−a · 0) = 0 from Axiom 4:

0 = (a · 0 + a · 0) + (−a · 0)

Using Axiom 1 on the RHS:

0 = a · 0 + (a · 0 + (−a · 0))
0=a·0+0
0=a·0

By commutativity, a · 0 = 0 · a = 0.

2 Uniqueness of zero in a field

Theorem 2. Suppose F is a field and 0 ∈ F is the additive identity in F. If
0 ∈ F is such that e
e 0+a = a+e0 = a ∀a ∈ F, then e0 = 0.

Proof. From Axiom 3 with a = e 0, e

0+0 = 0+e 0=e 0. In addition, from our
assumptions with a = 0, 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 = 0. Thus 0 = 0.
e e e

1
3 Triangle inequality
Theorem 3. If a, b ∈ R, then |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.

Proof. Observe that:

|a + b|2 = (a + b)2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
≤ |a|2 + 2|a||b| + |b|2
= (|a| + |b|)2

This implies that |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.

4 Uniqueness of the limit of a sequence

Theorem 4. Suppose (an )∞ n=1 is a sequence of real numbers. If lim an = a
n→∞
and lim an = b, then a = b.
n→∞

Proof. Fix ε > 0. Since lim an = a, ∃N1 ∈ N such that if n ≥ N1 , then

n→∞
ε
|an − a| < . In addition, since lim an = b, ∃N2 ∈ N such that if n ≥ N2 ,
2 n→∞
ε
then |an −b| < . If we take n ≥ max {N1 , N2 }, then both of these conditions
2
will hold. This means:

|a − b| = |a − an + an − b|
= |(a − an ) + (an − b)|
≤ |a − an | + |b − an |
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
This holds for every ε > 0. Therefore, |a − b| = 0 =⇒ a = b.

2
5 Squeeze theorem for sequences
Theorem 5. Suppose (an )∞ ∞ ∞
n=1 , (bn )n=1 , (cn )n=1 are sequences such that an ≤
bn ≤ cn ∀n ∈ N and lim an = lim cn = L. Then lim bn = L.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Proof. Observe that:

|bn − L| = |(bn − an ) + (an − L)|

≤ |bn − an | + |an − L|
= bn − an + |an − L|
≤ cn − an + |an − L|
= |(cn − L) + (L − an )| + |an − L|
≤ |cn − L| + |an − L| + |an − L|

ε
Fix ε > 0. ∃N1 ∈ N such that if n ≥ N1 , then |an − L| < . Also, ∃N2 ∈ N
3
ε
such that if n ≥ N2 , then |cn − L| < . Set N = max {N1 , N2 }, so both of
3
these conditions hold. If n ≥ N , then:

|bn − L| ≤ |cn − L| + 2|an − L|

ε ε
< +2 =ε
3 3
Thus, lim bn = L.
n→∞

6 Boundedness of a convergent sequence

Theorem 6. Suppose (an )∞
n=1 is a convergent sequence. Then ∃M > 0 such
that |an | ≤ M ∀n ∈ N.

Proof. Assume lim an = L ∈ R. Take ε = 1. ∃N ∈ N such that if n ≥ N ,

n→∞
then |an − L| < 1. The second triangle inequality implies:

|an | − |L| < 1

|an | < 1 + |L|

Define M = max {|L| + 1, |a1 |, |a2 |, . . . , |aN −1 |, |aN |}. Clearly, |an | ≤ M ∀n ∈
N.

3
7 Convergence of a bounded monotone se-
quence
Theorem 7. Suppose (an )∞ ∞
n=1 is a monotone sequence. Then (an )n=1 con-
verges if and only if it is bounded.

Proof. ( =⇒ ) A convergent sequence is always bounded from Theorem 6.

( ⇐= ) Without loss of generality, assume (an )∞

n=1 is monotone increasing
(if it is monotone decreasing, similar arguments apply). Let α = sup {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . }.
Since (an )∞n=1 is bounded, this sup exists. By an earlier theorem, given
ε > 0, ∃N ∈ N such that aN ∈ (α − ε, α]. By monotonicity, if n ≥ N
then an ≥ aN > α − ε. Also, an ≤ α. This implies that if n ≥ N ,
α − ε < an ≤ α < α + ε =⇒ |an − α| < ε. Thus, lim an = α, so
n→∞
(an )∞
n=1 converges.

8 Existence of a monotone subsequence

Theorem 8. Suppose (an )∞ n=1 is a sequence of real numbers. Then there
exists a subsequence of (an )∞
n=1 which is monotone.

Proof. We say k ∈ N is a peak point of (an )∞

n=1 if ∀n > k, ak > an .

Consider the case where (an )∞ n=1 has infinitely many peak points n1 <
n2 < n3 < n4 < . . . . By definition, an1 > an2 > an3 > an4 > . . . . This
subsequence (ank )∞
k=1 is therefore monotone.

Consider the case where (an )∞ n=1 has finitely many peak points k1 , k2 , k3 , . . . , kl .
Set n1 = max {k1 , k2 , k3 , . . . , kl } + 1. Clearly, n1 is not a peak point. There-
fore, ∃n2 > n1 such that an2 ≥ an1 . Clearly, n2 is also not a peak point.
∃n3 > n2 such that an3 ≥ an2 . Continuing like this, we get a monotone
increasing subseqence (ank )∞ k=1 .

9 Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem
Theorem 9. Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.

Proof. From Theorem 8, every sequence has a monotone subsequence. Ev-

ery subsequence of a bounded sequence is also bounded. Thus, we have a
bounded monotone subsequence, which must converge from Theorem 7.

4
10 Limit of the product of functions
Theorem 10. Suppose lim f (x) = l and lim g(x) = m. Then lim f (x)g(x) =
x→a x→a x→a
lm.
Proof. Fix ε > 0. We need to find a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then
|f (x)g(x) − lm| < ε. Observe that:

|f (x)g(x) − lm| = |f (x)g(x) − f (x)m + f (x)m − lm|

= |f (x)(g(x) − m) + m(f (x) − l)|
≤ |f (x)||g(x) − m)| + |m||f (x) − l|

Since lim f (x) = l, ∃δ1 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 , then |f (x) − l| < 1.
x→a
This implies |f (x)| − |l| < 1 =⇒ |f (x)| < 1 + |l|. Also, ∃δ2 such that if
ε
0 < |x − a| < δ2 , then |g(x) − m| < . In addition, ∃δ3 such that if
2(1 + |l|)
ε
0 < |x − a| < δ3 , then |f (x) − l| < . Set δ = min {δ1 , δ2 , δ3 } so all
2(|m| + 1)
of these conditions hold. If 0 < |x − a| < δ, then:

|f (x)g(x) − lm| ≤ |f (x)||g(x) − m)| + |m||f (x) − l|

ε ε
< (1 + |l|) · + |m| ·
2(1 + |l|) 2(|m| + 1)
ε ε
≤ + =ε
2 2
Thus, lim f (x)g(x) = lm.
x→a

11 Continuity of a differentiable function

Theorem 11. Suppose f is differentiable at x0 . Then f is continuous at x0 .
Proof. Observe that:
 
f (x) − f (x0 )
lim f (x) = lim · (x − x0 ) + f (x0 )
x→x0 x→x0 x − x0
f (x) − f (x0 )
= lim · lim (x − x0 ) + f (x0 )
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0
0
= f (x0 ) · (x0 − x0 ) + f (x0 )
= 0 · f 0 (x0 ) + f (x0 ) = f (x0 )

Therefore, f is continuous at x0 .

5
12 Product rule for derivatives
Theorem 12. Suppose f, g : (a, b) → R are differentiable at x ∈ (a, b). Then
f g is differentiable at x. Moreover, (f g)0 = f 0 g + g 0 f .

Proof. Observe that:

f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
(f g)0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x + h)g(x) + f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0
 h 
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim f (x + h) · + g(x) ·
h→0 h h
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim f (x + h) · lim + g(x) · lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h
0 0
= f (x)g (x) + g(x)f (x)

The existence of this derivative also implies that f g is differentiable at x.

13 Rolle’s theorem
Theorem 13. Suppose f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b). If f (a) = f (b), then ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.

Proof. If f is a constant function, that is, f (x) = f (a) ∀x ∈ (a, b), then the
theorem is obviously true. Assume f is not a constant function. Without
loss of generality, assume ∃x0 ∈ (a, b) such that f (x0 ) > f (a) (If no such
x0 exists, then ∃x1 ∈ (a, b) such that f (x1 ) < f (a). In this case, similar
arguments can be used).

By the Extreme Value Theorem, f has a global maximum on [a, b], which
we shall call c. Since f (c) ≥ f (x0 ) > f (a) = f (b), we know c 6= a and c 6= b.
Thus, c lies in (a, b) and f 0 (c) = 0.

6
14 Mean value theorem
Theorem 14. Suppose f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
f (b) − f (a)
on (a, b). Then ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = .
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
Proof. Consider φ(x) = f (x) − f (a) − · (x − a). Observe that:
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
φ(a) = f (a) − f (a) − · (a − a) = 0
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
φ(b) = f (b) − f (a) − · (b − a) = 0
b−a
Applying Rolle’s Theorem to φ(x), we obtain the existence of c ∈ (a, b) such
f (b) − f (a) f (b) − f (a)
that φ0 (c) = f 0 (c) − = 0 =⇒ f 0 (c) = .
b−a b−a

15 Function with a vanishing derivative must

be constant
Theorem 15. Suppose f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b). If f 0 (x) = 0 ∀x ∈ (a, b), then f is constant on [a, b].

Proof. Take x ∈ (a, b]. Applying the Mean Value Theorem on [a, x], we
conclude that f (x) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(x − a) for some c ∈ (a, x). Therefore, as
f 0 (c) = 0,

f (x) − f (a) = 0(x − a)

f (x) = f (a)

Thus, f is constant in [a, b].