Impedance

The impedance Z of a resistance R in series with a reactance X is:

Z = R + jX
Rectangular and polar forms of impedance Z:
Z = R + jX = (R2 + X2)½tan-1(X / R) = |Z| = |Z|cos + j|Z|sin
Addition of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 + Z2 = (R1 + jX1) + (R2 + jX2) = (R1 + R2) + j(X1 + X2)
Subtraction of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 - Z2 = (R1 + jX1) - (R2 + jX2) = (R1 - R2) + j(X1 - X2)
Multiplication of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 * Z2 = |Z1| * |Z2| = ( |Z1| * |Z2| )()
Division of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 / Z2 = |Z1| / |Z2| = ( |Z1| / |Z2| )()
In summary:
- use the rectangular form for addition and subtraction,
- use the polar form for multiplication and division.

Admittance
An impedance Z comprising a resistance R in series with a reactance X can be converted to an admittance Y
comprising a conductance G in parallel with a susceptance B:
Y = Z -1 = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R2 + X2) = R / (R2 + X2) - jX / (R2 + X2) = G - jB
G = R / (R2 + X2) = R / |Z|2
B = X / (R2 + X2) = X / |Z|2
Using the polar form of impedance Z:
Y = 1 / |Z| = |Z| -1 = |Y| = |Y|cos - j|Y|sin
Conversely, an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a susceptance B can be converted to an
impedance Z comprising a resistance R in series with a reactance X:
Z = Y -1 = 1 / (G - jB) = (G + jB) / (G2 + B2) = G / (G2 + B2) + jB / (G2 + B2) = R + jX
R = G / (G2 + B2) = G / |Y|2
X = B / (G2 + B2) = B / |Y|2
Using the polar form of admittance Y:
Z = 1 / |Y| = |Y| -1 = |Z| = |Z|cos + j|Z|sin
The total impedance ZS of impedances Z1, Z2, Z3,... connected in series is:
ZS = Z1 + Z1 + Z1 +...
The total admittance YP of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3,... connected in parallel is:
YP = Y1 + Y1 + Y1 +...
In summary:
- use impedances when operating on series circuits,
- use admittances when operating on parallel circuits.

Reactance
Inductive Reactance
The inductive reactance XL of an inductance L at angular frequency  and frequency f is:
XL = L = 2fL
For a sinusoidal current i of amplitude I and angular frequency :
i = I sint
If sinusoidal current i is passed through an inductance L, the voltage e across the inductance is:
e = L di/dt = LI cost = XLI cost
The current through an inductance lags the voltage across it by 90°.
Capacitive Reactance
The capacitive reactance XC of a capacitance C at angular frequency  and frequency f is:
XC = 1 / C = 1 / 2fC
For a sinusoidal voltage v of amplitude V and angular frequency :
v = V sint
If sinusoidal voltage v is applied across a capacitance C, the current i through the capacitance is:
i = C dv/dt = CV cost = V cost / XC
The current through a capacitance leads the voltage across it by 90°.

1
Resonance
Series Resonance
A series circuit comprising an inductance L, a resistance R and a capacitance C has an impedance ZS of:
ZS = R + j(XL - XC)
where XL = L and XC = 1 / C
At resonance, the imaginary part of ZS is zero:
XC = XL
ZSr = R
r = (1 / LC)½ = 2fr
Parallel resonance
A parallel circuit comprising an inductance L with a series resistance R, connected in parallel with a capacitance C,
has an admittance YP of:
YP = 1 / (R + jXL) + 1 / (- jXC) = (R / (R2 + XL2)) - j(XL / (R2 + XL2) - 1 / XC)
where XL = L and XC = 1 / C
At resonance, the imaginary part of YP is zero:
XC = (R2 + XL2) / XL = XL + R2 / XL = XL(1 + R2 / XL2)
ZPr = YPr-1 = (R2 + XL2) / R = XLXC / R = L / CR
r = (1 / LC - R2 / L2)½ = 2fr
Note that for the same values of L, R and C, the parallel resonance frequency is lower than the series resonance
frequency, but if the ratio R / L is small then the parallel resonance frequency is close to the series resonance
frequency.

Reactive Loads and Power Factor

Resistance and Series Reactance
The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and series reactance X is:
Z = R + jX = |Z|
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R2 + X2) = R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2
When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Z, the current I is:
I = VY = V(R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2) = VR / |Z|2 - jVX / |Z|2 = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
IP = VR / |Z|2 = |I|cos
IQ = VX / |Z|2 = |I|sin
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:
S = V|I| = V2 / |Z| = |I|2|Z|
P = VIP = IP2|Z|2 / R = V2R / |Z|2 = |I|2R
Q = VIQ = IQ2|Z|2 / X = V2X / |Z|2 = |I|2X
The power factor cos and reactive factor sin are:
cos = IP / |I| = P / S = R / |Z|
sin = IQ / |I| = Q / S = X / |Z|
Resistance and Shunt Reactance
The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and shunt reactance X is found from:
1 / Z = 1 / R + 1 / jX
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y comprising conductance G and shunt susceptance B:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / R - j / X = G - jB = |Y|
When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Y, the current I is:
I = VY = V(G - jB) = VG - jVB = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
IP = VG = V / R = |I|cos
IQ = VB = V / X = |I|sin
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:
S = V|I| = |I|2 / |Y| = V2|Y|
P = VIP = IP2 / G = |I|2G / |Y|2 = V2G
Q = VIQ = IQ2 / B = |I|2B / |Y|2 = V2B
The power factor cos and reactive factor sin are:
cos = IP / |I| = P / S = G / |Y|
sin = IQ / |I| = Q / S = B / |Y|

Complex Power

2
When a voltage V causes a current I to flow through a reactive load Z, the complex power S is:
S = VI* where I* is the conjugate of the complex current I.
Inductive Load
Z = R + jXL
I = IP - jIQ
cos = R / |Z| (lagging)
I* = IP + jIQ
S = P + jQ
An inductive load is a sink of lagging VArs (a source of leading VArs).
Capacitive Load
Z = R - jXC
I = IP + jIQ
cos = R / |Z| (leading)
I* = IP - jIQ
S = P - jQ
A capacitive load is a source of lagging VArs (a sink of leading VArs).

Three Phase Power

For a balanced star connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vstar = Vline / 3
Istar = Iline
Zstar = Vstar / Istar = Vline / 3Iline
Sstar = 3VstarIstar = 3VlineIline = Vline2 / Zstar = 3Iline2Zstar
For a balanced delta connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vdelta = Vline
Idelta = Iline / 3
Zdelta = Vdelta / Idelta = 3Vline / Iline
Sdelta = 3VdeltaIdelta = 3VlineIline = 3Vline2 / Zdelta = Iline2Zdelta
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are related by:
S 2 = P2 + Q 2
P = Scos
Q = Ssin
where cos is the power factor and sin is the reactive factor
Note that for equivalence between balanced star and delta connected loads:
Zdelta = 3Zstar

Per-unit System
For each system parameter, per-unit value is equal to the actual value divided by a base value:
Epu = E / Ebase
Ipu = I / Ibase
Zpu = Z / Zbase
Select rated values as base values, usually rated power in MVA and rated phase voltage in kV:
Sbase = Srated = 3ElineIline
Ebase = Ephase = Eline/ 3
The base values for line current in kA and per-phase star impedance in Ohms/phase are:
Ibase = Sbase / 3Ebase ( = Sbase / 3Eline)
Zbase = Ebase / Ibase = 3Ebase2 / Sbase ( = Eline2 / Sbase)
Note that selecting the base values for any two of Sbase, Ebase, Ibase or Zbase fixes the base values of all four. Note also
that Ohm's Law is satisfied by each of the sets of actual, base and per-unit values for voltage, current and
impedance.

Transformers
The primary and secondary MVA ratings of a transformer are equal, but the voltages and currents in the primary
3
(subscript 1) and the secondary (subscript 2) are usually different:
3E1lineI1line = S = 3E2lineI2line
Converting to base (per-phase star) values:
3E1baseI1base = Sbase = 3E2baseI2base
E1base / E2base = I2base / I1base
Z1base / Z2base = (E1base / E2base)2
The impedance Z21pu referred to the primary side, equivalent to an impedance Z2pu on the secondary side, is:
Z21pu = Z2pu(E1base / E2base)2
The impedance Z12pu referred to the secondary side, equivalent to an impedance Z1pu on the primary side, is:
Z12pu = Z1pu(E2base / E1base)2
Note that per-unit and percentage values are related by:
Zpu = Z% / 100

Symmetrical Components
In any three phase system, the line currents Ia, Ib and Ic may be expressed as the phasor sum of:
- a set of balanced positive phase sequence currents Ia1, Ib1 and Ic1 (phase sequence a-b-c),
- a set of balanced negative phase sequence currents Ia2, Ib2 and Ic2 (phase sequence a-c-b),
- a set of identical zero phase sequence currents Ia0, Ib0 and Ic0 (cophasal, no phase sequence).
The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are calculated from the line currents using:
Ia1 = (Ia + hIb + h2Ic) / 3
Ia2 = (Ia + h2Ib + hIc) / 3
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic) / 3
The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are combined to give the line currents using:
Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0
Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 = h2Ia1 + hIa2 + Ia0
Ic = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ic0 = hIa1 + h2Ia2 + Ia0
The residual current Ir is equal to the total zero sequence current:
Ir = Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 = 3Ia0 = Ia + Ib + Ic = Ie
which is measured using three current transformers with parallel connected secondaries.
Ie is the earth fault current of the system.
Similarly, for phase-to-earth voltages Vae, Vbe and Vce, the residual voltage Vr is equal to the total zero sequence
voltage:
Vr = Va0 + Vb0 + Vc0 = 3Va0 = Vae + Vbe + Vce = 3Vne
which is measured using an earthed-star / open-delta connected voltage transformer.
Vne is the neutral displacement voltage of the system.
The h-operator
The h-operator (1120°) is the complex cube root of unity:
h = - 1 / 2 + j3 / 2 = 1120° = 1-240°
h2 = - 1 / 2 - j3 / 2 = 1240° = 1-120°
Some useful properties of h are:
1 + h + h2 = 0
h + h2 = - 1 = 1180°
h - h2 = j3 = 390°
h2 - h = - j3 = 3-90°

4
Fault Calculations
The different types of short-circuit fault which occur on a power system are:
- single phase to earth,
- double phase,
- double phase to earth,
- three phase,
- three phase to earth.
For each type of short-circuit fault occurring on an unloaded system:
- the first column states the phase voltage and line current conditions at the fault,
- the second column states the phase 'a' sequence current and voltage conditions at the fault,
- the third column provides formulae for the phase 'a' sequence currents at the fault,
- the fourth column provides formulae for the fault current and the resulting line currents.
By convention, the faulted phases are selected for fault symmetry with respect to reference phase 'a'.
I f = fault current
Ie = earth fault current
Ea = normal phase voltage at the fault location
Z1 = positive phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z2 = negative phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z0 = zero phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Single phase to earth - fault from phase 'a' to earth:
Va = 0 Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia / 3 Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) I f = 3Ia0 = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = Ie
Ib = I c = 0 Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = 0 Ia2 = Ia1 Ia = I f = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
I f = Ia = Ie Ia0 = Ia1
Double phase - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c':
Vb = Vc Ia1 + Ia2 = 0 Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 + Z2) I f = - j3Ia1 = - j3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)
Ia = 0 Ia0 = 0 Ia2 = - Ia1 Ib = I f = - j3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)
I f = Ib = - Ic Va1 = Va2 Ia0 = 0 Ic = - I f = j3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)
Double phase to earth - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c' to earth:
Vb = Vc = 0 Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 0 Ia1 = Ea / Znet I f = 3Ia0 = - 3EaZ2 / zz = Ie
Ia = 0 Va1 = Va2 = Va0 Ia2 = - Ia1Z0 / (Z2 + Z0) Ib = I f / 2 - j3Ea(Z2 / 2 + Z0) / zz
I f = Ib + Ic = Ie Ia0 = - Ia1Z2 / (Z2 + Z0) Ic = I f / 2 + j3Ea(Z2 / 2 + Z0) / zz
Znet = Z1 + Z2Z0 / (Z2 + Z0) and zz = Z1Z2 + Z2Z0 + Z0Z1 = (Z2 + Z0)Znet
Three phase (and three phase to earth) - fault from phase 'a' to phase 'b' to phase 'c' (to earth):
Va = Vb = Vc (= 0) Va0 = Va (= 0) Ia1 = Ea / Z1 I f = Ia1 = Ea / Z1 = Ia
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 (= Ie) Va1 = Va2 = 0 Ia2 = 0 Ib = E b / Z1
I f = Ia = hIb = h2Ic Ia0 = 0 Ic = E c / Z1
Note that the single phase fault current is greater than the three phase fault current if Z0 is less than (2Z1 - Z2).
The values of Z1, Z2 and Z0 are each determined from the respective positive, negative and zero sequence impedance
networks by network reduction to a single impedance.
Note that if the system is earthed through an impedance Zn (carrying current 3I0) then an impedance 3Zn (carrying
current I0) must be included in the zero sequence impedance network.

Three Phase Fault Level

The symmetrical three phase short-circuit current Isc of a power system with no-load line and phase voltages Eline
and Ephase and source impedance ZS per-phase star is:
Isc = Ephase / |ZS| = Eline / 3|ZS|
The three phase fault level Ssc of the power system is:
Ssc = 3Isc2|ZS| = 3EphaseIsc = 3Ephase2 / |ZS| = Eline2 / |ZS|
Note that if the X / R ratio of the source impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS and reactance XS) is sufficiently
large, |ZS|  XS.

5
Power Factor Correction
If an inductive load with an active power demand P has an uncorrected power factor of cos1 lagging, and is
required to have a corrected power factor of cos2 lagging, the uncorrected and corrected reactive power demands,
Q1 and Q2, are:
Q1 = P tan1
Q2 = P tan2
where tann = (1 / cos2n - 1)½
The leading (capacitive) reactive power demand QC which must be connected across the load is:
QC = Q1 - Q2 = P (tan1 - tan2)
The uncorrected and corrected apparent power demands, S1 and S2, are related by:
S1cos1 = P = S2cos2
Comparing corrected and uncorrected load currents and apparent power demands:
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cos1 / cos2
If the load is required to have a corrected power factor of unity, Q2 is zero and:
QC = Q1 = P tan1
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cos1 = P / S1
Shunt Capacitors
For star-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cstar on a three phase system of line voltage Vline and
frequency f, the leading reactive power demand QCstar and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
QCstar = Vline2 / XCstar = 2fCstarVline2
Iline = QCstar / 3Vline = Vline / 3XCstar
Cstar = QCstar / 2fVline2
For delta-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cdelta on a three phase system of line voltage Vline and
frequency f, the leading reactive power demand QCdelta and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
QCdelta = 3Vline2 / XCdelta = 6fCdeltaVline2
Iline = QCdelta / 3Vline = 3Vline / XCdelta
Cdelta = QCdelta / 6fVline2
Note that for the same leading reactive power QC:
XCdelta = 3XCstar
Cdelta = Cstar / 3

Reactors
Shunt Reactors
For star-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Lstar on a three phase system of line voltage Vline and frequency
f, the lagging reactive power demand QLstar and the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
QLstar = Vline2 / XLstar = Vline2 / 2fLstar
Iline = QLstar / 3Vline = Vline / 3XLstar
Lstar = Vline2 / 2fQLstar
For delta-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Ldelta on a three phase system of line voltage Vline and
frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand QLdelta and the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
QLdelta = 3Vline2 / XLdelta = 3Vline2 / 2fLdelta
Iline = QLdelta / 3Vline = 3Vline / XLdelta
Ldelta = 3Vline2 / 2fQLdelta
Note that for the same lagging reactive power QL:
XLdelta = 3XLstar
Ldelta = 3Lstar
Series Reactors
For series line reactors each of inductance Lseries carrying line current Iline on a three phase system of frequency f, the
voltage drop Vdrop across each line reactor and the total lagging reactive power demand QLseries of the set of three line
reactors are:
Vdrop = IlineXLseries = 2fLseriesIline
QLseries = 3Vdrop2 / XLseries = 3VdropIline = 3Iline2XLseries = 6fLseriesIline2
Lseries = QLseries / 6fIline2
Note that the apparent power rating Srating of the set of three line reactors is based on the line voltage Vline and not the
voltage drop Vdrop:
Srating = 3VlineIline

6
Harmonic Resonance
If a node in a power system operating at frequency f has a inductive source reactance XL per phase and has power
factor correction with a capacitive reactance XC per phase, the source inductance L and the correction capacitance C
are:
L = XL / 
C = 1 / XC
where f
The series resonance angular frequency r of an inductance L with a capacitance C is:
r = (1 / LC)½ = (XC / XL)½
The three phase fault level Ssc at the node for no-load phase voltage E and source impedance Z per-phase star is:
Ssc = 3E2 / |Z| = 3E2 / |R + jXL|
If the ratio XL / R of the source impedance Z is sufficiently large, |Z|  XL so that:
Ssc  3E2 / XL
The reactive power rating QC of the power factor correction capacitors for a capacitive reactance XC per phase at
phase voltage E is:
QC = 3E2 / XC
The harmonic number fr / f of the series resonance of XL with XC is:
fr / f = r /  = (XC / XL)½  (Ssc / QC)½
Note that the ratio XL / XC which results in a harmonic number fr / f is:
XL / XC = 1 / ( fr / f )2
so for fr / f to be equal to the geometric mean of the third and fifth harmonics:
fr / f = 15 = 3.873
XL / XC = 1 / 15 = 0.067

Dielectric Dissipation Factor

If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system comprising capacitance C and
equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to the resulting
current I are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
V = (VR2 + VC2)½
The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the dielectric loss angle  between VC and
V:
tan = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2fCRS
RS = XCtan = tan / 2fC
Note that an increase in the dielectric losses of a insulation system (from an increase in the series loss resistance RS)
results in an increase in tan. Note also that tan increases with frequency.
The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtan = QCtan
The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase angle  between VR and V:
cos = VR / V
so that  and  are related by:
 +  = 90°
tan and cos are related by:
tan = 1 / tan = cos / sin = cos / (1 - cos2)½
so that when cos is close to zero, tan  cos
Note that the series loss resistance RS is not related to the shunt leakage resistance of the insulation system (which is
measured using direct current).

7
Notation
The library uses the symbol font for some of the notation and formulae. If the symbols for the letters 'alpha beta
delta' do not appear here [] then the symbol font needs to be installed before all notation and formulae will be
displayed correctly.
C capacitance [farads, F] Q charge [coulombs, C]
E voltage source [volts, V] q instantaneous Q [coulombs, C]
e instantaneous E [volts, V] R resistance [ohms, ]
G conductance [siemens, S] T time constant [seconds, s]
I current [amps, A] t instantaneous time [seconds, s]
i instantaneous I [amps, A] V voltage drop [volts, V]
k coefficient [number] v instantaneous V [volts, V]
L inductance [henrys, H] W energy [joules, J]
M mutual inductance [henrys, H]  magnetic flux [webers, Wb]
N number of turns [number]  magnetic linkage [webers, Wb]
P power [watts, W]  instantaneous  [webers, Wb]

Resistance
The resistance R of a circuit is equal to the applied direct voltage E divided by the resulting steady current I:
R=E/I

Resistances in Series
When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in series, the total resistance RS is:
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

Voltage Division by Series Resistances

When a total voltage ES is applied across series connected resistances R1 and R2, the current IS which flows through
the series circuit is:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2)
The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective resistances R1 and R2 are:
V1 = ISR1 = ESR1 / RS = ESR1 / (R1 + R2)
V2 = ISR2 = ESR2 / RS = ESR2 / (R1 + R2)
In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... connected in series:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Vn = ISRn = ESRn / RS = ESRn / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Note that the highest voltage drop appears across the highest resistance.

Resistances in Parallel
When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in parallel, the total resistance RP is:
1 / RP = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + ...
Alternatively, when conductances G1, G2, G3, ... are connected in parallel, the total conductance GP is:
GP = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...
where Gn = 1 / Rn
For two resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel, the total resistance RP is:
RP = R1R2 / (R1 + R2)
RP = product / sum
The resistance R2 to be connected in parallel with resistance R1 to give a total resistance RP is:
R2 = R1RP / (R1 - RP)
R2 = product / difference

8
Current Division by Parallel Resistances
When a total current IP is passed through parallel connected resistances R1 and R2, the voltage VP which appears
across the parallel circuit is:
VP = IPRP = IPR1R2 / (R1 + R2)
The currents I1 and I2 which pass through the respective resistances R1 and R2 are:
I1 = VP / R1 = IPRP / R1 = IPR2 / (R1 + R2)
I2 = VP / R2 = IPRP / R2 = IPR1 / (R1 + R2)
In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... (with conductances G1, G2, G3, ...) connected in parallel:
VP = IPRP = IP / GP = IP / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
In = VP / Rn = VPGn = IPGn / GP = IPGn / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
where Gn = 1 / Rn
Note that the highest current passes through the highest conductance (with the lowest resistance).

Capacitance
When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing capacitance, current flows to accumulate charge in the capacitance:


Q = idt = CV
Alternatively, by differentiation with respect to time:
dq/dt = i = C dv/dt
Note that the rate of change of voltage has a polarity which opposes the flow of current.
The capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charge divided by the voltage:


C = Q / V = idt / V
Alternatively, the capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charging current divided by the rate of change of voltage:
C = i / dv/dt = dq/dt / dv/dt = dq/dv

Capacitances in Series
When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in series, the total capacitance CS is:
1 / CS = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...
For two capacitances C1 and C2 connected in series, the total capacitance CS is:
CS = C1C2 / (C1 + C2)
CS = product / sum

Voltage Division by Series Capacitances

When a total voltage ES is applied to series connected capacitances C1 and C2, the charge QS which accumulates in
the series circuit is:


QS = iSdt = ESCS = ESC1C2 / (C1 + C2)
The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are:


V1 = iSdt / C1 = ESCS / C1 = ESC2 / (C1 + C2)

V2 = i dt / C
S 2 = ESCS / C2 = ESC1 / (C1 + C2)

In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in series:


QS = iSdt = ESCS = ES / (1 / CS) = ES / (1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)

Vn = i dt / C
S n = ESCS / Cn = ES / Cn(1 / CS) = ES / Cn(1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)

Note that the highest voltage appears across the lowest capacitance.

Capacitances in Parallel
When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in parallel, the total capacitance CP is:
CP = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

9
Charge Division by Parallel Capacitances
When a voltage EP is applied to parallel connected capacitances C1 and C2, the charge QP which accumulates in the
parallel circuit is:


QP = iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2)
The charges Q1 and Q2 which accumulate in the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are:


Q1 = i1dt = EPC1 = QPC1 / CP = QPC1 / (C1 + C2)

Q2 = i dt = E C = Q C / C
2 P 2 P 2 P = QPC2 / (C1 + C2)

In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in parallel:


QP = iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2 + C3 + ...)

Qn = i dt = E C
n P n = QPCn / CP = QPCn / (C1 + C2 + C3 + ...)

Note that the highest charge accumulates in the highest capacitance.

Inductance
When the current changes in a circuit containing inductance, the magnetic linkage changes and induces a voltage in
the inductance:
d/dt = e = L di/dt
Note that the induced voltage has a polarity which opposes the rate of change of current.
Alternatively, by integration with respect to time:


 = edt = LI
The inductance L of a circuit is equal to the induced voltage divided by the rate of change of current:
L = e / di/dt = d/dt / di/dt = d/di
Alternatively, the inductance L of a circuit is equal to the magnetic linkage divided by the current:
L=/I
Note that the magnetic linkage  is equal to the product of the number of turns N and the magnetic flux :
 = N = LI

Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance M of two coupled inductances L1 and L2 is equal to the mutually induced voltage in one
inductance divided by the rate of change of current in the other inductance:
M = E2m / (di1/dt)
M = E1m / (di2/dt)
If the self induced voltages of the inductances L1 and L2 are respectively E1s and E2s for the same rates of change of
the current that produced the mutually induced voltages E1m and E2m, then:
M = (E2m / E1s)L1
M = (E1m / E2s)L2
Combining these two equations:
M = (E1mE2m / E1sE2s)½ (L1L2)½ = kM(L1L2)½
where kM is the mutual coupling coefficient of the two inductances L1 and L2.
If the coupling between the two inductances L1 and L2 is perfect, then the mutual inductance M is:
M = (L1L2)½

Inductances in Series
When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in series, the total inductance LS is:
LS = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...
When two coupled inductances L1 and L2 with mutual inductance M are connected in series, the total inductance LS
is:
LS = L1 + L2 ± 2M
The plus or minus sign indicates that the coupling is either additive or subtractive, depending on the connection
polarity.

10
Inductances in Parallel
When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in parallel, the total inductance LP is:
1 / LP = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3 + ...

Time Constants
Capacitance and resistance
The time constant of a capacitance C and a resistance R is equal to CR, and represents the time to change the
voltage on the capacitance from zero to E at a constant charging current E / R (which produces a rate of change of
voltage E / CR across the capacitance).
Similarly, the time constant CR represents the time to change the charge on the capacitance from zero to CE at a
constant charging current E / R (which produces a rate of change of voltage E / CR across the capacitance).
If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising a discharged capacitance C and a resistance R, then after time
t the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vC across the capacitance and the charge qC on the
capacitance are:
i = (E / R)e - t / CR
vR = iR = Ee - t / CR
vC = E - vR = E(1 - e - t / CR)
qC = CvC = CE(1 - e - t / CR)
If a capacitance C charged to voltage V is discharged through a resistance R, then after time t the current i, the
voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vC across the capacitance and the charge qC on the capacitance are:
i = (V / R)e - t / CR
vR = iR = Ve - t / CR
vC = vR = Ve - t / CR
qC = CvC = CVe - t / CR
Inductance and resistance
The time constant of an inductance L and a resistance R is equal to L / R, and represents the time to change the
current in the inductance from zero to E / R at a constant rate of change of current E / L (which produces an induced
voltage E across the inductance).
If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising an inductance L and a resistance R, then after time t the
current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vL across the inductance and the magnetic linkage L in
the inductance are:
i = (E / R)(1 - e - tR / L)
vR = iR = E(1 - e - tR / L)
vL = E - vR = Ee - tR / L
L = Li = (LE / R)(1 - e - tR / L)
If an inductance L carrying a current I is discharged through a resistance R, then after time t the current i, the
voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vL across the inductance and the magnetic linkage L in the inductance
are:
i = Ie - tR / L
vR = iR = IRe - tR / L
vL = vR = IRe - tR / L
L = Li = LIe - tR / L
Rise Time and Fall Time
The rise time (or fall time) of a change is defined as the transition time between the 10% and 90% levels of the total
change, so for an exponential rise (or fall) of time constant T, the rise time (or fall time) t10-90 is:
t10-90 = (ln0.9 - ln0.1)T  2.2T
The half time of a change is defined as the transition time between the initial and 50% levels of the total change, so
for an exponential change of time constant T, the half time t50 is :
t50 = (ln1.0 - ln0.5)T  0.69T
Note that for an exponential change of time constant T:
- over time interval T, a rise changes by a factor 1 - e -1 ( 0.63) of the remaining change,
- over time interval T, a fall changes by a factor e -1 ( 0.37) of the remaining change,
- after time interval 3T, less than 5% of the total change remains,
- after time interval 5T, less than 1% of the total change remains.

11
Power
The power P dissipated by a resistance R carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
P = V2 / R = VI = I2R
Similarly, the power P dissipated by a conductance G carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
P = V2G = VI = I2 / G
The power P transferred by a capacitance C holding a changing voltage V with charge Q is:
P = VI = CV(dv/dt) = Q(dv/dt) = Q(dq/dt) / C
The power P transferred by an inductance L carrying a changing current I with magnetic linkage  is:
P = VI = LI(di/dt) = (di/dt) = (d/dt) / L

Energy
The energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a resistance R carrying a current I with a voltage
drop V is:
W = Pt = V2t / R = VIt = I2tR
Similarly, the energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a conductance G carrying a current I
with a voltage drop V is:
W = Pt = V2tG = VIt = I2t / G
The energy W stored in a capacitance C holding voltage V with charge Q is:
W = CV2 / 2 = QV / 2 = Q2 / 2C
The energy W stored in an inductance L carrying current I with magnetic linkage  is:
W = LI2 / 2 = I / 2 = 2 / 2L

Batteries
If a battery of open-circuit voltage EB has a loaded voltage VL when supplying load current IL, the battery internal
resistance RB is:
RB = (EB - VL) / IL
The load voltage VL and load current IL for a load resistance RL are:
VL = ILRL = EB - ILRB = EBRL / (RB + RL)
IL = VL / RL = (EB - VL) / RB = EB / (RB + RL)
The battery short-circuit current Isc is:
Isc = EB / RB = EBIL / (EB - VL)

Voltmeter Multiplier
The resistance RS to be connected in series with a voltmeter of full scale voltage VV and full scale current drain IV to
increase the full scale voltage to V is:
RS = (V - VV) / IV
The power P dissipated by the resistance RS with voltage drop (V - VV) carrying current IV is:
P = (V - VV)2 / RS = (V - VV)IV = IV2RS

Ammeter Shunt
The resistance RP to be connected in parallel with an ammeter of full scale current IA and full scale voltage drop VA
to increase the full scale current to I is:
RP = VA / (I - IA)
The power P dissipated by the resistance RP with voltage drop VA carrying current (I - IA) is:
P = VA2 / RP = VA(I - IA) = (I - IA)2RP

12