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ENGLISH COMPOSITION 2nd EDITION

THE SENTENCE
• Sentences form the basis for written language and composition
• A sentence is a group of words that forms a complete thought
• It is easier to express complete thoughts orally than it is through writing;
written sentences are more elaborate than those used in oral communication
• An important goal is to make written sentences as clear and understandable as possible
• A sentence has two main parts: a subject and predicate
• The subject is the person (person, place, thing or idea) that does the action; the predicate is the verb describing the action
Example: Mary slammed the door to her room. (The subject is Mary and the predicate is slammed)

WORD CHOICE
• Choosing words to convey thoughts can be tricky; choose words FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
that clearly express the correct meaning
• Figurative language is embellished speech that evokes images to
• Before the writing process begins, the thoughts behind convey or emphasize meaning
communication are already searching for the best words to use,
the best level of communication, and words not to use • A simile is a word used to express a comparison of a characteristic to
another, involving the words like or as
• Ultimately, a writer’s word choices are personal; word choice
reflects the style of the writing Examples: He is built like a bull. • He’s as large as a bull.
• A metaphor is also a word used in comparisons, but it does not use
LEVELS OF LANGUAGE an actual comparison word (i.e., no like or as)
• The three main levels of language are literary, medium, and Example: He is a bull, you’ll see.
colloquial • Metaphors are generally used in more poetic writing, but can also be
• Average everyday text (e.g., found in most newspapers) is effective in expository paragraphs
medium-level language; it is neither literary (more complex, higher • An extended metaphor is a metaphor that recurs and develops over
vocabulary) nor informal (colloquial, maybe using slang) various sentences or a whole paragraph
• Slang is colloquial language that is not socially acceptable in most Example: The thief was the wind. No one saw ever saw him, and this
conversations, nor in writing; it may include swear words and invisible air current would drift from store to store, shoplifting whatever he
phrases that are used by younger people (when slang is used in wanted. One day there must have been a tornado because eighty-seven
formal writing, it is enclosed in quotation marks) different stores in the mall reported unnoticed thefts.
• Colloquial language is usually spoken in informal settings Notes: When elaborating on extended metaphors, do not mix images
(e.g., family at home) and should not be used in writing or use mixed metaphors
• Some contractions are colloquial speech (e.g., ain’t); • Personification is the attribution of human qualities to things, objects
grammatical errors are also part of oral colloquial speech or ideas
(they may be acceptable in familiar surroundings) Examples: The new Volkswagen has two friendly eyes and a big smile.
• Literary language is found in literature and specialized texts It says, “Hello!” • The wind whispered softly.
• Regional language includes words and expressions found in specific
geographical areas THINGS TO AVOID

• Technical language includes words and expressions found in • Clichés are overused catch-phrases that should be avoided in writing
specific professions or areas of expertise, mostly familiar only to Examples: Better safe than sorry. • The pen is mightier than the sword.
those people within that profession or area of expertise • Jargon is undefined, overblown technical language aimed at
• If technical language must be included in non-specific texts, impressing audiences unfamiliar with specific terms
terms must be defined and made clear to the general public Example: The most important components of an electric guitar are the
• Technical language that is not defined or clarified is jargon; instrument’s pick-ups, and a Gibson P100 pick-up sounds very different in a
jargon is frowned upon as it is usually aimed at impressing hollow-body guitar than it does in a solid-body guitar or a semi-hollow
audiences that are not familiar with the terminology body guitar; the string gage, action, and tuning pegs all play a part.
• Euphemisms are words generally understood to be kinder • Doublespeak involves exaggerated euphemisms that try to mask the
replacements for harsher terms (i.e., less offensive) truth or present the subject matter in a much gentler (and thus
• The use of language depends on the target audience untrue) light
Example: vertically-challenged meaning short
DENOTATION & CONNOTATION • Sexist language must not be used in writing (and should be avoided
Denotation: The literal meaning of a word (e.g., how a dictionary in oral speech)
describes a word) Examples
Connotation: Suggestions or implications that the same word can • Do not add female before a profession (female doctor should be
carry doctor)
Example: Look in your mailbox, tomorrow, Charlie, you might find • Gender-based words like stewardess or steward should be replaced by
yourself a little gift… if you do the right thing. (The denotation of gift is flight attendant
the meaning of the word [a present]; the connotation is the • Do not use he for both sexes (use him or her, or his or her)
possibility of a bribe or an offering with strings attached) • Do not use man if you are referring to both sexes (use humankind)
Note: In common cases such as the common connotation attributed • Avoid occupational stereotypes (e.g., men can be secretaries, women
to the word gift, some dictionaries have started listing connotative can be plumbers)
meanings for words, as well as their classic literary meanings

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S E N T E N C E D I F F I C U LT I E S
INTRODUCTION RUN-ON SENTENCES
• Dangling participles create confusing sentences that can be difficult • Although they are another common occurrence in oral speech,
to understand run-on sentences should be avoided in written language
Example: Mary sipped the tea steaming hot. should be Mary sipped the Example: And then she said the pictures turned out awful and that she
steaming hot tea. hated them she threw them on the counter, walked out of the store
• Misplaced modifiers also create confusion went straight to the photographer’s studio banging on the door for
hours before she realized he’d gone to lunch and there was no one there
Example: Mary poured the tea she’d made in the pot. should be
it probably wasn’t all his fault anyway because the make-up job was
Mary made the tea in the pot, and then poured it.
pretty bad and she’d been partying the night before.
• Ambiguity must be avoided (e.g., pronouns can be ambiguous in
• The sentence may be understood in a conversation but is too long
some sentences)
when written
Example: The cat scratched her eye with her claw. (The first pronoun
• The same information should be presented in a well-paced,
her may or may not apply to the cat)
well-punctuated paragraph
Example: And then she said the pictures turned out awful and that she
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS hated them. She threw them on the counter, walked out of the store,
• Sentence fragments are either incomplete sentences or dependent and went straight to the photographer’s studio. She banged on the door
clauses that make no sense by themselves for hours before she realized he’d gone to lunch and that there was no
one there. Besides, she realized it probably wasn’t his fault anyway;
• Although sentence fragments may be acceptable in oral speech, the make-up job was pretty bad and she had been partying the night
a written sentence must form a complete thought that is before.
understandable
• Fused sentences are independent clauses linked together without
• When a person speaks, their context, gestures, and facial expressions the proper punctuation or connection words
make sentence fragments easier to understand
• Run-on sentences should always be avoided, especially in formal
Example: What’s wrong with is a sentence fragment that might be used writing (e.g., essays)
in a conversation and still be understood • In written language, the
same sentence would need a subject or an object to complete its • They may be allowed in novels or other creative writing pieces for
meaning (e.g., What’s wrong with the cat?) stylistic reasons (e.g., Jack Kerouac’s On The Road)
• Sentence fragments are also caused by incorrect punctuation (such as • This is referred to as stream-of-consciousness
periods and commas) • Comma splices are another kind of run-on sentence
Example: Mary waited impatiently for the pictures. Eager to see how they • They are independent clauses that are linked by a comma;
turned out. should be Mary waited impatiently for the pictures, eager to however, they should either be separated or linked by a proper
see how they turned out.) connection word
• Subordinating words can inadvertently create dependent clauses or Example: Mary likes chocolate cake, she likes fruits and vegetables.
sentence fragments • There are three common solutions than can be used to fix
Examples: after, also, although, as, as if, as long as, as though, because, run-on sentences
before, even though, if, in order that, more than, since, so that, though, Separation: Run-on sentences can be fixed by making two or more
unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, while separate sentences
• Such subordinating words are often found at the beginning of a Example: Mary likes chocolate cake. She likes fruits and vegetables.
fragment Connection word: Some sentences can be fixed by a comma or
Example: After Mary won the lottery. (A full sentence would complete connection word (and, but, for, or, so, yet)
that thought, such as After Mary won the lottery, she moved to Europe.) Note: The connection word however can also be used, but only in
• Some relative pronouns can also create sentence fragments conjunction with a semicolon
(when used improperly) Example: Mary likes chocolate cake, and she likes fruits and vegetables.
Examples: that, what, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, Semicolon: Semicolons by themselves can also be used to fix run-on
whose sentences
• All these pronouns can lead to incomplete written sentences Example: Mary likes chocolate cake; she likes fruits and vegetables.
(that may make sense in oral speech)
• Adding details to writing can also create fragments if the writer is not
careful PHRASES & CLAUSES
Example: Such as bananas. should be Mary loves all fruit, such as • A phrase is a group of connected words without a subject or
bananas. predicate
• Another way to repair a sentence fragment is to subordinate one of • Prepositional phrases begin with a preposition and include a noun
the independent clauses, creating a complex sentence and its modifiers
Common subordinators: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as though, • The noun is the object of the preposition
because, before, but that, even if, ever since, except that, if, in as much as, • Participial phrases contain a participle and modifiers
in case, in order that, now that, provided that, since, so that, than, though, • The participle can be used as an adjective to modify either a noun or
unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas if, wherever, whereupon, pronoun
while • Gerund phrases use the gerund of a verb as a
Compound sentence (both ideas are equally weighted): noun
Mary likes chocolate, but she likes vegetables better. or Mary likes Examples: eating, drinking, sleeping
chocolate; however, she likes vegetables better.
• Infinitive phrases use the infinitive of a verb
Complex sentence (one idea is weaker because it has been made Examples: to be, to stay, to go, to watch
dependent by a subordinator): In as much as Mary likes chocolate, she
likes vegetables better. (The independent clause she likes vegetables better • A clause is a group of words that contains
both a subject and a predicate
can stand on its own, whereas the subordinated clause In as much as
Mary likes chocolate cannot) • Clauses can be used to add more information to
a simple sentence
• Subordinators should be punctuated by commas to help the reader
see the main point of the sentence (unless the subordinator comes • The subject of a clause is usually a relative
pronoun
after the independent clause)
(e.g., that, which, who, whom, whoever)
Examples: In as much as Mary likes chocolate, she likes vegetables better. Example: Mary bought a book that teaches
• Mary likes chocolate although she likes vegetables better. how to improve your lottery odds.

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S E N T E N C E D I F F I C U LT I E S ( C O N T ’ D ) COMPOSITION
PARALLEL STRUCTURE Notes: This section is a step-by-step focus on composing a school paper,
essay or other composition
• Parallel structure is used to describe writing that
expresses similar ideas in similar forms, a practice that PURPOSE
generally improves comprehension
Example: Mary likes to read and she likes to watch TV. • What is the purpose of the paper? (theme, focus, answer, etc.)
• Sentences that list activities (-ing verbs) also exhibit • Who is the target audience? (demographics, attitudes, etc.)
parallel structure • Does anything need to be clarified or explained to the audience?
Example: Mary likes reading, writing, and watching (misconceptions, technical terms, history, etc.)
television. • What kind of writing is best suited? (argumentative, narrative,
• The infinite form of the verb can be used in parallel persuasive, expository, informative, etc.)
structures • Level of formality (depends on audience, subject, etc.)
Example: Mary likes to read, write, and watch television.
TOPIC

BALANCING SENTENCE STRUCTURE • A topic is a detail or close-up study of a general subject

• Faulty parallelism occurs when a sentence is not • An author can take various things into account when choosing a topic
well-balanced (e.g., interest, level of knowledge, time restraints)
• Sentences that list words in a series should keep the
RESEARCHING
same grammatical form throughout
Example: Mary is smart, beautiful and has good manners. • Brainstorming involves answering general questions (who, where,
should be Mary is smart, beautiful, and well-mannered. when, why) about a topic
• Correlative conjunctions (either…or / neither… nor) can • Clustering involves making diagrams of the main idea and its related
cause balance problems ideas, so as to attribute relevant amounts of importance to each
Example: You can travel either by boat or there is a plane. • Free writing involves short but uninterrupted periods of writing about
(Different grammatical forms: a prepositional phrase anything that comes to mind
by boat and a clause there is a plane are not balanced in • Keeping journals on a topic allows you to see the progression of an
the sentence) idea
• Sentence can be balanced by using two prepositional • Research involves note-taking, observations, interviews, etc.
phrases
Example: You may either travel by boat or by plane. THESIS
• The thesis of the paper clearly explains the topic, purpose, and opinion
OTHER SENTENCE ERRORS being presented
• Sentences should avoid wordiness where possible • Usually located after (or within) a brief introductory paragraph, but this
is not mandatory
Example: The self-help book was very helpful and was
divided in two volumes, one and two. should be • Presents a focused topic, a clear purpose, and a strong opinion on the
The two-volume self-help book was very useful. subject
• Replace a few longer expressions with more concise • Language should be positive and enticing
words
OUTLINE
in order to, so as to to
• The outline is a step-by-step framework of everything in the paper
due to the fact that, for the reason that because (i.e., introductory paragraph, main body paragraphs developing and
by means of, utilizing, through the use of by, with proving main points, conclusion)
at this time, at present, at this point in time now • Outlines may be point form or detailed, depending on the author’s
preference and requirements
at that time, as of that date, then
at that point in time PARAGRAPH
• Repetition should be eliminated • Paragraphs must develop and prove the thesis statement in the most
Example: The self-help book for helping oneself was in two effective, flowing manner
volumes, volume one and volume two. should be • Each paragraph must present a point toward the overall argument that
The self-help book was in two volumes. supports the thesis (i.e., opening statement, argument, examples,
• Write sentences in a positive light where possible closing statement leading into next paragraph)
Example: If error is not a system error, insert key is not
used. should be Use the insert key when there is a system DRAFTS & REVISIONS
error. • First drafts are simple puzzle-piece gatherings; they can be redundant
• Modifiers that repeat a word’s inherent quality are and repetitive at this point
redundant • The emphasis is on an overall picture of the paper and not on
Example: The circular ball was round. mechanicals
• There are many redundancies that should be avoided in • Revision (reviewing draft, re-thinking, re-writing, etc.) is crucial
writing • It leads to further draft copies of the working paper
Examples: active consideration, the reason is because, small • Proofreading checks spelling, grammar, punctuation, formatting, etc.
in size, personal opinion, circle around, completely finished • Have someone else look at it for fresh ideas
• The active voice is always preferable in writing to the • Tackle the larger revisions first, as they may influence the direction of the
passive voice paper
Example: The book was seen by Mary through the window.
should be Mary saw the book through the window. PROOFREADING
• Modifiers may enrich or confuse writing (when used in • The final step includes proofreading, which checks and verifies spelling,
slightly different ways) grammar, punctuation, formatting, endnotes, etc.
Example: We called the police officer scared by the scream. • Have someone else look at it; a fresh set of eyes will find new problems
should be Scared by the scream, we called the police officer. and provide new ideas

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COMPOUND SENTENCES
DESCRIPTION COMPOUND SUBJECTS
• A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more clauses • Some sentences that have more than one subject are said to
• Clauses can be joined by a conjunction (and, but, or) to form have compound subjects
compound sentences Example: Mary and Neil want to win the lottery.
• A compound sentence exposes a more complex thought than a simple • Two or more nouns (or pronouns) representing the subject of a
sentence sentence make the compound subject
• Commas are used to separate the distinct clauses in a compound • They are usually joined by and or or
sentence
• Commas appear before the conjunction COMPOUND PREDICATES
Example: The lottery was a longshot, but Mary wanted to win. • Some sentences may have more than one verb within the same
predicate
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES Example: Mary hoped and wished she’d win the lottery.
• Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that describe verbs or • Such verbs in compound predicates are usually joined by and,
adjectives but or or
• Adverbial clauses explain the action by adding details about time, place, • Compound verbs do not have to appear adjacent to each other
condition or reason in the sentence
Example: Mary won’t win the lottery because she didn’t buy the book. Example: Mary bought a lottery ticket and hoped she’d win.
(The adverbial clause is introduced by the word because and it explains
why Mary won’t win the lottery) DEPENDENT CLAUSES
• Adverbial clauses explaining how an action is done are usually
introduced by as, as though, as if, and as…as • Dependent clauses are groups of words that have both a
subject and a predicate, but do not express a complete thought
Example: Mary bought the lottery book, as if it’ll help her win the lottery.
• Sentences that have dependent clauses and main clauses are
• Adverbial clauses explaining the reason for an action are usually called complex sentences
introduced by because, since, and so that
• Dependent clauses add to or modify the main clause of the
Example: Mary bought the book because she thought she’d win the lottery. sentence
• Adverbial clauses explaining conditional actions are usually introduced Example: Mary bought a book that was all about improving your
by if or unless lottery odds. (Dependent clause is that was all about improving your
Example: She’s going to buy that book unless she wins the lottery first. lottery odds)
• Adverbial clauses explaining when the action is done are usually • Dependent clauses can be divided into two sub-categories:
introduced by after, as soon as, before, since, until, when, whenever, and essential and non-essential
while • Essential dependent clauses add information that is needed in
Example: She says she’ll win the lottery as soon as she buys that book. order for the sentence to be fully understood
• Non-essential dependent clauses add information that is not
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES needed for full comprehension
• Prepositional phrases add information to sentences • Non-essential dependent clauses are separated from the main
• Phrases are groups of words without subjects and verbs clause by commas on either end
• Prepositional phrases commonly supply an object that completes the
sentence ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
Example: Mary finally bought the book at the corner bookstore. • Adjective clauses add to or modify nouns or pronouns found in the main
(the corner bookstore is the object; this prepositional phrase tells us where clause
Mary finally bought the book) • Adjective clauses answer questions such as “What kind?,” “How many?”
Common prepositions: about, above, across, after, among, around, at, or “Which one?”
before, beside, between, by, during, for, from, in, into, of, on, opposite, out, Example: Mary bought a book that was all about improving your lottery odds.
outside, over, through, to, under, with, within, without (Adjective clause is that was all about improving your lottery odds)
• Prepositional phrases generally begin with a preposition and end with • Adjective clauses are not always found at the end of
the object (a noun or pronoun) the sentence
• Prepositional phrases can also act as adjectives; they can answer the Example: The book that told about improving your
questions “Which one?” or “What kind?” lottery odds was bought by Mary.
Example: The book on that shelf is for Mary. • Adjective clauses can also incorporate an
independent subject all of its own
• Prepositional phrases can also act as adverbs; they can answer the
Example: The idea that she buy a book on lotteries
questions “Where?,” “How?” or “When?”
came from Neil. (The word she is an independent
Example: She read the book non-stop for several hours. subject of the adjective clause)

WORD CHOICE TIPS

• Learn to use punctuation properly; it is very helpful in clarifying • Combining sentences makes ideas flow
meaning better, but never turn a sentence into a run-on sentence
• Do not overuse pronouns; it is better to have a longer sentence then • Every word in a sentence must count towards conveying
a confusing one, so repeating a person’s name twice in one sentence the sentence’s meaning; do not use unnecessary words
may be better that his, hers or theirs (e.g., unnecessary expletives like there is, there are, and it is)

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ISBN: 1-55080-565-7 however caused, which may result from the application or
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