Derivation of Gravity Loads

The knowledge and understanding of loadings is one of the basic characteristic and fundamentals of being a civil /
structural engineers. It is because loads are primarily integrated in all structural design and knowing the
appropriate values of loadings to be used in actual design will ultimately determine the stability and safety of the
structure to be designed. Loadings should come from both the governing structural code and architectural
specifications as well as other material specifications from other engineering disciplines. In our case, the governing
structural code is the national structural code of the Philippines or NSCP 2015 which directly refer from ACI 318-
14, UBC 97, ASCE 7-10, and AISC.

Types of Loadings

Gravity Loads

These are loads where the direction of force is towards the ground. The most common types of this load are dead
load and live load.

Lateral Loads

These are forces produced mainly by seismic or earthquake, and wind loads. These are the forces with horizontal
components that pushes the building or structure.

Sometimes older engineers will assert that the new structure to be designed can neglect the lateral loads because
of their past experience of their existing design not failing, just answer them in a positive tone that new codes are
already being adapted and there is a possiblility that their previous design might fail and you are doing it to protect
their reputation as engineers as well so that they will not take it personally. Don’t let them bully you into neglecting
the lateral loads for your own protection from trouble as well. Don’t make them feel that you’re criticizing their
design by telling them that you are just concerned as a colleague in averting disasters by following the latest code.

Loads From the Structural Design Criteria

I. Superimposed Dead Loads

 Gypsum Board (12mm) = 0.096 kPa

 Suspended steel channel system = 0.10 kPa
 Mechanical duct allowance = 0.20 kPa
 Floor topping (ceramic or quarry tile (20mm) on 13mm mortar bed = 0.77 kPa
 Slab thickness (125mm) = 3.00 kPa
 Partition = 1.0 kPa
 Waterproofing membrane (Bituminous, smooth surface) = 0.07 kPa
 6″CHB (exterior) = 2.97 + 0.48 (2 faces plastered) = 3.45 kPa

These values for dead loads can be derived from the densities and uniform load given from the NSCP. If the model
doesn’t include the element of slab, then you should provide its weight as superimposed load. Always check
whether it is already included to prevent duplicate application of the load. Although it is going to make the design
more conservative, it might affect the economic aspect significantly. In case the material to be installed is not
available from the code, just ask the architect or the other engineering disciplines to provide brochure of that
material in order to derive the loading. Remember that the code just provides the minimum loading. They’re may
be heavier materials in actual.

II. Live Loads

 Office = 2.40 kPa

 Corridor = 4.80 kPa
 Storage = 4.80 kPa
 Roof deck = 1.0 kPa (Roof Live Load)

If you notice that the storage live load above is just 4.80 kPa, it is because the project assumed that what will
contain in the storage are just file cabinets but in the NSCP, there are two types of storage, the light and the heavy
storage. The light storage is around 6.0 kPa and the heavy storage is 12.0 kPa. You can also calculate the actual
live load based on how it will be loaded in actual, and you can say that 4.80 kPa is already heavy because it is
equivalent to 489.46 kilograms per square meter.

Gravity Loads

Dead Loads

In the NSCP 2015 section 204, it contains the reference for dead loads. Dead loads consist of the weight of all
materials and other appurtenances incorporated into the building or other structures. In short, dead load is the
weight of structure itself. The values for dead load can be found in Tables 204‐1 for densities and 204‐2 for
uniform loads. For the partition loads, rather than designing it by putting linear loads, it is permitted in the code to
just assume it as 1.0 kPa superimposed load all throughout the floor in addition with all the other loads. This is to
deal with whatever the location of the partition wall except if for the exterior walls which are applied separately as
linear load. That is why we have a factor of safety as far as partition wall is concerned because 1.0 kPa floor load
is equivalent to 4″ CHB wall, so it is more favorable to us if the partition is dry wall. Sometimes the floor fill is not
considered because in floor finishes, the floor fill is already included. We can also observe that from the dead loads
given above, the masonry used are 6″ CHB full grout that’s why we used 2.97 kPa and additional 0.48 kPa for
plastering on its both faces.

Live Loads

Live loads shall be the maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy but in no case shall be less
than the loads required by Section 205 of NSCP 2015. As civil engineers, we need to design using the loading
condition which would cause maximum shear and bending moments, but we also need to consider torsion
because for the LRFD or USD method of design, the sections produced already allow thinner sections unlike in
1960’s to 1970’s when previous engineers were still using WSD or Working Stress Design, section of members
produced was very wide. Right now, because architects demand thinner structural members or elements, it is
important to learn how to assert our own side and explain to them clearly about the necessary adjustments in order
to make the structure or building more stable and safe.

Floor Live Loads

Floors shall be designed for the uniform loads set forth in Table 205‐1 of the NSCP 2015. These loads shall be
taken as the minimum live loads of horizontal projection to be used in the design of buildings for the occupancies
listed, and loads at least equal shall be assumed for uses not listed in Section 205 but that creates or
accommodates similar loadings. Live load means the load that are not permanently fixed to the structure.
If we are able to compute the actual live load and the result is greater than what is stated in the code to its
corresponding occupancy, the greater actual computed live load shall be used in that particular portion of the
building. Special provisions shall be made for machine and apparatus loads.

Concentrated Live Loads

Although the commonly used type of live load is floor live loads, it is also allowed in the code the use of
concentrated load. Concentrated loads is assumed to be uniformly distributed over an area of 750 mm square and
shall be located so as to produce maximum load effects in the structural member. This type of live load is rarely
used in practice, so just use our engineering judgement in deciding what type of live load to be used in the design.

For the ramps, 4.80 kPa is used as live load while for parking, only 2.40 kPa is enough according to the NSCP
2015 because it is assumed that no heavy truck will park on the parking of a building. These are now included in
the second printing of the NSCP 2015. For the rest rooms, its live load shall not be less than the live load of the
room with which they are located. Just make it the same or equal in value with the occupancy or purpose of the
building.
Roof Live Loads

This live load is distinguished by its subscript “r” and it is only applied at the roof. It is denoted as Lr. If the roof is
almost flat and its tributary area is only 20 square meter or less, its live load is 1.0 kPa. The more the slope of the
roof becomes steep, the lesser its roof live load becomes. The values of minimum roof live loads can be found in
the Table 205-3 of the NSCP 2015 which tabulates two methods in order to derive the values. The method 1 has
values from 1.0 kPa to 0.6 kPa depending on the roof’s tributary area and slope. Method 2 uses rate of reduction
to reduce loads especially if the tributary area is too large or if you just want further reduction of live load for
economic purposes.

Reduction of Live Loads

The design live load determined using the unit live loads as set forth in Table 205‐1 for floors and Table 205‐
3. Method 2 for roofs may be reduced on any member with tributary area of more than 15 m2, including flat slabs
except in floors of public assembly and for live loads greater than 4.80 kN/m2, in accordance with the following
equation:

R = r(A‐15) Eq. 205‐1

The reduction shall not exceed 40 percent for members receiving load from one level only, 60 percent for other
members or R, determined by the following equation:

R = 23.1(1+D/ L) Eq. 205‐2

Where:
A = area of floor or roof supported by the member, m2
D = dead load per square meter of area supported by the member, kN/m2
L = unit live load per square meter of area supported by the member, kN/m2
R = reduction in percentage, %
r = rate of reduction equal to 0.08 for floors and refer to Table 205‐3 for roofs.

For storage loads exceeding 4.80 kN/m2, no reduction shall be made, but for the columns supporting the storage,
it is allowed for its live load to be reduced to 20 percent.
The live load reduction for garages shall not exceed 40 percent for the storage of private cars having capacity of
not more than 9 passengers per vehicle.

Alternative Floor Live Load Reduction

There is an alternative way of reducing loads described in equation 205-1 in which the load values from Table 205-
1 can be reduced in accordance with the following equation:

L = L0[0.25+4.57(1/√Af)] Eq. 205‐3

where:
Af = influence area, m2
L = reduced design live load per m2 of area supported by the member
L0 = unreduced design live load per m2 of area supported by the member from Table 205-1.

The influence area Af is four times the tributary area for a column, two times the tributary area for a beam, equal to
the panel area for a two-way slab and equal to the product of the span and the full flange width for a pre-cast T-
beam.

The reduced live load shall not be less than 50 percent of the unit live load L0 unreduced design live load per m2 of
area supported for members receiving load from one level only, nor less than 40 percent of the unit live load for
the other members.
Live Load Pattern Loading

Since live load is a transient load, meaning it can move, transfer, and not permanently attached to the members,
pattern load is normally done to determine which would yield the maximum positive moment in span and maximum
negative moment at the support between adjacent spans. This is done to get the maximum stress by omitting
some live loads and arranged in different patterns because the maximum stress is not always when all loads are
applied simultaneously, if some loads are omitted, it could produce greater moment or torsion due to the
imbalances of the loadings.

Pattern loads can be applied in the following manner:

 Loading in alternate spans – > checkered pattern

 Loading in adjacent spans – > side-by-side pattern

Some structural design softwares already incorporate pattern loadings like the Midas Gen and Etabs. It is up to us
if we want to verify the pattern loading manually, which is a good practice for structural engineers.

General Rule on Load Transfer from Slab

For two-way slab, we know that there is triangular for the shorter span and trapezoidal for the longer span. This is
to distribute the loadings as a diaphragm towards the beams supporting the slab.

 S = short span of slab panel

 L = long span of slab panel
 m = S/L = ratio of short span to long span of slab panel
 if m <= 0.5, slab is considered as one-way, then load from one-way slab is derived as
 q = ws/2 applied along the long span
 if m > 0.5, slab is considered as two-way slab, then load from two-way slab is derived as
 q = ws/3 applied along the short span, and
 q =ws/3 * ( 3-m2)/2 applied along the long span.

As a final reminder, gravity loads consist of the dead loads, followed by superimposed dead load, and then the live
loads and they are usually loaded vertically towards the ground. In combination with the lateral loads, they will be
used to simulated the maximum loads the structure is expected to experience within its lifetime serving its defined
performance.