Distributed Generation

ELE11113

Fault Analysis
Dr M.W.Renton
 Network connection issues
• The purpose of a generation developer, introducing
distributed generation into a public network, is to make
money
• To maximise the profit, the developer will want the
connection to be as cheap as possible
• However, a number of technical and safety aspects
need to be considered
• Any conflict between developers and network operators
usually concerns the need for these technical and safety
aspects
– in other words what are the risks/rewards and who takes the
risks?
 Network connection issues
In the connection of distributed generation into a
network the issues include:
– Possible increases in fault level
• may lead to the switchgear rating being exceeded
– Performance of switchgear
– Voltage profiles on the network that result in other
customers receiving voltages outside statutory limits
– Earthing of the generator system in conjunction with
network earthing
– Stability of the generator installation:
• whether transient stability for synchronous plant
• or voltage stability for asynchronous plant
 Network connection issues

– Protection has to be able to operate under all

network conditions to disconnect the generator
• as islanded operation is not normally permitted
• it is also used to avoid unearthed operation

– Quality of Supply - CI & CML

• DNO’s have targets for the number of customers
interrupted (CI) per 100 customers and the number
of customer minutes lost (CML).
 Network connection issues

• Power quality – disturbances from the generator

installation that may affect other customers at the
point of common coupling:
• voltage level
• voltage fluctuations
– light flicker
• harmonics
• unbalance
 Causes of a Fault
• Two type of circuit faults can occur in an electrical power
system:
(a) open-circuit when a conductor breaks
– simply breaks the system circuit
– may cause blackouts or overloading (increased currents) in other parts of
the system

(b) short-circuit normally caused by a breakdown in insulation.

– produced when there is a lightning strike on the system or a switching
operation
– creates a surge voltage through the system

• These result in the production of high currents causing:

– overheating (I²R) with subsequent thermal damage
– high forces (tonnes/metre) between the conductors
 Typical Faults
A fault :
• when something goes wrong
with a power system, large
currents can result and can
cause damage to components
of the system
Typical Faults
 Fault ratings

• Fault ratings are usually given in terms of either

Current (in kA) or Apparent Power (in MVA).
• Circuit breakers are normally rated by:
– the fault current
– the nominal system voltage at the point of the fault

• The fault Apparent Power is also known as

the Fault Level
• Fault calculations are best worked in terms of per-
unit quantities
 Effect of Fault Level
• If level is too high: fault current would be difficult to
interrupt
– could cause disruption to the supply of electricity
– could be expensive to repair
• At an appropriate level: protective devices would
detect the fault:
– disconnecting the faulty section of the network as soon as
possible
• achieved through the use of protection relays and circuit breakers
(switchgear)
• If level is too low: protective devices would not
detect the fault and would fail to operate
 Categories of Fault
iv v

ii iii

There are five possible categories of fault that

can occur in three-phase system:
i. Unbalanced single line-to-earth
ii. Unbalanced line-to-line
iii. Unbalanced double line-to-earth
iv. Symmetrical three-phase line-to-line
v. Symmetrical three-phase line-to-earth
 Balanced or Symmetrical
3-phase Short-circuit
• The least probable event but the most severe in
practice and the easiest to analyse
• For analysis three assumptions are made:
– System is balanced - only 1-phase needs to be analysed
– Circuit when faulted is purely inductive
• (i.e. resistance is neglected)
– All system generators are in phase and generate 1 p.u. e.m.f.

• Notes:
– Unbalanced faults, e.g. (i), (ii) and (iii), require a more complex model
• using the techniques of symmetrical components
– Calculated fault current is not required to any great accuracy since circuit
breakers come in preferred ratings
 Protection against Faults
• Use of relay protection devices
– sense the change in current
– initiate the opening of circuit breakers to isolate the fault

• Normally all system equipment will have a thermal capacity

to survive a fault current for a short time
– allows the protection devices time to act

• Circuit breakers are rated for a given current (interrupting

capacity), therefore, the power system operator must know
beforehand the probable magnitude of fault current that is
likely to occur at each point in the system
• A fault analysis of the system can determine the fault current
at each point for different types of fault.
Objectives of performing fault calculations
33kV
• During a short circuit on the
power system, high currents flow
until protection and circuit
breakers can operate to disconnect
the faulty network component

• Need to know these fault currents

and do this by:
– modelling the network
mathematically
– analysing this model over a 11kV

range of operating conditions Bus-section

and types of fault G L

Objectives of performing fault calculations

• The main objective of fault analysis is to calculate

fault currents and voltages so that
– circuit breaker capability can be correctly specified
– the protection system can be set to disconnect faulty
equipment quickly and reliably

• At each point on a power system there is defined a

three-phase and an equivalent single-phase (earth)
fault level.
 Legal requirement to control fault current to
safe levels

• A safe level of fault current in a power system is a

statutory duty under the Electricity Safety, Quality
and Continuity Regulations (2002)

• The fault currents must be maintained within the

breaking and making duties of the switchgear

• At the same time the fault currents must be

sufficiently large to operate protective equipment
 Generator fault current capability
This figure shows the
fault current capability
of a typical HV
synchronous generator

• The initial current is usually about 5 - 8 times full load

current
– but decays rapidly in the sub-transient
– then the transient time periods
• The steady state value is governed by the synchronous
reactance
– but this level is modified by the mode of operation
of the excitation system
 Generator fault current capability

• Curve 1 : the output when the generator automatic voltage control system is supplied
from the generator output voltage which is depressed during the fault
• Curve 2 : the output if the generator is set to constant power factor control
– typical for connections to public distribution networks

• Curve 3 : typical when the excitation energy source is independent of the generator
• Curve 4 : the output when curve 3 is modified by the AVR forcing the internal
magnetic fields
– This mode is often preferred because it ensures that there is enough fault current to
operate protection equipment
 Performance of switchgear
• The switchgear that is used to connect generators to a
power system must be capable of operating safely under
all fault conditions

• The key specification characteristics are:

– Break duty relates to disconnection after a fault has occurred
– Make duty applies in the cases where a circuit breaker is closed
onto an existing fault

• Also important is the capability to withstand out-of-phase

voltages across the contacts.
 Typical break fault levels
• Normally only the break duty is specified
– is typically 250 MVA for older 11 kV switchgear
– up to 350 MVA for modern 11 kV switchgear

• Low voltage systems are often rated at 25 MVA

• Even if a generator is connected via modern
switchgear, there may be lower rated switchgear
electrically close by that may limit the amount of
generation that can be connected at any particular
point
Typical fault levels
275 kV 15,000 MVA
(normally 10,000)
132 kV 3,500 MVA
33 kV 1,000 MVA
11 kV 250 MVA
415 V 25 MVA
 Typical Make Duty
• The make duty of the switchgear is also very important
– usually taken as 2.5 times the specified value for the break duty
• if the manufacturer does not directly quote it

• Switchgear operates and clears the fault current at the point of zero
current
– as the internal arc is extinguished

• In the case of making onto a fault, there may not be a zero crossing
at the time the contacts are separating, and the duty on the breaker
is increased significantly

• The worst case stator current waveforms for make duty are shown
next:
Fault current decay – note offset current on
phases B and C
 Fault Current Limiting
• A number of techniques and options exist
for limiting the fault current in the event of
a fault

• Students are encouraged to research these

– Including as part of the coursework exercise
 Fault current contribution
from other types of generator
• There will be very little contribution from other types of
generator as they are not able to provide sustained output
because:
– lack of excitation (induction)
– there is inherently no overload capability (inverter
connected)

• Developments in electronics for the connection and control of

induction generators in wind farms enable a sustained
contribution during faults
– This helps the generator to ride through faults and can
reduce problems in the setting of the protection
 Simplifying assumptions (1)
a. The system is balanced, therefore, only 1-phase
needs to be analysed

b. Each generator produces its nominal e.m.f.

• which remains unchanged by the fault

c. All generators are in phase with each other

d. The load currents are ignored

• as they are much lower than the fault currents usually

e. The fault forms a short-circuit of zero impedance

 Simplifying assumptions (2)
f. The reactance of each generator drops to about
20% of its steady-state value
• and stays constant during the fault

– This is known as the transient reactance, X’

• the reactance value to be used during fault calculations

– This is also why the fault current goes up by 5 - 8

times during faults

– This only applies to generator reactances

 Calculation of fault current and fault
level
• The system at the point of the fault can be represented
by the Thevenin equivalent circuit:
– a voltage source, VT (a phase voltage)
– an impedance, Z
Calculation of fault current and fault level

IB SB
ISC  SSC 
Zpu Zpu
• As the resistances in the system can be
neglected, Z simplifies to X
• Thus these expressions can be simplified to:
IB SB
ISC  SSC 
Xpu Xpu
Calculation of fault current and fault level

• Further, in per-unit terms, SB and IB can be

expressed simply as equal to 1.0 p.u., then:

1 1
ISC  SSC 
Xpu Xpu
• These are only valid using the nominal line
voltages in the system as the base voltages
– thus it is not an option to choose any base voltage.
 X or Z ?
• The following examples all have
impedances which are purely reactive

• Hence we will use “X” in equations

• Need to remember that strictly we are

referring to impedances (Z)
 Method for analysing faulted circuits
• Use standard series and parallel circuit reduction
techniques
– and star-delta transforms where necessary

• Reduce the circuit to a single Thevenin equivalent

circuit
– with a single voltage source and a single
impedance/reactance

• i.e. aiming to get to:

 Power System Reference Bus
• Unless otherwise stated use the system earth
(0 Volts) as the reference bus
• Example:
Bus 1 Bus 2
Gen 2
Gen 1

Load

Reference Bus 0
 Faults - Example 1
A system consists of three 5 MVA generators,
each of reactance 0.3 p.u. (based on rating),
connected to a common busbar A and feeding a
busbar B via two 11 kV transmission lines each
of reactance 4.84 W.

Using a base of 5 MVA, determine the fault

current and fault level at B.
 Example 1 Circuit
• Sketch the circuit (on the board)
 Example 1 - solution
• For the transformers:
2 2
VB 11k
XB    24.2W
SB 5M
Xpu = X/XB = 4.84/24.2 = j0.2 pu

• Add the p.u. reactance values to the circuit

and resolve it to a single Thevenin equivalent
circuit. j0.2
 Example 1 - solution
• Thus SSC 
SB
Xpu

= 5 x 106/0.2 = 25 MVA
• And: IB
ISC 
Xpu

• Where IB = SB/√3.VB

• But also, ISC = SSC/√3.VB = 25M/√3x11k = 1.31 kA

– a simpler solution
 Faults - Example 2
Five 3 MVA generators each have a reactance
X = 0.1 p.u. They are each connected to a
common busbar via 3 MVA reactors of
reactance 0.075 p.u.

Determine the fault level between a generator

and its associated reactor

Use a base of 3 MVA

Example 2 - solution
Example 2 - solution
 Faults - Example 3
The 11 kV busbars of a generating station are divided
into two sections, each of which is connected to a 10
MVA generator.
The busbar sections are linked by a 5 MVA reactor.
Connected to each busbar is a 20 mile long overhead
line each having an impedance of 0.3 W/phase/mile,
the two lines are brought to a common busbar at their
terminations.
If a 3-phase short-circuit occurs halfway along Line 2
determine the steady-state fault current at the point of
short-circuit.
Example 3 Diagram
G1 G2
10 MVA 10 MVA
X = 0.3 p.u. X = 0.3 p.u.

Reactor 11 kV

5 MVA
X = 0.25 p.u.

Line 1 Line 2 F
 Example 3 - solution
• Use a base of 10 MVA

• Reactances given to plant rating

• A delta-star transform is needed for this solution

Example 3 - solution
Example 3 - solution

c
 Example 3 - solution
• This resolves to a single impedance of
X = j0.357 pu.

• This gives a pu fault current, IF = 2.8 pu

• The base current,

IB = SB/(√3VB) = 10M/(√3 x 11k) = 525 A

• Hence IF = 1.47 kA
 Grid Infeed
• Connection to external grid network
• Normally treated as a generator
• p.u. Impedance is obtained from XG = SB/GF
– where SB is the base MVA
– and GF is the grid fault level
• Example: for a base of 100 MVA and grid
fault level of 1500 MVA, find impedance:
• XG = 100/1500 = 0.067 p.u.
Reconvene in C30!