Ph.D.

Course work

Pre-Ph.D. Examination Syllabus

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY,
K L UNIVERSITY,
VADDESWARAM - 522502, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA.
 KL UNIVERSITY
Green Fields, Vaddeswaram.

List of Pre-Ph.D Courses approved by

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

S.NO PAPER – 2 Code PAPER – 3 Code

Advances In Organic
1. Basic Organic Chemistry 15 CHE 201 15 CHE 301
Chemistry
Advnced Instrumental
2. Analytical Chemistry 15 CHE 202 Methods for Chemical 15 CHE 302
Characterization and Analysis
Principles Of Environmental Water Pollution and
3. 15 CHE 203 15 CHE 303
Science and Engineering Treatment Techniques
Advanced Inorganic
4. Physical Chemistry 15 CHE 204 15 CHE 304
Chemistry
5. Basic Inorganic Chemistry 15 CHE205 Environmental Studies 15 CHE 305

6. Basic Environmental Studies 15 CHE 206

 Code: 15 CHE 201

KL UNIVERSITY
Green Fields, Vaddeswaram.

List of Pre-Ph.D Courses approved by

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
Basic Organic Chemistry

UNIT I

Purification and drying of organic solvents

Benzene, toluene, xylene, Tetrahydrofuran, chloroform, dichloromethane, methanol,

dimethyl formamide, dimethylsulfoxide,

UNIT –II

Preparation of Reagents:

Sodium methoxide, TMEDA-ZnCl2 Complex, Lithium diisopropylamide, Butyl Lithium,

organomagnesiumhalide, wittig reagent, sodamide, dialkyllithiumcuprate. Oxidising agents,
Reducing agents.

UNIT-III
Reactive intermediates

Carbanions, carbocations, carbenes, carbon radicals, nitrenes, arynes,

UNIT-IV

Named reactions and rearrangements

Benzoin condensation, Perkin reaction, Cannizaro reaction, Diels Alder reaction, Heterodiels
alder reaction, Peterson olefination, Wolf Kishner reduction, Claisen rearrangement, Cope
rearrangement, Oxycope rearrangements, Benzidine rearrangement, Beckman rearrangement.

UNIT- V

Chromatographic techniques:

Principles & applications with respect to Thin-Layer chromatography, Paper

chromatography, Column chromatography, Gas Chromatography and HPLC with suitable
examples & Chromatograms
 Code: 15 CHE 202

Analytical Chemistry
Unit- I: Basic separation techniques- I:
Theory and Techniques of distillation, fractional distillation, steam distillation, vaccum
distillation, Molecular distillation and sublimation. Theory of action of drying agents,
Fractionation by evaporation-working of Rotory film evaporator. Extraction – Distribution law
and derivation, solvents and their choice. tenchniques – batch and continuous, multiple extraction,
column and their choice.
Unit-II: Basic separation techniques -II:
Complexation-Theory and application of complexating agents and choice. Dialysis – Theory,
membranes and their choice, techniques and applications. Ultrafilteration and zone filteration –
principles and techniques. Centrifugation –Principle, Techniques , Ultra centrifuge-description of
apparatus, theory,
sedimentation velocity and molcecular weight determination.

Unit-III: Basic chromatographic techniques:

Chromatographic methods- theroy, principle, classification and mechanism-adsorption, partition, ion
exchange, ion association, gel permeation and molecular sieving.
Column chromatography – Construction and operation of column, choice of adsorbents and eluents,
techniques of elution, methods of detection, analytical and industrial applications.
Paper chromatography – Construction and operation of column, choice of separation, types of
papers and their choice, different techniques, qualitative measurements, source of errors in analytical
and industrial applications. Thin Layer chromatography – Techniques and applications, Modified
stationary phases. Ion – exchange chromatography – Techniques and applications.

Unit-IV: Advanced chromatographic techniques:

Gas chromatography – Types and nature of stationary and mobile phase, solid supports and their
choice, columns – packed, open and capillary, sampling methods instrumentation, detectors – types
sensitivity, limits of detection operative principles of TCD, FID and ECD, Comparison of detectors
temperature programming, derivative chromatography, hyphenated techniques with GSGC qualitative
and quantitative applications. Gel permeation chromatography – Instrumentation, heterogeneity
factor, determination of molecular weights - weight average and number average, analytical and
industrial applications. Liquid chromatography – High pressure liquid chromatography. Theory
and equipment, type of pumps and their choice, types of columns, large scale separation, application
in analytical chemistry and in industry.
Unit-V: Advanced analytical tools:
New development in chromatography – Plasma chromatography, super critical fluid
chromatography.
Electrophoresis-Theory and classification, factors affecting mobility, macromolecular size and
charge interactions with supporting electrolyte, pH and concentration discontinuities, Factors affecting
electrophoresis phenomena-electrolysis, electrosomosis, temperature and supporting media.
Instrumentation, methodology, Preparation of gel- staining and destaining, preparative zone
electrophoresis, continuous electrophoresis and Applications.
 Code: 15 CHE 203

PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SYLLABUS

UNIT I
Ecology, Environment and Energy Resources: Principles of ecology; ecosystem- structure
and functions; biomes and biodiversity; biogeochemical cycles; environment- management
and pollution; sustainable development; energy resources- renewable and non-renewable.

UNIT II
Environmental Chemistry, Environmental Health and Toxicology: Environmental
segments- atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere; Chemical interactions; Toxic chemicals in
environment; environmental health hazards; Biochemical effects- arsenic, lead, mercury,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, ozone and PAN, cyanide, pesticides;
Measuring toxicity and Risk assessment.

UNIT III
Air Pollution & Control Technologies: Air pollution- types and sources; Air pollutants-
classification and properties; Meteorological aspects of air pollution; Air pollution-sampling
and measurement; Control methods- particulate and gaseous emissions; Automobile
pollution.

UNIT IV
EIA, Environmental Law and Policy Concept of EIA; EIA methodologies; Impact prediction
and assessment-air, water, biological, socio-economic; Concepts of Environmental Audit;
Environmental education; Environmental Policy; Environmental Law and regulations;
Citizen participation.

UNIT V
Solid and Hazardous Waste Management: Waste-definition and types; Generation;
Collection; Segregation; transport; Treatment; Disposal Methods; Waste Processing and
management; Creation of TSDF; Impacts of waste; legal and administrative regulations.

Suggested books:
1. Ecology- E.P. Odum, 1983, Holt-Saunders International Edition
2. Environmental Chemistry- A.K. De, New Age Intt. Pub. Co., New Delhi, 1990
A Text Book of environmental – C.S. Rao, Wiley Eastern Limited., 1993
 Code: 15 CHE 303

WATER POLLUTION AND TREATMENT TECHNIQUES

SYLLABUS

UNIT I
Water Pollutants and Water Treatment: Types and Sources, Heavy metals- metalloids- organic-
inorganic- biological- radioactive pollutants, eutrophication, potable water and carrying capacity of
rivers, Methods of Water Purification, primary treatment- sedimentation- flotation, secondary
(biological) treatment- design and principles in biological treatment facilities- activated sludge
process- trickling filters – low cost waste treatment systems and their design, tertiary treatment.

UNIT II
Industrial Waste Water Treatment: Sources, Characteristics, methodology and process for the
treatment of industrial wastes of sugar industry- beverage industry- tannery industry- textile mill
waste industry- fertilizer plant- steel plant- oil refinery- pharmaceutical [plant- paper and pulp mill]

UNIT III
Advanced Waste Water Treatment: Introduction, removal of suspended solids- removal of
dissolved solids- Ammonia r
emoval- phosphorous removal- chemical oxidation- recovery of materials from process effluents.

UNIT IV
Sewage Treatment and Disposal: Self purification of streams- BOD and its importance- treatment
methods- primary, secondary and tertiary levels- disinfections of treated sewage effluent- septic tank
design- effluent disposal methods- disposal on land, sewage sickness- disposal by dilution- design of
biological treatment units- sludge characteristics, unit operations in sludge disposal, conventional and
high rate digesters- disposal of sludge- gas utilization.

UNIT V
Phytoremediation Treatment: Introduction, current trends in role of phytoremediation- examples of
species potential in absorbing heavy metals and pollutants in waste water- root zone treatment
technology- microbial remediation- role of bacteria and the microbes in cleaning of sewage waters- oil
spilled waters- domestic waste waters- polluted agricultural runoff- bio medical waste retaining waters

Text Books:
1. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering, G.S. Birdie & J.S. Brides, Dhanpat Rai &sons 1993.
2. A treatise on Rural, Municipal, and industrial waste management KVSG Murali Krishna
3. Environmental Sanitation (Social and preventive medicine) Dr. P.V. Rama Raju & KVSG
Murali Krishna
4. Waste water engineering, treatment and reuse by Metcalf and Eddy, fifth edition, Tata Mc
Graw Hill.
 Code: 15 CHE 301

Advances in Organic Chemistry

Unit-I

Structural Elucidation by Spectroscopic Methods: Application of UV, IR and NMR

spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy in structural analysis of organic compounds.

Unit-II

Oxidation: Oxidation of hydrocarbons; alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes and ketones Oxidative

coupling reactions. Use of Pb(OAC)4, NBS, CrO3, SeO2, MnO2, KMnO4, OsO4, Per acids and
Ti(III) Nitrate.

Reduction: Catalytic hydrogenation (homogenous and heterogeneous), reduction by

dissolving metals, reduction by hydride transfer reagents, reduction with hydrazine and
diamide

Unit-III

Disconnection approach: Introduction, Principle, Functional group inversion, Disconnection of

mono cyclic substituted organic Compounds.

Unit-IV
Phase Transfer catalyst: Principle & applications of three catalysts: Tetra butyl Ammonium
bromide, Crown ethers, Ethyl Triphenyl Phosphonium Bromide.

Unit- V

Design Organic Synthesis: Retro synthesis the disconnection approach – basic Principles
Convergent and linear synthesis with examples; Retro synthesis of bi cyclic and tri cyclic
systems.
 Code: 15 CHE 302

ADVANCED INSTRUMENTAL METHODS FOR CHEMICAL

CHARACTERIZATION AND ANALYSIS

UNIT-1: Absorption Spectroscopy:

Introduction and importance; Principles and instrumentation; Interferences - Chemical &

Spectral and evaluation methods; Applications of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy for
qualitative and quantitative analysis.

UV-Visible spectroscopy: Theory, Rules and identification of functional groups

Chiroptical spectroscopy-CD, ORD curves, applications to organic molecules.

Problems related to UV and ORD curves.

UNIT-2: IR, FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy:

Introduction; basic principles; Instrumentation; Detectors, Qualitative, Quantitative analysis

and Applications. Raman spectroscopy –identification of some organic functional groups.
Solving some problems related IR and Raman spectroscopy.

UNIT-3: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy:

High resolution NMR – chemical shift- Spin-Spin splitting (j-value)

Spin decoupling ; spin tickling, shift reagents; structure determination, applications of proton
NMR and problems
13
C NMR –Principle, rules, applications and problems
2
D NMR – Principle, COSY (HETCOR, HOMCOR) DQFCOSY, DEPT, INEPT, NOESY,
INADEQUATE, HMBC, HMQC and problems.

UNIT-4: Mass Spectroscopy and allied techniques:

Introduction; Basic principles, ionizing sources, types of ions, detectors and applications.
Rules, modes of fragmentation of various organic molecules and problems. Principle and
applications of GC-MS, HPLC-MS, GC-FTIR.

UNIT-5: X-ray fluorescence and Thermal Analysis:

Principle, energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence, wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence,

X-ray photo electronic spectroscopy, chemical shift, application of XPES and XRF.
Principles, basic instrumentation and applications of TG, DTA and DSC. differential
scanning calorimetry. Cyclic voltametry – Principle, instrumentation and applications.
 Code: 15 CHE 204

K L University
Department of Chemistry

Pre PhD syllabus, Paper – II

Physical Chemistry
Unit-1: Photochemistry:
Types of Photochemical reactions; Laws of Absorption (Grothuss-Draper law & Einstein’s law);
Quantum yield; Primary & Secondary Photochemical processes; Joblonski Diagram:
Fluorescence, Phosphorescence, Inter-System Crossing; Internal Conversion-Vibrational Cascade
and Chemiluminescence.
Kinetics of Photochemical reactions; Dissociation of HI; Reaction between Hydrogen and
Chlorine; Reaction between Hydrogen and Bromine; Reaction between Hydrogen and Oxygen;
Explosion limits.

Unit-2: Catalysis:
Types of Catalytic Reagents; Types of Catalysis (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous catalysis);
Catalytic activity; Acidity Functions; Theory of Homogeneous catalysis; Theory of
Heterogeneous catalysis (Chemical theory & Adsorption theory); Kinetics of heterogeneous
reactions.

Unit-3: Enzyme Catalysis:

Specificity in Enzyme Catalyzed reactions; Michaelis - Menten mechanism; Influence of
Concentration on Enzyme-Catalyzed reactions; Influence of Temperature on Enzyme Catalyzed
reactions; Acid-base catalysis.

Unit-4: Quantum Mechanics:

Introduction to Quantum Mechanics: Postulates of Quantum Mechanics; Schrödinger wave
equation; Physical significance of wave function; Eigen values and Eigen functions; Particle in a
box (one dimensional) behavior; Normalization; Orthogonality; Degeneracy.

Unit-5: Chemical Kinetics:

Fast reactions; Rate constants of fast reactions; Their determination by Stopped flow method,
Relaxation method, Flash photolysis and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance methods.
Ionic reactions; Influence of solvent on the rate of reactions (single & double sphere A.C. model);
Primary salt effect; Secondary salt effect; Influence of frequency factor; Influence of ionic
strength.

Unit-6: Surface Chemistry:

Adsorption; Factors influencing adsorption; Surface area and its measurements; Adsorption
isotherm curves; Langmuir’s adsorption isotherm- its limitations; B.E.T. Adsorption isotherm-its
applications; Negative adsorption; Positive adsorption; Chemisorption; Physisorption and
Determination of surface area.
---oo0oo---
 Code: 15 CHE 206

K.L.UNIVERSITY
Pre - Ph.D. EXAMINATION
BASIC ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
SYLLABUS

UNIT -I
Terminology used in Eniviromental science
Polluntant, Contaminant, Receptor, Sink, Dissolved
oxygen (D.o), Chemical oxygen Demand (C.O.D)
Biological oxygen Demand (B.O.D) & Threshold Limit value (T.L.V)

UNIT -II
Environmental Pollution & Components in Environment , Deforestation
i) Different types of pollutants (ii) Biotic Components (iii) Abiotic Components
iv) Reasons for Environmental pollution ,
v) Causes, effects and control methods of Air Pollution

UNIT -III
WATER POLLUTION & ECOSYSTEM
Causes , effects and control methods of water pollution.
Ecosystem , Structure and Function of an ecosystem.
Producers, Consumers & Decomposers.

UNIT -IV
TYPES OF ENERGY SOURCES
Renewable and Non- renewable energy sources
use of alternate energy sources.

UNIT -V
GREEN CHEMISTRY & PHASE TRANSFER CATALYST
i) Definition of Green Chemistry. Role of Green Chemistry in Reduction of
pollution
ii) Role of Phase Transfer catalyst in Green Chemistry
 Code: 15 CHE 305

K.L.UNIVERSITY
Pre - Ph.D. EXAMINATION
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
SYLLABUS

UNIT -I
PARTICULATE MATTER
Analysis of Particulate matter and its estimation by High Volume air Sampler
Health effects due to CO, SO2, NO2, CO2

Global warming , Acid rain & Depletion of Ozone layer .

UNIT II
Biodiversity and its Conservation
Biodiversity & Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity at Global, National and local levels

UNIT -III
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACTS
Air pollution act -1981 and
Water Pollution act -1974

UNIT -IV
TOXICITY OF METALS & SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
i) Toxicity of metal ions like lead, Cd, Hg in Various industries
ii) Health effects due to lead, Cd, Hg,
ii) Preparation of Synthetic Polymers and their uses
i) P.V.C ii) Orlon iii) Terylene iv) Nylon 6,6

UNIT -V
INSTRUMENTATION
i) Analysis of cations with Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
ii) Analysis of anions by Gas Chromatography
 K.L.UNIVERSITY
Pre - Ph.D. EXAMINATION
BASIC ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
PAPER -II
Time : 3 Hrs Max Mars : 100

Answer any Five of the following each question Carries 20 Marks

1. a) Define the following terms with examples 4x2x=8 M
i) Pollutant ii) Contaminant iii) Receptor iv) Sink
b) Explain the following water quality parameters 3x4=12 M
i) D.O. ii) C.O.D iii) B.O.D

2. a) What are the reasons for Environmental Air pollution ? 10 M

b) Explain the methods to control Air pollution 10M

3. What are the effects of Air pollution on Human beings, plants and Animals ?
Explain ?
4. a) Write the Causes of water pollution ? 10 M
b) Explain the effects of Water pollution on Human beings ? 10 M

5. a) What are Renewable and Non Renewable Energy Sources ? Give examples ?
10 M
b) Write the Advantages and Des advantages of Renewable Energy Sources ?
10 M

6. a) What Green Chemistry ? Explain the Principles of Green Chemistry 12 M

b) Explain the role of Green Chemistry in the reduction of pollution 8M

7. a) What are Biotic and A biotic Components ? Explain with examples 8M

b) What is Deforestation ? Give the reasons and effects for deforestation 12M

8. a) What is Ecosystem ? Explain the structure and Functions of ecosystem 20 M

 K.L.UNIVERSITY
Pre - Ph.D. EXAMINATION
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

Time : 3 Hrs Max Mars : 100

Answer any Five of the following each question Carries 20 Marks

1. a) What is Particulate matter ? Classify the particulate matter ? 10 M

b) Explain about Global Warming ? 10 M

2. a) What are the causes for acid rain ? Explain its effects? 10 M
b) Why ozone layer is depleted ? What are its effects on the environment ? 10 M

3. a) What is Biodiversity ? Explain the types of Brodiversity 8 M

b) Role of Biodiversity at Global , National & local levels? 12 M

4. Write an essay about environmental protection acts related to Air Pollution

and water Pollution ? 20 M

5. a) What is Toxicity ? What are the metals to give toxicity to the Human body
and Explain ? 10 M

b) What are Synthetic polymers ? Explain the Preparation of

i) P.V.C ii) orlon iii) Terylene iv) Nylon 6.6 10 M

6. Explain the analysis of Metals with Atomic Absorption spectroscopy ? 20 M

7. a) What is the Principle in Gas chromatography ? 10 M

b) Write the application of Gas chromatography ? 10 M

8. a) Draw a block diagram of High volume air sampler ? 10 M

b) How to collect the particulate matter with the help of High volume air sampler 15 M
 Code: 15 CHE 205

K.L.University
Department of Chemistry

Pre-Ph.D. syllabus

Basic Inorganic Chemistry

UNIT I
Chemistry of main group elements: General trends in properties – Boron hydrides,
carboranes, intercalation compounds – nitrogen – phosphorous,
Boron – nitrogen and sulphur – nitrogen cyclic compounds.

UNIT II

Chemistry of Transition elements: Comparative study of the first second and third
transition series. Metal cluster compounds favorable conditions for their formation –
structure and bonding in the following halied and carboxylate metal – cluster compounds.
Re2Cl82-, Mo2Cl8, Re2(RCOO)4 X2, Mo2 (RCOO) 4 (H2O) 2, Cr2(RCOO)4(H2O)2,
Cu2(RCOO)4 (H2O)2.

UNIT III

Coordination compounds: Crystal field theory – Crystal field splitting patterns in

Octahedral, tetrahedral, tetragonal, square planar, square pyramidal and trigonal
bipyramidal geometries

UNIT IV
Determination of crystal field splitting energy – calculation of crystal field stabilization
energies – Factors affecting crystal field splitting energies – spectrochemical series – Jahn
– Teller effect – Ligand field theory.

UNIT V

Metal Ligand Equilibria in solution: Stepwise and overall formation constants, trends in
stepwise constants factors affecting the stability of metal complexes – chelate effect –
Determination of stability constants of complexes – Spectrophotometric method and PH –
metric method.

---oo0oo---
 Code: 15 CHE 304

K.L.University
Department of Chemistry

Pre-Ph.D. syllabus

Advanced Inorganic Chemistry

UNIT I

Metal – ligand Equilibria in solutions - Step wise and over all formation constants.
Trends in stepwise constants (statistical effect and statistical ratio). Determination of
formation constants by Spectrophotometric method (Job’s) and pH metric method
(Bjerrum’s). Stability correlations - Irwing – William’s series. Hard and soft acids and bases –
Acid-base strength and HSAB, Electronegetivity and HSAB. Macrocyclic complexes - Crown
ethers and Cryptates. Preparation and structures of Isopoly and Heteropoly acids and their
salts .

UNIT II
Electron spin Principle and experimental technique – g-factor; Resonance: line shapes and
line width – hyperfine interactions applications of ESR studies to the structure of
freeradicals. Metal complexes and biological systems.

UNIT III:
Inorganic Reaction Mechanisms: Inert and labile complexes-Explanation of lability on the
basis of CFSE. Substitution reactions of metal complexes – D, Id, Ia and A
mechanisms – ligand replacement reactions of octahedral, complexes

Unit-IV
Acid Hydrolysis, Anation and base hydrolysis of cobalt (III) Complexes – ligand
displacement reaction of square plants, complexes of platinum (II) – trans affect
mechanism of trans effect (Theories) – Electron transfer reactions of complexes – Inner and
outer sphere mechanisms.

Unit-V
Electronic Spectra of transition metal complexes – selection rules-break down of
selection rules – Orgel and Tanabe Sugano diagrams. Magnetic properties of free ions – spin
and orbital moments and spin – orbit coupling – quenching of orbital momentum by crystal
fields in complexes.

---oo0oo---
 K L University

Pre - Ph.D. Examination

Subject: Chemistry
Basic Inorganic Chemistry

Model Question Paper

Note: a) Answer ANY 5 of the following: Max. Marks: 100

1. Write a brief explanation of Boron-Nitrogen and Sulphur-Nitrogen cyclic compounds.

2. Write the favourable conditions for the formation, structure and bonding of following
metal clusters:
(a)Re2(RCOO)4X2, (b) Mo2(RCOO)4(H2O)2 (c) Cu2(RCOO)4(H2O)2 (d) Mo2Cl8

3. Explain the Crystal Field Splitting patterns in square planar, square pyramidal

and trigonal bi pyramidal geometries.

4. Discuss the following:

(i) Jahn-Teller Effect. (ii) Ligand Field Theory.

5. Determine the stability constants of complexes by the use of Spectrometric

method and pH metric method.

6. Discuss the following:

(i) Chelate Effect (ii) Crystal Field Theory.

7. Explain a comparative study of the first, second and third transition series.

8. (a) Describe the general trends in properties of Boron hydrides and carboranes.

(b) Determine the Crystal Field Splitting energy.

---oo0oo---
 Pre - Ph.D. Examination
Subject: Chemistry
Advanced Inorganic Chemistry

Model Question Paper

Note: a) Answer ANY 5 of the following: Max. Marks: 100

1. (a) Write a brief note on preparation and structure of Isopoly and Heteropoly acids
and their salts.
(b) Determine the formation constants by job’s method and Bjerrum’s method.

2. Discuss the following:

5+5+10
(a) g-factor (b) Resonance (c) ESR studies to the structure of free radicals.
3. Explain the substitution reactions and mechanisms of metal complexes of D, Id, Ia
and A.

4. Discuss the following:

(a) Acid hydrolysis, Anation and base hydrolysis of Cobalt (III) complexes.
(b) Inner and outer sphere mechanisms of complexes.

5. (i) Electronic spectra of transition metal complexes.

(ii) Orgel and Tanabe-Sugano diagrams.

6. (i) Stabilty correlations-Irwing-Williams series.

(ii) Crown ethers and cryptates.

7. Give a brief note on inert and labile complexes and explain the lability on the basis
of CFSE.
8. Discuss the following: 7+7+6
(a) Metal complexes and biological systems.
(b) Acid- base strength and HSAB.
(c) Electronegativity and HSAB.
---oo0oo---