MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA CAWANGAN

PULAU PINANG FACULTY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

MEC 291: MECHANICS AND MATERIALS LAB

LABORATORY MANUAL
SECOND EDITION (Review)

Prepared by:

Rosley Bin Jaafar (Chief)

Aziurah Binti Mohd Shah
Nor Liawati Binti Abu Othman
Aznifa Mahyam Binti Zaharudin
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab
CONTENTS

Page

Preface 2

Introduction

i. Course information 3

ii. General laboratory instructions 4

iii. Report writing 4

iv. General laboratory cleanliness and safety 6

Part 1: Strength of Materials

1. Tensile test 7

2. Torsion test 14

3. Straight beam experiments 19

Part 2: Material Science

4. The effects of heat treatment on the microstructure of steel 23

5. Observation on the microstructure of cast iron 26

6. Hardness test 28

Part 3: Mechanism and Machine Elements

7. Dependent Motion of Several Particles 32

8. Crank and Slider Mechanism 36

9. Flywheel Apparatus 39

*** Buckling of Column Test 42

Bibliography 46

Appendixes

Laboratory report rubric

Quick Reference – Selected Material Properties of Metal

Laboratory assessment form

Peer and self-evaluation form for lab experiments

1
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

PREFACE

This laboratory manual is written primarily for students on diploma courses in Mechanical

Engineering for those undertaking laboratory works in the 3 rd semester. The essential
experiments covered were selected based on what would be frequently encountered in the field
of practice and satisfied the syllabus requirements of Dynamics (MEC 221), Strength of
Materials (MEC 211) and Materials of Science (MEC 281). In order that students have a fairly
good understanding of the theory underlying the experiments, the entire course is designed such
that classroom lectures precede lab work. Students are advised to pay close attention in class
and lab briefing so that they can perform well in the lab.

One purpose of this lab course is to develop the student ability to communicate technical data
through written documents. To that end, the students will be required to write a lab report for
each lab experiment. A lab report is a self-contained description of the experiment being
performed, the data collected, sample calculations and an analysis based on the data that
addresses the motivation for performing the experiment. Since measurements are never exact, it
is also necessary to include an estimate of the experimental uncertainty in the measurements,
which should be considered whenever comparing measured results. The method in which the
data and other content of the lab report are also important. All numerical values should be
written with the proper number of significant figure that reflects the uncertainty of the value and
must include the appropriate units. Beyond the content of the lab report, a well-written lab
report should adhere to a set of style guidelines which included in this lab manual.

We wish to thank our assistant engineer for their helpful and cooperative on lab experiment
activities and well maintained the laboratory equipment and housekeeping. The most
importantly our gratitude goes to the Almighty God for giving us the strength, inspiration, and
knowledge to contribute, although a little to the development of mankind.

Rosley Bin Jaafar (Chief)

Aziurah Binti Mohd Shah
Nor Liawati Binti Abu Othman
Aznifa Mahyam Binti Zaharudin

August 2017
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
UiTM Penang Branch

Published by:
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
UiTM Penang Branch

2
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

INTRODUCTION

The student should read the entire Introduction very carefully to avoid any mistakes in
preparation of the laboratory reports.

i. COURSE INFORMATION

PROGRAMME EM110
COURSE CODE & NAME MEC291- MECHANICS AND MATERIALS LAB
CREDIT UNIT 1
CONTACT HOURS PRACTICAL: 2 hrs/week
PRE-REQUISITE MEC 111
CO-REQUISITE MEC 211, MEC281, MEC221
SEMESTER 3

COURSE DESCRIPTION:

The course consists of practical works involving the investigations and analysis in the area of
mechanics and material sciences.

COURSE OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:

• Describe the objectives and background of each experiment, [PO1, LO1] {C2}.
• Explain the experimental results and their practical implications, [PO1, LO1] {C3}.
• Conduct each experiment correctly through established procedures and good
record keeping, [PO3, LO2] {P3}.
• Analyze the experimental data accordingly as required by each experiment, [PO4, LO3]
{C4}
• Produce a technical report for each experiment in a structured format and professional
manner. [PO8, LO6, SS4] {A3}

ASSESSMENT:

Laboratory Work and Report: 100%. Refer to the rubric laboratory report.

No Items Scores (%)

1 Appearance, organization, font page and etc. (CO5:PO8) 10
2 Objective and theory information. (CO1:PO1) 10
3 a) Conducting experiment following the procedure. (CO3:PO3) 10
b) Apparatus and procedure. (CO3:PO3)

4 Results (data, graphs, calculation and etc). (CO2:PO1) 20

5 Discussion. (CO4:PO4) 30
6 Conclusions. (CO4:PO4) 10
7 References. (CO5:PO8) 10
Total 100

3
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

ii. GENERAL LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS

1. Must be prepared prior to the laboratory by reading the laboratory manual and
completing all assigned pre-laboratory work for the experiments before going to the
laboratory class. Students can visit the laboratory for study the types of equipment
and material to be used, before performing experiments.
2. Must come to the laboratory on time.
3. The posted safety rules in the laboratory must be strictly observed.
4. Attendance will be taken at the beginning of every laboratory session with
following the laboratory schedule published by the faculty.
5. Students will be formed into groups of two or three persons on the first laboratory
day. Once a student has signed up with a group, may not change groups without
prior approval of the lecturer.
6. Must actively participate in performing the experiments and do each laboratory
with an attitude of learning.
7. Students will perform the experiment in the group and turn in one report per
group with multiple discussion and conclusion with the contribution of each
member clearly identified in the report (i.e. analyze results together but each person
of the group will write their own discussion and conclusion). Use the provided
format when writing the report.
8. The raw data should be stamped and signed by the assistant engineer and the report
must be submitted to the assistant engineer.
9. The result table must be presented in tabular form and graphical work (e.g. graph)
can be drawn by hand or computer. Students are advised to bring blank and graph
papers to the laboratory, in which can do calculations and draw graphs.
10. Do not adjust the data to produce the “expected” results. If the results differ
significantly from reference values, check the setting carefully (wrong units, wrong
calculations, calibration, etc) and do the experiment again if needed. Draw your
conclusions based on these results. Try to explain any discrepancies.
11. All written laboratory reports are due approximately one week after completion of
the laboratory work (i.e. at the end of the week when the next laboratory is
performed). Late submission of laboratory reports (after the day on which the
laboratory exercise was performed) will have the final score reduced by 10% for
each week the report is late to a maximum of 50% reduction. The score will not
be given for each laboratory report is not submitted and for who did not attend
the laboratory work.
12. Laboratory reports must be hand written and your own work, if copying or
collusion is suspected, the final score will be reduced to a maximum of 30%
reduction.
13. For each section laboratory experiment, a peer and self-evaluation form must be
prepared by each team member and submitted to the assistant engineer
separately. The score of team member contribution will not be given for each
laboratory report who did not submit a peer and self-evaluation form.
14. The students who cannot come on their schedule (i.e must have M.C or permission
letter) can be replaced the experiment on another day. The students should be
informed the representative lecturer to arrange with the assistant engineer.

iii. REPORT WRITING

The following explanation has been prepared to guide the students for writing good
experimental laboratory reports in mechanical engineering laboratory courses. All reports in the
Mechanics and Materials Laboratory course (MEC 291) require a formal laboratory report. The
report should be written in such a way that anyone can duplicate the performed experiment and
find the same results as the originator. The reports should be handwritten (i.e. pencil will not be

4
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

accepted), simple and clearly written. The report should communicate several ideas to the
reader:

1. The report should be neatly done. The experimenter is in effect trying to convince
the reader that the experiment was performed in a straightforward manner with
great care and with full attention to detail.
2. The report should be well organized. The reader should be able to easily follow
each step discussed in the text.
3. The report should contain accurate results. This will require checking and
rechecking the calculation until accuracy can be guaranteed.
4. The report should be written in the third person, past tense with correct grammar
and spelling.

The following format must be in order which is to be used for formal laboratory reports:

1. Title
The title of the experiment and other information should be filled in clearly in the form
provided by the faculty. The form will be used for front page cover of the report.

2. Objective
This is one of the most important parts of the laboratory report because everything
included in the report must somehow relate to the stated objectives. The objectives of
each experiment are stated in the laboratory sheet. A few explanatory sentences may be
included if needed.

3. Apparatus
What material was tested is called test specimen and what apparatus was used is called
test equipment and instrumentation. List the test equipment and instrumentation used
for data collection and analysis. Be specific such as the brand name and the model
number. Also, sketch the specimens and equipment used and make sure that you clearly
label all components of the specimens and equipment.

4. Theory
The theory should explain all equations, theoretical principles, and assumptions that are
used in the experiment and the analysis. The primary purpose of the theory section is to
show how the raw data is manipulated to become results. Relevant equations used are to
be presented and described to illustrate their basis and origin. This section should
include diagrams where needed. Define all variables used in the equations.

5. Procedure
Describe the procedure used to conduct the lab in detail. For instance, what type of
machine was used for the experiment, what did you measure in the lab, what did you
measure those quantities with, how did you do it, etc. Outline exactly by-step how the
experiment was performed in case someone desires to duplicate it. Include any changes
or additions in the procedure sources of ingredients, etc.

6. Results
Present the results of the raw data in the easiest way for your reader to understand with
graphs, tables, figures, etc. All tables and figures should be a label and numbered in the
order they appear and should be referenced sequentially. Figure captions should be
placed below the figures and table captions should be placed above the tables. Always
show a sample of calculation performed on the data in this section as part of the
analysis. Show how you calculate your results. Explain what you are doing in these
calculations. If any analytical expression is to be verified, calculate % error*.
• % error – There are many ways to find % error, but one method is introduced
here for consistency. Take the difference between the empirical and theoretical

5
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

results and divide by the theoretical result. Multiplying by 100% gives the
% error.

7. Discussion
This is the most important part of your report. This section should give an interpretation
of the results explaining how the objective of the experiment was accomplished.
Explain the results of the experiment, comment on the shapes of the curves, compare
obtained results with expected results, give probable reasons for discrepancies from the
theory, answer any questions outlined in the instructions and solve any problems that
may have been presented. Compare the results with previously done experiments.
Account for the sources of experimental error, a suggestion for the improvement of the
experimental procedure or result, or any other aspect of the experiment should be
included in this section.

8. Conclusion
The conclusions must summarize the report and must be based on the experimental
results and should reflect back to the stated objectives. State your discoveries,
judgments and opinions from the results of the experiment. Make recommendations for
further study and suggest ways to improve the results of the experiment.

9. References
Citations of relevant theoretical background material and other related work should be
included in the reference list. Follow the standard format for typing a reference:

1. S.S. Rao, (2004) Mechanical Vibrations, Fourth Edition, Prentice-Hall,

Inc., New Jersey.
2. Little, P., and Cardenas, M., (2001) “Use of Studio Methods in the Introductory
Engineering Design Curriculum,” Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 90,
No. 3, pp. 309-318.
3. Lister, B., “Next Generation Studio: A New Model for Interactive Learning,”
www.ciue.rpi.edu/pdfs/nextGenStudio.pdf. (Accessed, 8th Jun 2007).

iv. GENERAL LABORATORY CLEANLINESS AND SAFETY

The faculty wants to maintain the high-quality conditions of the laboratory for the students in
future years. Thus, the students are advised to note the following rules regarding the laboratory
safety:

1. Students must wear faculty laboratory coat and shoes that cover toes. Slippers are not
allowed in the laboratory.
2. Students are not allowed to enter the laboratory without permission from the lecturers
or assistant engineer. Working alone or unsupervised in laboratories is forbidden.
3. Students are not allowed to eat, drink or smoke while working in the laboratory.
4. Students are not allowed to run the experiments with their hands wet and sleepy or
under medication.
5. Read the instructions carefully and follow the laboratory procedures. Do not touch
anything that you are not completely familiar with.
6. Ensure that the circuit and equipment connections are correct before turning ON the
power supply.
7. Ensure that the switches are OFF, the plugs are unplugged and the working area is
cleaned before you leave the laboratory.
8. Place the equipment, tools, and components back to their original place after the
experiments.
9. Notify your lecturer or assistant engineer immediately if there is an accident or the
equipment is a breakdown.
10. Keep the working area clear of all materials except those needed for your work.

6
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

EXPERIMENT 1

TENSILE TEST

1.0 Objective

i. To obtain a general understanding of how different materials and cross sections

behave under uniaxial tensile loading.
ii. To determine the stress-strain relationship and compare mechanical/material
properties of various materials and cross section.
iii. To obtain the mechanical properties: the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, the
ultimate stress, the fracture stress and the ductility ratio.

2.0 Introduction

The tensile test is the most commonly performed and is the simplest among of all the
mechanical tests. In this experiment, a specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing uniaxial
load until failure occurs. The typical testing procedure is to deform or stretch the material at a
constant speed. A circular and rectangular cross section will be use as tested specimen which is
made of steel and copper or aluminum. The load-deformation data is recorded during the
experiment so this data can be plotted once the procedure is complete. The student will learn
how to properly conduct a tensile test and obtain the relevant material properties from the
results. Further, the student will discover how different materials as well as different cross
section behave under similar loading conditions.

3.0 Background

Mechanical testing play an important role in evaluating fundamental properties of engineering

materials (i.e: modulus of elasticity, Poisson`s ratio, ultimate strength, yield strength, fracture
strength, resilience, toughness, % reduction in area, and % elongation) as well as in developing
new materials and in controlling the quality of materials for use in design and construction.
Most of these engineering values are found by graphing the stress and strain values from testing.
A number of experimental techniques are developed for mechanical testing of engineering
materials subjected to tension, compression, bending and torsion loading.

Ductile materials will neck down through the plastic range before rupture (Figure 1a). Brittle
materials do not neck down significantly (Figure 1b). Instead they fail sharply and abruptly at
the maximum load because brittle materials do not exhibit much plasticity.

a) Failure of ductile material b) Failure of brittle material

Figure 1: Typical of failure of materials

7
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

When a specimen is loaded so that the resultant force passes through the centroid of the specimen
cross section, the loading is called as axial and can be either tensile or compressive. The test measures
force and change of length of the specimen which are used to calculate nominal stress and nominal
strain. The term nominal (or engineering) is used to indicate that the stress is based on the original test
specimen cross section area and the strain is based on the original gage length as shown in Figure 4.
Stress is a measure of the intensity of an internal force. Stress is defined as the force P per unit area A:
2
Stress, σ = P
A (SI unit; N/m )

Strain is a measure of the deformation that has occurred in a material. In the case where the
magnitude of deformation is the same over the entire length of a body, strain is defined as:

Strain, ε = Lf − Lo (m/m-i.e. dimensionless)

Lo
where: Lo = the initial length
Lf = final length

A typical stress-strain diagram from a tensile test for structural steel is shown in Figure 2. The
particular properties are designated on the Figure 2 and are described as below:

1. Young`s Modulus (Modulus of elasticity), E

Young`s Modulus is the ratio of stress to strain for the initial straight line portion of the stress-
strain curve (slope of the straight line). Determined by:
σ
Ε = p

εp
where: σp = proportional limit stress
εp = proportional limit strain

2. Proportional limit
Proportional limit is the value of engineering stress (the load is divided by the initial cross-
sectional area) at the point where the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curves ends.

3. Yield point
Yield point is a point on the stress-strain curve, after which there is a significant increase in
strain with little or no increase in stress. The corresponding stress is called the Yield
strength/Stress of the material. For materials that do not possess well-defined yield point, “offset
method” is used to determine it.

4. Elastic limit
Elastic limit is the value of stress on the stress-strain curve after which the material deforms
plastically (maximum stress for which stress will be directly proportional to strain).

5. Ultimate strength
Ultimate strength is the highest value of apparent stress on the stress-strain curve. It is also
known as the tensile (or compressive) strength.

6. Fracture strength
Fracture strength is the value of stress at the point of final fracture on the stress-strain curve.

8
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

7. Percent elongation
Percent elongation is the measure of the deformation at the point of final fracture. Determined
by:
L −L
%elongation = f o x100
Lo
8. Percent reduction of area
Percent reduction of area is the measure of the fracture ductility. Determined by:
A −A
= o f x100
%R Ao
A Af = the final cross-sectional area at the location of fracture
A0 = the initial cross-sectional area
where;

9. Ductility
Ductility is the characteristic of a material where the material can undergo large plastic
deformations before fracture, especially in tension. Ductility of materials is measured by
ductility ratio;
µ=εu
ductility,
εy
where; εu = the ultimate strain
εy = the yield strain

Figure 2: A typical stress-strain diagram for a ductile material

9
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

4.0 Apparatus

Universal testing machine, vernier caliper, steel ruler, two or three test specimens
(steel, aluminum and brass)

Figure 3: Universal testing machine

LO Lf
(a) Undeformed specimen (b) Deformed specimen

Figure 4: A typical tensile test specimen

5.0 Brief Procedure

1. Measure the dimensions of the each test specimen before and after test and fill in the
table 1. Mark the gauge length on the test specimen.
2. Switch on the machine.
3. Mount the test specimen in the grips of the machine.
4. Apply and record load and the corresponding deformation
5. Repeat steps (1) to (4) for various type of the test specimen.

Note:

Important!! Step by step procedure to run the machine and experiments should be followed the
instructions as stated on the machine.

10
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

6.0 Result

1. The experimental data should be filled or can be printed from the machine.
2. Complete the tables as provided in the worksheet by using the appropriate equations
and experimental data. Find the reference values for the tested material of the specimen.
3. Plot the graph of load versus deformation and stress versus strain with suitable scales
for each tested specimen. (Stress on Y axis and Strain on X axis). Mark and label the
elastic limit, upper yield point, lower yield point, yield stress, ultimate stress and
fracture stress on curve.
4. Plot 0.2% offset line on the graph so that 0.2% offset yield stress can be determined.
5. Calculate the slope of the graph on the elastic limit region which is Modulus of
Elasticity.
6. Sketch the final condition of the specimen and showing the location of failure.

7.0 Discussion

1. Compare and discuss the results in table 4 to reference values and comment on the
possible reasons for discrepancies obtained for a tested specimen.
2. Compare and discuss the similarities and differences in mechanical/material properties
for the materials tested.
3. Distinguish between yield point and yield strength on a stress-strain curve. Which gives
the more accurate indication of a material`s fitness for a particular tensile application?
4. Distinguish between the proportional limit and the elastic limit for each material. Which
is the more important indicator of a material`s mechanical behaviour?
5. What are the advantages of stress-strain diagram over a load-deformation diagram for
showing the results of a test?

11
 MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

WORKSHEET FOR TENSILE TEST

Table 1: Dimension of the appropriate tested specimen

Material: Steel/copper/aluminum Type: rectangular/round

Material Initial (unit: mm) Final (unit: mm)
LO AO 2 dO bO hO Lf Af 2 df bf hf
(mm ) (mm )
Steel
Copper
Aluminum
d = diameter; b = width; h = height(thickness); L = length; A = area

Table 2: Determine the following observation for the tested specimen

No Force (N) Elongation (mm) Stress (Pa) Strain

12
 MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

Table 3: Determine the following observation load for the tested specimen

Material Load at Elastic Load at Upper Load at Lower Ultimate Breaking Load
Limit (N) Yield Point (N) Yield Point (N) Load (N) (N)
Steel
Copper
Aluminum
Table 4: Determine the following properties for the tested specimen

Material Proportional Nominal Actual % Strain % Ductility

Limit Stress Fracture Stress Fracture Stress Reduction Elongati
(Pa) (Pa) (Pa) in Area on
Steel
Copper
Aluminum
Table 5: Determine the % error of the tested specimen

Material Properties Modulus of Elasticity 0.2% offset Yield Yield Stress Ultimate Stress
(Pa) Stress (Pa) (Pa) (Pa)
Steel Experimental
Reference
% Difference
Copper Experimental
Reference
% Difference
Aluminum Experimental
Reference
% Difference

Note:
Yield stress = Yield load@Upper yield load / initial cross-sectional area
Ultimate stress = Ultimate load / initial cross-sectional area
Nominal fracture stress = Breaking load / initial cross-sectional area
Actual fracture stress = Breaking load / final cross-sectional area

13
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

EXPERIMENT 2

TORSION TEST

1.0 Objective

i. To determine the modulus of rigidity, maximum shearing stress, maximum shearing

strain and Poisson`s ratio for the tested specimen.
ii. To study the linearly elastic behaviour of the tested specimen under torsion and to
obtain the relationship between torsional load and angle of twist for a full range of
strains until failure.

2.0 Introduction

The purpose of torsion testing usually parallels that of uniaxial tension tests. In this experiment,
solid cylindrical specimen of steel or brass will be subjected to a torsional load. The test will be
conducted until failure (i.e. it will end in the fracture). During the test, the angle of twist and the
applied torque are measured as the test proceeds. From the applied torque, the student will
calculate the shear stress and shear strain of the tested material. The modulus of rigidity will be
obtained from the plotted graph and compared to reference value.

3.0 Background

Torsional loads are created by propellers on aircraft, transmissions in cars or by highway signs
that are twisted by wind. Torsion loading results in twisting of one section of a body with
respect to a contiguous section. Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its
longitudinal axis. Shearing strains are induced in members under torsion. Shafts are widely used
in engineering applications to transmit power from one point to another. A torque, T is applied
to the shaft as shown in Figure 1 where the shaft is fixed at one end and free at the other. As a
result, complementary shear stresses are developed on the longitudinal planes which cause a
distortion of filaments.

Figure 1

In a torque against angle of twist relationship, the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of the
tested specimen can be determined by using the following relationship:

G =TL/Jφ
and G = τ / γ

where; T = applied torque

L = length of the shaft
G = modulus of rigidity
φ = angle of twist within the tested length.

14
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

The largest shear stress occurs at the outside surface of the material and can be calculated using
the following relationship:

τ = Tr / J
where; τ = shear stress
r = radius of the shaft
J = polar moment of inertia of the shaft

The shearing strain occurs along the tested length of the shaft can be determined using the
following relationship:

γ = rφ / L

where; γ = shear strain

The relationship between the modulus of rigidity and modulus of elasticity within the linear
elastic range of the material is described by Hooke`s law, which relates the Poisson`s ratio of
the tested material is given by;

E = 2G (1+v)

where; v = Poisson`s ratio

E = modulus of elasticity

The torque can also be obtained by using the following relationship;

T=G(Jθ)

where; θ = φ / L = angle of twist per unit length

4.0 Apparatus

WP 500 torsion testing machine, caliper, solid cylindrical specimens (steel and brass). Sketch
the specimen with complete dimensions.

Figure 2

15
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

5.0 Procedure

The experimental apparatus is setup as shown in Figure 2.

1. Measure the diameter and the length of the test specimen.

2. Draw a straight line using pencil lead on the specimen length in order to observe the
effect of twisting. Fixed the both end of the specimen into the specimen holder.
3. Mount the specimen between the loading device and the torque measuring unit. Make
sure that the shifting specimen holder of the load is in the mid position.
4. Make sure that the specimen is not initially loaded. Turn on the hand wheel clockwise to
provide the applied load. Switch on the measurement amplifier and set it to zero. The
read out values is the applied torque.
5. For the first rotation choose an increment of a quarter rotation (90 0), for the second and
third rotation of a half rotation (1800) and for the fourth to 8th rotation of one rotation
(3600). For the 9th to specimen fracture, take the reading of the applied load and angle of
twist for each 5 or 10 rotations.

Note:
It is best to count the number of rotations and then later convert it to degrees when writing the
report. Record the final torque reading of the specimen at failure and also measure the new
diameter at the fracture point.

6.0 Result

1. The experimental data should be filled in the table as provided in the worksheet and
complete the tables by using the appropriate equations (i.e. calculate the shear strain
from experimental angle of twist and shear stress from applied torque).
2. Plot the graph:
i. Torque (y-axis) vs angle of twist (x-axis)
ii. Shear stress (y axis) vs shear strain (x-axis)
3. Determine the experimental modulus of rigidity from the graph (i) (i.e. the slope of the
line). Then, in conjunction with the modulus of elasticity from a reference value,
calculate the Poisson`s ratio. Also, determine the yield shear stress, ultimate shear stress
and fracture shear stress.
4. Sketch the fracture surface of the tested specimen.

7.0 Discussion

1. Compare the results of this test between the experiment and reference (standard) value
of modulus of rigidity, Poisson` ratio, shear stress and shear strain. Comment on any
differences and possible sources of error.
2. Describe the behaviour of this material as it responds to increasing applied torque.
3. Is the Hooke's law for shearing stress and strain valid? Explain.
4. Describe the appearance of the fracture surface of the tested specimen and discuss the
mode of failure (ductile failure or brittle failure under torsion).
5. Which should be able resist more torque – a solid bar or hollow bar of the same
material and cross-sectional area? Explain.

16
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

WORKSHEET FOR TORSION TEST

Table 1: Experimental and calculation data of tested specimen

Applied torque Angle of twist Calculation value

Scale reading Amplifier Shear stress Shear strain
(revolution) reading Degree Radian (Pa)
(degree) (Nm)
0
0 (0 )
¼ (900)
½ (1800)
¾ (2700)
1 (3600)
2 (7200)
3
4
5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
160
180
210
240
270
300
340
380
420
460
500
540
580
600
...
...
...
……Fracture
17
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

Table 2: Determine the following properties for the tested specimen

Material Diameter Length Polar moment Modulus of

(m) (m) of inertia (m4) elasticity (Pa)
Steel
Brass
Table 3: Determine the properties and % error of the tested specimen

Item Experimental Theory/reference % error

value value
Modulus of rigidity, G (Pa)
Poisson`s ratio, v

Maximum shear stress, τmax (Pa)

Maximum torque, Tmax (Nm)

Maximum shearing strain, γmax

Failure shear stress, τf (Pa)

18
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

EXPERIMENT 3

STRAIGHT BEAM EXPERIMENTS

1.0 Objective

i. To determine the reaction force, maximum bending stress and maximum shear
stress in the straight beam from a bending test of tested specimen.
ii. To compare the experimental reaction forces with the theoretical values for a
loading on the straight beam.

2.0 Introduction

In this experiment, a straight beam of steel or brass is installed as a simply supported beam. This
experiment will be determined the reaction forces for a beam loaded of a concentrated load.
From the applied load, the student will calculate the bending moment and shear force. The
bending stresses, shear stresses and behaviour of reaction forces associated with this type of
loading are investigated.

3.0 Background

A structural element which is considered horizontal and subjected to load transverse to its axis is
known as a beam. Examples include the main members supporting floors of building,
automotive axles and airplane wings. In general, a beam is either free from any axial force or its
effect is negligible. An applied transverse load to a beam results in internal forces of shear and
bending moment. Depending on how the beam is loaded, shear forces and bending moments
may vary continuously along the length of the beam.

Shear force is the unbalanced vertical force on one side (to the left of right) of a section of a
beam and is the sum of all the normal forces on one side of the section. It also represents the
tendency of either portion of the beam to slide or shear laterally relative to the other. Bending
moment at a section of a beam is defined as the algebraic sum of the moments about the section
of all the forces on one side of the section. The internal stresses developed in the beam due to
the bending moment are known as flexural or bending stresses. The vertical stresses
distributions are termed the shearing stresses.

Figure 1 shows a simply supported beam loaded at distance x from the left (A). This experiment
determines the supporting forces for a bar depending on the point of application of the load x.

Balance of moments around support B

∑MB = 0 = F (L - x) - A L

Supporting force A
x
A = F (1- L )
Balance of moments around support A

∑MA = 0 = B L - F x

Supporting force B
x
B=FL

19
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

x
L

A B
Figure 1: Simply supported beam

Bending stresses are determined by using the following relationship:

σ = My/I
where; M = bending moment at a section
y = distance from neutral axis to point of stress
I = moment of inertia of cross section with respect to neutral axis

The maximum bending stresses occur at the top (compressive) and bottom (tensile) of the beam
where the value of y and M are largest in which can be determined from the bending moment
diagram.

Shear stresses are determined by using the following relationship:

τ = VQ / It

where; V = the shear force at a section

Q = Ay = the first moment of the shaded cross-sectional area with
respect to the neutral axis where A = cross-sectional area
I = the moment of inertia of cross section with respect to neutral axis
t = the width of the member`s cross-sectional area

The maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis (y = 0) where Q is maximum. The
maximum shear force can be determined from the shear force diagram.

4.0 Apparatus

Steel bar or brass bar, rider for weight, suspender for weights, weights, 2 articulated supports
with dynamometer, caliper and steel ruler.

Figure 2
20
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

5.0 Procedure

The experimental apparatus is setup as shown in Figure 2.

1. Fasten the articulated supports (2) at a distance of L = 900 mm.

2. Push the rider (6) for the weight suspender onto the bar (4) at distance x and place
the bar on the supports
3. Loosen the locking screw of dynamometer
4. Adjust the height of the support using the rotary knob (3) until the bar (4) is horizontal.
5. Re-secure the support using the locking screw
6. Set the scale on the dynamometer to zero by twisting the dynamometer.
7. Suspend the weight (5) and load (F = 15 N) the bar
8. Read the reaction forces on the dynamometers and record in the worksheet.
9. Repeat step (2 to 8) for the difference distance x.

6.0 Result

1. Complete the data in table 1(a), 1(b) and table 2 as provided in the worksheet.
2. Draw the load, shear force and bending moment diagrams for the applied load at
mid-length of the beam specimen. Compute the bending stresses and shearing
stresses associated with maximum shear force and bending moment at each test
and present them in the table 1.

7.0 Discussion

1. Compare the results of this test for each specimen to the calculation or standard
values (i.e. reaction forces, bending and shear stresses). Comment on any
differences and possible sources of error.
2. How does the relative importance of bending and shearing stresses vary with the
loading position of the beam?
3. Base on the results of the experiment, would the steel be stronger than brass? If
so, explain.
4. Is there any difference between the stresses measured at the top of the beam and
at the same location (at the same section) on the bottom of the beam? Explain
the both possible answer.
5. Write and define the classification of beam. They must be shown in correct
diagram.

21
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

WORKSHEET FOR STRAIGHT BEAM EXPERIMENTS

Table 1: Experimental and calculation data of beam

(a) Steel
Distance x Experimental Calculation Error (%) Shear Bending
from support reaction force (N) reaction force (N) force moment
A (mm) (N) (Nm)
A B A B A B
0
100
200
300
450

Experimental Vmax = =
Experimental σmax

Experimental Mmax = =
Experimental τmax

(b) Brass
Distance x Experimental Calculation Error (%) Shear Bending
from support reaction force (N) reaction force (N) force moment
A (mm) (N) (Nm)
A B A B A B
0
100
200
300
450

Experimental Vmax = =
Experimental σmax

Experimental Mmax = =
Experimental τmax

Note: Values for one half of x only, the other half is symmetrical .

Table 2: Determine the following properties for each metal specimen

Orientation Cross- Moment y t Q σmax τmax

Specimen Width Height sectional of inertia (m) (m) (m3) (Pa)
(m) (m) area (m2) (m4) (Pa)
Steel
Brass

22
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

EXPERIMENT 4

THE EFFECTS OF HEAT TREATMENT ON THE

MICROSTRUCTURE OF STEEL

1.0 Objectives

• To study on preparing of metallographic sample for microstructures observation.

• To study various types of heat treatment process; annealing, normalizing, quenching
• To study the effects of heat treatment on the microstructure of steel.
• To discover the microstructure of ferrite, pearlite, cementite, austenite and martensite
under microscopic view.

2.0 Apparatus

i) Five different sample of heat treated steel

Sample Number Type of Heat Treatment

1 (WHT) Without Heat Treatment
2 (QW) Water Quenched
3 (QO) Oil Quenched
4 (N) Normalizing
5 (A) Annealed

ii) Hand grinding machine

iii) Polishing Machine
iv) Optical microscope

3.0 Summary

The properties of steels can be changed or altered by several techniques such as alloying and
heat treatment. Heat treatment process is a process of ability to change the properties by
applying heat. Such treatment modifies microstructures, producing a variety of mechanical
properties that are important in manufacturing, such as improve formability and machinability.

3.1 Heat Treatment Process

3.1.1 Annealing

Heat treatment in which a material taken to an elevated temperature, kept there for some
time and then slowly cooled. Purpose
• Reduce hardness and brittleness
• To alter the microstructure so that desirable mechanical properties is
achievable.
• To soften metals for improved machinability or formability.
• To recrystallize cold worked (strain hardened) metals.

23
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

3.1.2 Normalizing

An annealing heat treatment process accomplished by heating at approximately 55 oC to

88 oC above upper critical temperature and followed by air cooling. Purpose
• Higher strength and hardness material
• Improve machinability
• To refine grain by decreasing grain size and more uniform distribution.

3.1.3 Quenching

Process of heating sample to the austenite range and then cooled rapidly. Various
quenching mediums can be used during the process: i.e. water, oil, air, and brine which
each will give different result on the structures and mechanical properties.

The effect of cooling rate on the material can be summarized as in table below:

Cooling Rate Fast(Quenching) Slow

Hard Soft
Properties Strong Weak
Brittle Ductile
Microstucture Martensite Ferrite- Pearlite- Cementite
Grain Size Small Large
3.2 Sample Preparation

The objective of sample preparation for metallographic observation is to generate a flat

surface with a mirror like surface. The metal that appears in the microscopic
photographs must be prepared and polished carefully before a good microscopic view
can be seen. The surface that we observe under optical microscope must first be totally
flat and smooth. In order to obtain the smooth and flat surface, several techniques are
required. These include cutting, molding, grinding, polishing and etching.

3.2.1 Molding

The sample usually molded in plastic after cutting to ease holding during polishing.

3.2.2 Grinding

Surface is ground to remove rough scale and imperfection on the surface, followed by
fine grinding until it begins to reflect light.

3.2.3 Polishing

• Rough Polishing – remove the imperfection that grinding has left.

• Fine polishing – remove all scratches.

3.2.4 Etching

• The surface of sample is cleaned with alcohol and dried.

• The surface of sample is immersed in the etching reagent for a few seconds.
• The sample is place under a steam of water to remove all traces of acid.
• Then the sample is washed again with alcohol to prevent watermarks.
• The sample is ready to be viewed under microscope.

24
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

4.0 Experiment Procedures

4.1 Students will be provided with five different samples of heat-treated steel.
4.2 Observe and sketch the microstructure of each sample.
4.3 Identify and label the microstructures.

5.0 Results and Discussion

5.1 What is the purpose of etching process in the preparation of metallographic

sample and how it is done?

5.2 Describe the heat treatment procedures for steel (annealing, normalizing,
quenching and tempering) and the intended final microstructure(s).

5.3 Briefly describe the characteristics of martensite microstructure .

6.0 Conclusion

Conclude your finding.

7.0 References

List all references that you have made during the course of your finding.

25
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

EXPERIMENT 5

OBSERVATION ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST IRON

1.0 Objectives

• To observe microstructures of cast iron under optical microscope.

• To identify the classification of cast iron according to the characteristic of the
microstructures obtained.

2.0 Apparatus

i) Three unidentified samples of cast iron

ii) Optical microscope

3.0 Summary

Cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% and small
amounts of Silicon. It should be noticed that cast iron and iron are totally different terms. Cast
irons become completely liquid at temperatures between 1150 oC and 1300oC, which they are
easily melted and able to cast. Cementite (Fe 3C) is a metastable compound and under certain
conditions it can be decomposed to form α-ferrite and graphite according to following reaction:
Fe3C 3 Fe (α) + C (graphite)

For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure and
mechanical behaviour depend on the composition and heat treatment. The most common types
of cast irons are gray, nodular (ductile), white and malleable cast iron.

Gray Cast Iron

Gray cast iron is the most widely used of all types of cast iron due to its reliability to almost
engineering application. The carbon and silicon content of this cast iron is between 2.5 and 4.0
wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%. The graphite exits in the form of flakes, which are surrounded by
ferrite or pearlite matrix.

Nodular Cast Iron

Adding a small amount of magnesium or cerium to the gray cast iron before casting can form
graphite into nodules or sphere-like particles. The matrix phase surrounding these particles is
either ferrite or pearlite depending on the heat treatment process.

White and Malleable Cast Iron

For cast irons which containing less than 1.0 wt% silicon and rapid cooling rates, most of the
carbon exits as cementite instead of graphite. Heating white cast iron at temperature between
800oC and 900oC for a prolonged time period and in neutral atmosphere causes a decomposition
of cementite to form clusters or rosettes graphite surrounded by ferrite or pearlite matrix.

26
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

4.0 Experiment Procedures

4.1 Students will be provided with four samples of cast iron.

4.2 Observe and sketch the microstructure of each sample.

4.3 Identify and label all microstructures drawn.

5.0 Results and Discussion

5.1 Differentiate between steel and cast iron with reference to their carbon
percentage and hardness.

5.2 On the basis of microstructure, briefly explain why gray iron is brittle and weak
in tension.

5.3 Compare white and nodular cast irons with respect to (a) composition (b)
microstructure, and (c) mechanical characteristic.

6.0 Conclusion

Conclude your finding.

7.0 References

List all references that you have made during the course of your finding.

27
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

EXPERIMENT 6

HARDNESS TEST

1.0 Objective

To measure the hardness of different metals by using Vickers micro-hardness testing method.

2.0 Apparatus

i) Vickers hardness test machine

ii) A sample of metallic materials: Steel, Copper, Aluminum.
iii) Hand grinding machine
iv) Polishing Machine

3.0 Summary

Hardness is perhaps the most important property of metals during the study of metallurgy. It
could be defined as a measure of resistance to deformation or to penetration. It relates to several
other key properties, such as strength, brittleness and ductility.

There are several hardness testing methods and hardness testing machines such as
Brinnel, Vickers, Knoop and Rockwell. Principally there are same but each of these methods
differs in term of type of penetrator or indenter and calculation that associated (Refer Figure 1
and 2). In this experiment student will use Vickers method in measuring the hardness of each
metal provided.

In the Vickers hardness testing method, the hardness is measured by the load applied
o
over the area of impression. The Vickers indenter is a square pyramid with 136 angles between
opposite site. The Vickers hardness number or (HV) are found from the following formulas:

HV = Load / Impression area

HV = 2 F sin ( θ / 2 ) x 1000
2
d
=
1.854 x F d2

28
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

Figure 1: Hardness Testing Techniques

29
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

Figure 2: Comparison of several hardness scales

30
MEC 291: Mechanics and materials lab

4.0 Experiment Procedures

4.1 Students will be provided a sample of specimen: Steel, Copper and Aluminum.
4.2 To perform the test, the specimen is positioned on the stage and then moved
under the microscope.
4.3 Shifting the sample with X-Y coordinate micrometer screws mounted on the
stage, select the area to be tested.
4.4 Select the load of (0.1; 0.5 and 1kg) and then press run.
4.5 Measure the diagonal(s) of the impression using the length adjustment. The
impression seen through the screen is a square with diagonals running between
the corners as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Impression made by Vickers indenter

5.0 Results and Discussion

5.1 Explain why hardness value is very important in the metallurgy study.

5.2 Using the data from each sample, plot a graph of hardness value (HV) versus
loading (g). Discuss the results obtained.

5.3 Using the plotted graph, determined the hardness value for each sample at
loading of 800g.

6.0 Conclusion

Conclude your finding.

7.0 References

List all references that you have made during the course of your finding.

31
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

EXPERIMENT 7

DEPENDENT MOTION OF SEVERAL PARTICLES

1.0 Objective

(i) To determine the displacement, velocity and acceleration of block A when a weight
applied to the system at different angle (15º and 45º).
(ii) To determine the coefficients of kinetic friction between block A and a sliding surface
using theoretical equation at each angle.

2.0 Introduction

By using this apparatus, basic experiment can be performed on weight and friction forces on an
inclined plane as a function of the angle of inclination. The unit comprises a plane with a plastic
coating, a pillar and a base plate. The inclination angle can be adjusted using swiveling joint and
scale over a range 0f ±45º. Two sliding bodies in combination with the plane are reproducible
measurements with very low “slip-stick” effects. As a result, it is possible to very clearly
demonstrate the transition from static to sliding, and clearly demonstrate “friction cone”.

3.0 Apparatus

Inclined plane, weights, block, ruler and stop watch.

Figure 1: Apparatus for dependent motion of several particles experiment

32
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

4.0 Theory

Distance,s

Weights
Block A

Height, h

Figure 2 Dependent motion analyses

The relationship of the displacement, velocity and acceleration between weights and block A
can be determined using equations

∑F=ma

In this experiment, the velocity and acceleration of weight w and block A can be calculated by
using this equation.

Velocity of Block A, vA= s / t (1.1)

Velocity of Weight, vw = h/t (1.2)

Acceleration of Block A, aA = (vA-uA)/t (1.3)

Acceleration of weight, aw = (vw-uw)/t (1.4)

Then, by using free body diagram, calculate the coefficients of kinetic friction (µ k) between
block A and the plane based on the equation below,

Coefficients of kinetic friction, µk = Ff / N (1.5)

Where:
Ff = Friction force
N = Normal force

5.0 Procedure

1. Select suitable inclination angle, (15º and 45º).

2. Add the weights until block A moves upwards.
3. Pull block A to a starting mark and measure height, h.
4. Release block A and instantaneously start the stop watch.
5. Stop the watch once the weight hit the table.
6. Record the time, distance s, weights and mass of block A.
7. Repeat the experiment by adding more weight.

33
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

6.0 Result
Block A = ________ kg
Height, H = ________ m
Angle, θ = _________ º
Table 1: Experimental Data

Weight, W (N) Distance, s (m) Time, t (s)

1 2 3 Average 1 2 3 Average

Table 2: Calculation Data

Weight,W (N)

Velocity, vA (m/s)

Velocity, vw (m/s)

Acceleration, aA (m/s2)
2
Acceleration, aw (m/s )

Coefficients of friction, µ

7.0 Discussion

i) Draw the free body diagram and kinetic diagram for the block A and the weight.

ii) Compare and discuss the result of the displacement, velocity and acceleration of
block A when a weight applied to the system at different angle (15º and 45º)

iii) Compare and discuss the result of the coefficients of kinetic friction between block
A and a sliding surface using theoretical equation at each angle.

iv) Give your comment or suggest any cause of errors.

34
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

8.0 Conclusion

Write your conclusion about the experiments.

9.0 References

List all the references that you have made during the course of your finding .

35
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

EXPERIMENT 8

CRANK AND SLIDER MECHANISM

1.0 Objective

To determine the linear velocity of the slider through theory and experiment when the
angular velocity of crank is 2.0 rad/s.

2.0 Introduction

In this laboratory we will investigate the kinematics of some simple mechanisms used to
convert rotary motion into oscillating linear motion and vice-versa. This bench top unit
demonstrates the conversion of smooth rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The input angle
is set on a ball bearing mounted crank disc and read off on an angle measuring scale integrated
into the base plate. Crank radius can be adjusted and have three positions. The simple insertion
of a bolt enables the swiveling cylinder to be locked, thus a crank drive with either a fixed or
oscillating cylinder can be demonstrated.

3.0 Apparatus

Crank and Connecting rod apparatus.

Figure 1: Crank and Connecting rod apparatus.

4.0 Theory

There are three types of planar rigid body motion.

Translation:

Translation occurs if every line segment on the body remains parallel to its original direction
during the motion. When all points move along straight lines, the motion is called rectilinear
translation. When the paths of motion are curved lines, the motion is called curvilinear
translation.

Rotation about a fixed axis.

In this case, all the particles of the body, except those on the axis of rotation, move along
circular paths in planes perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

36
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

General plane motion.

In this case, the body undergoes both translation and rotation. Translation occurs within a plane
and rotation occurs about an axis perpendicular to this plane.

Examples of body undergoing the three types of motion are shown in this mechanism.

R = 25.0 mm, 37.5 mm, 50.0 mm

L = 150.0 mm

Figure 2 : Slider crank mechanism

The relationship between linear movement of the slider and rotary movement of the crank
and derive the velocity equation from this relation where;

x = 2rcos(2rcos )2 – 4(r2-L2) ……..theoretical value

2
and
= r x sin ……………..theoretical velocity.
r cos -x
also we know, = dx = dx . d = dx . …….experimental value

dt d dt d
where dx/d is the slope of graph x versus and take = 2.0 rad/s.

5.0 Procedure

i) Select radius for cranks and tightened the screw.

ii) Put slider in horizontal position and tightened the screw.
iii) Select 0 crank angle and take the scale reading. Put the data in the table
provided.
iv) Repeat step 3 for every 30 angles interval.

37
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

6.0 Result

i) Complete the tables below by using the appropriate equations and

experimental data.
ii) Plot x (cm) versus (rad) graph.
iii) Determine the slope of the graph (dx/dθ) for every point of the angle.

Table 1: Theoretical Value

(º) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

x
cm
x
cm/s

Table 2: Experimental Data

(º) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

x
cm
dx/d
cm/rad
x
cm/s

Table 3: Percentage error ( x cm/s)

(º) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

7.0 Discussion

i) Explain how a crank and slider system works.

ii) Compare and discuss the result from the theoretical and experimental tables.
iii) Give your comment or suggest any cause of errors.
iv) Explain some of the practical applications of a crank and slider mechanism.

8.0 Conclusion

Write your conclusion about the experiments.

9.0 References
List all the references that you have made during the course of your finding.

38
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

EXPERIMENT 9

FLYWHEEL APPARATUS

1.0 Objective
To determine the drop time for various weights of the flywheel apparatus through experiment
and compared to the value using theoretical equation.

2.0 Introduction

By using this apparatus, basic experiments on uniformly accelerated angular motion can be
performed. A flywheel mounted in ball bearings is placed in motion by a weight attached to a
pulley. The inertia of the flywheel can be determined from the fall time of the weight. The unit
is intended for wall mounting.

3.0 Apparatus

Flywheel Apparatus, rope, stop watch, weights.

Figure 1: Flywheel Apparatus

4.0 Theory

The unit can be used to demonstrate the basic principles of dynamics relating to the
rotation of a rigid body. The fundamental law of rotation about a fixed axis stated that the
moment of the external forces referenced to the axis of rotation is proportional to the angular
acceleration of the body

(3.1)

The tendency of all bodies to maintain a state of restore, once moving, to maintain a state of
uniform movement, is attributed to a property of the body known as inertia. The resistance with
which a body oppose its acceleration is referred to in the case of rotation as mass moment of
inertia I, which must always be referenced to the respective axis of rotation.

The following applies to the mass moment of inertia referenced to the centre of mass for a
solid round pulley (flywheel’s radius, R)

39
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

(3.2)

The moment of the external forces is produced by the rope force, T of weight and the radius of
action, r of the pulley as follows

(3.3)

This yields the fundamental law of rotation for the flywheel

(3.4)

After releasing the weight, the centre of mass theorem gives the following for the straight-line
motion

(3.5)

The acceleration, a of the weight is linked to the angular acceleration α of the flywheel by way
of the radius r of the pulley.

(3.6)

Combining the equation 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 and resolving for acceleration yields

(3.7)

Or, for angular acceleration of the pulley,

(3.8)

As the expression is >> 1, the 1 in the denominator of equation 3.7 can be disregarded

or (3.9)

As the acceleration can most easily be determined via the drop time T of the weight for a
specific distance s, this equation is integrated twice and resolved for time t

(3.10)

Given x = s, r = radius of pulley, and T = t, the drop time is

(3.11)

This enables the drop times for various weights to be calculated and compared to the
measurement. Conversely, it is also possible to draw conclusions from the drop time and thus
the acceleration about an unknown mass moment of inertia. This experiment is performed in
practice with complex turned parts for experimental determination of the rotary inertia.

40
MEC 291 : Mechanics and Material Lab

7.0 Discussion

5.0 Procedure

i) Attach desired weights to weight holder and suspend from rope.

ii) Coil rope by turning the flywheel until weight is at a height of 1 m. Make sure
that the coils of rope are side by side.
iii) Release flywheel and use stopwatch to measure time taken by weight to return
to the ground.
iv) Stop flywheel by hand once weight has returned to the ground.
v) The measured times are entered in a table. The measurement should be repeated
at least three times and the average value calculated to minimise error. The
times measured can be compared to the values calculated.

6.0 Result

Diameter of flywheel : Ø 300 mm

Diameter of pulley : Ø 22 mm
Mass : 22.2 kg

Mass moment of inertia: ___________________

Table 1 : Measurement and Calculated Data

Drop time as a function of drive weight

Drop height s = 1 m
Weight, W Time, T measured in seconds (s) Average time, Calculated Percentage
(N) T (s) Time , T (s) error (%)
1st time 2nd time 3rd time
1
2
5
10

i) Draw the free body diagram and kinetic diagram for the flywheel and weight.

ii) Compare and discuss the result of the drop time for various weights of the flywheel
apparatus using theoretical equation and compared to the measurement in the
experiments.

iii) Give your comment or suggest any cause of errors.

8.0 Conclusion

Write your conclusion about the experiments.

9.0 References

List all the references that you have made during the course of your finding.

41
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

EXPERIMENT ……..

BUCKLING OF COLUMN TEST

1.0 Objective

i. To determine the critical load and critical stress for different end conditions of the
tested specimen.
ii. To study the effects of end conditions, column length and load-displacement
behaviour on compressive load and buckling in columns.

2.0 Introduction

In this experiment, the specimen of steel or brass or aluminum will be tested within their elastic
ranges with different end conditions. From the compressive axial load, the student will calculate
the critical loads and critical stresses. The effects of the different end conditions and the critical
load for known material are investigated.

3.0 Background

Columns or struts are defined as relatively long, slender member subjected to a compressive
axial load in a vertical position as shown in Figure 1. The most common example of a column is
the vertical supporting member of a building. This brings into account why the study of
columns is so critical because there is a large human safety factor involved. There is a critical
load that will cause all columns to buckle or bend, this load simply defined is the maximum or
critical or crippling or buckling load that a column can carry and still remain straight. At this
critical, the column is still axially straight but is unstable, any sideways or lateral force applied
to the column at this point would cause deflection and failure.

The critical load can be determined by using the Euler`s equation which is valid in the elastic
region.
2
= EI
Pcr
Le 2

where; Pcr = Euler critical load

E = Modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia of the cross section of the column
Le = effective length
P

Figure 1

42
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

The value of Le depends upon the method of restraining the ends of the member, that is used for
calculations is given by the following:

Pinned – pinned end conditions Le = L

Pinned –fixed end conditions Le = 0.7L
Fixed - fixed end conditions Le = 0.5L
Fixed – free end conditions Le = 2L

The stress just before buckling can be calculated by substituting I = Ar 2 into Euler`s equation,
where r and A is the radius of gyration and cross-sectional area of the column respectively. The equation
becomes
2
=P cr
= E
cr 2
A L e

r
where; σcr = critical stress

Le/r = effective slenderness ratio

As long as the proportional limit of the material is not exceeded by the critical stress, Euler`s
equation for the critical load is valid. The resistance of a member to bending is due to its flexure
rigidity EI or EAr2.

4.0 Apparatus

SM 105 TQ Strut apparatus (Figure 2), caliper, steel ruler and column test
specimen (steel, brass, and aluminum)

Figure 2: Strut Apparatus

5.0 Procedure

The experiment is set up as shown in Figure 2.

1. Measure the width, height, and length of the tested specimen.

2. Ensure that the clamps of the specimen holders are tightened.

43
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

3. Select the column and adjust the rear specimen to the correct position and insert the
dowel pins.
4. Turn the dial gauge so that the stem does not impede the insertion of the strut.
5. Examine the column and carefully straighten it if necessary. Insert the column with
its ends in the V grooves of the specimen holders. Turn the loading knob to zero.
6. Adjust the position of the central cross member so that the dial gauge foot (ball end)
rests on the centerline of the strut at mid-span.
7. Apply load and check the deflection direction. It must be away from the dial gauge. If
deflection is towards the dial gauge, remove the load and turn the strut over and
reload to give the central deflection of about 10mm.
8. Reduce load to zero and zero setting the dial gauge.
9. Apply load by increments, tapping the dial gauge very gently whilst applying the
load and dial gauge reading for each increment of load.
10. Repeat step (1) to (8) for other end conditions.

6.0 Result

1. The experimental data should be filled in the table as provided in the worksheet and
complete the tables by using the appropriate equations and other sources.
2. Plot the graph of load (y-axis) versus deflection (x-axis) for all the experiments on one
graph for comparison.

7.0 Discussion

1. Compare and explain the results of critical loads and critical stresses. Comment on any
differences and possible sources of error.
2. Compare and explain the graph plotted for the different end conditions.
3. Describe the slenderness ratio of a column and how it can affect to the critical stress.

44
 MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

WORKSHEET FOR BUCKLING OF COLUMN

TEST Table 1: Experimental and calculation data of the tested specimen

(a) End conditions:………………………. (b) End conditions:……………………….

Load (N) Deflection Load Deflection

div mm (N) div mm

(c) End conditions:……………………….

Load (N) Deflection

div mm

Table 2: Determine the following properties for the tested specimen

Material Width Height Cross- Moment of Radius of Modulus Critical Critical

(m) (m) sectional inertia gyration of elasticity load stress
area (m2) (m4) (m) (Pa) (Pa) (Pa)

45
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.H. Bernard. (1987). Laboratory experiments in college physics.6th edition. John Wiley & Son,

H. Larry. (2001).Fundamentals of materials science for technologist: properties, testing and

laboratory exercises, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall,

J. Hannah and R. C. Stephens. (1998).Mechanics of machines: advanced theory and examples,

2nd ed. Arnold International students,

F.P. Beer, E.R. Johnston, J. T. DeWolf and D.F. Mazurek, (2009).Mechanics of Materials, 5th
edition, edition, McGraw Hill Publication,.

F.P. Beer and E.R. Johnston. (2007).Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics, 8th edition,
McGraw-Hill Publication,.

R.C. Hibbeler. (2011).Mechanics of Materials, SI 8th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall.

R.C. Hibbeler. (2010). Engineering Mechanics - Dynamics, 12th edition, Pearson Prentice

Hall T. Fischer. (2009).Materials science for engineering students, Elsevier/Academic Press.

W. F. Smith. (2006).Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 4th edition. McGraw-

Hill Publication.

W. D. Callister, Jr., (2007). Materials Science and Engineering, an Introduction, 7th ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

http://www.engineeringarchives.com/les_mom_stressstraindiagram.html; (accessed Mei 2011)

http://www.ejsong.com/mdme/memmods/MEM23061A/Torsion/.html; (accessed Mei 2011)

http://www.engr.iupui.edu/me/courses/me272lab/; (accessed Mei 2011)

http://emweb.unl.edu/NEGAHBAN/Em325/intro.html.(accessed Mei 2011)

http://courses.washington.edu/me354a/labman.html(accessed Mei 2011)

http://www.calce.umd.edu/TSFA/Hardness_ad_.htm.(accessed June 2011)

http://www.efunda.com/materials/common_matl/Common_Matl.cfm?MatlPhase=Solid&MatlPr
op=Mechanical#Mechanical.(accessed Mei 2011)

http://amrita.vlab.co.in/?sub=1&brch=74&sim=571&cnt=1.(accessed June 2011)

46
MEC 291 : Mechanics and materials lab

APPENDIXES

47
 MEC 291: LABORATORY REPORT RUBRIC Amendment 3. Aug 2017

Item Excellent (9-10) Good (7-8) Satisfactory (5-6) Poor (3-4) Very Poor (0-2)

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
All lab sections are in correct order, All lab sections are in correct Sections in order, formatting is Sections out of order, sloppy
well formatted, very readable, order, formatting generally is good rough but readable, pages/diagrams formatting, many pages/diagrams
pages/diagrams have not been torn from but could still be improved, have been torn from the lab manual, have been torn from the lab manual,
1. the lab manual, neat, well organized with readable, pages/diagrams have not acceptable neat and not well not neat and lacking in organization. ▪ Most of the `poor` condition
headings. been torn from the lab manual, neat organized. ▪ Too many spelling/grammar
Appearance,
▪ A few spelling/grammar errors. and organized. ▪ Multiple spelling/grammar errors. errors. is not met.
the ▪ A few mistakes are ` line through ` ▪ Some spelling/grammar errors. ▪ Many mistakes are ` line through ` ▪ Many mistakes are covered with
organization, rather than covered with white out ▪ Some mistakes are ` line through ` rather than covered with white out. white out rather than ` line through `
front page ▪ Complete all information as needed on rather than covered with white out ▪ Missing two pieces of information ▪ Missing more than two
and etc the front page cover (e.g: title, names, ▪ Missing one piece of information except for title and name of student information includes the title and
date, signature and etc) except for title and name of student and lecturer. name of student or/and lecture.
▪ The lab report is tape/ring binding. and lecturer. ▪ The lab report is stapled without ▪ The lab report is stapled at the
▪ The lab report is tape/ring binding. end.
binding.
▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
All objectives of the lab are clearly All objectives of the lab are Objectives are partially identified Objectives of the lab are may not
identified and stated in the new identified but stated in a somewhat and stated in a somewhat unclear identify and stated in not clear.
sentences. unclear manner. manner. ▪ Some objectives are missing.
2. ▪ Includes a detailed paragraph ▪ Some objectives are copied ▪ The objective is mostly copied ▪ Very little prior knowledge is ▪ Most of the `poor` condition
Objective describing any prior knowledge related to directly from the lab manual with directly from the lab manual. described or information is not
the topic of the lab. some attempt at new sentences. ▪ Includes a paragraph describing directly related to the topic of the is not met.
and theory ▪ Includes outside research ▪ Includes a detailed paragraph some prior knowledge related to the lab.
information describing any prior knowledge topic of the lab. ▪ The theory is mostly copied
related to the topic of the lab. ▪ The theory is mostly copied directly from the lab manual.
directly from the lab manual with
some new sentences.
▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
All equipment and materials are listed Vital items are listed, maybe one Some items are listed, many Most items are not listed so that
▪ Includes detailed, labeled diagram if omission. omissions that performing the lab cannot perform the lab.
necessary ▪ Includes diagram if necessary. would be difficult. ▪ The necessary diagram is
3. ▪ Procedures are listed in clear step-by- ▪ Procedures are listed in clear ▪ The necessary diagram is missing. missing. ▪ Most of the `poor` condition
Apparatus step numbered list of how the experiment step-by-step numbered list of how ▪ Procedures are listed in not ▪ The procedure is very is not met.
was performed. the experiment was performed. clear steps, not enough and incomplete, confusing so that
and ▪ Includes detailed, labeled diagrams ▪ Includes detailed, labeled confusing so that difficult to follow cannot follow how the lab was
procedures where appropriate diagrams where appropriate. how the lab was performed. Might performed.
▪ Includes safety tips and guidelines ▪ The procedure is mostly copied not be numbered.
directly from the lab manual with ▪ The procedure is mostly copied
some new sentences. directly from the lab manual

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
Results and data are correct, clearly Results and data are correct, Some results and data are Most results and data are
recorded and organized so it is easy for clearly recorded and organized but missing, unorganized and incorrect. missing, very unorganized and
4. the reader to see the trends. trends are not obvious. ▪ Some figures, graphs, tables are incorrect. ▪ Most of the `poor` condition
Results ▪ All figures, graphs, tables are correctly ▪ All figures, graphs, tables are incomplete or sloppy. ▪ Most figures, graphs, tables
drawn, numbered and contain correctly drawn but some have ▪ Some units/labels are missing. contain error and poorly is not met.
(data, titles/captions. minor problems or could still be ▪ Some calculations are missing constructed, have missing numbers,
graphs, ▪ Units/labels are included. improved. and wrong. titles/captions and etc.
calculations ▪ All calculations, when appropriate are ▪ Units/labels are included ▪ Most units/labels are missing.
shown. ▪ A few calculations are missing. ▪ Most calculations are missing
and etc )
and wrong.
 ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
Answer all the questions correctly and Missing one question and the Missing two questions and partially Missing more than two questions
clearly. other answer is correctly and answer are not correctly and and partially answer are not
▪ All the important trends and data clearly. somewhat unclear manner. correctly and clearly.
comparisons have been interpreted ▪ Almost all of the results and data ▪ Some of the results and data ▪ Very incomplete or incorrect
5. correctly and discussed, a good comparisons have been correctly comparisons have been correctly interpretation of trends and ▪ Most of the `poor` condition
Discussion understanding of results is conveyed interpreted and discussed, only interpreted and discussed; partial but comparison of data indicating a lack is not met.
▪ Explain how calculations/results do/do minor improvements are needed. incomplete understanding of results is of understanding of results.
not support the theory and fulfill the ▪ Explain how calculations/results still evident. ▪ Discussion of theory and fulfill
objective of the lab. do/do not support the theory and ▪ Explain not in clearly how the objective are missing.
▪ Experimental errors, possible effects fulfill the objective of the lab. calculations/results do/do not support ▪ There is no discussion of errors.
and ways to reduce errors are discussed. ▪ Experimental errors and their the theory and fulfill the objective of
possible effects are discussed. the lab.
▪ Experimental errors are
mentioned.
▪ Summarizes the essential data and
results used to draw conclusions.
▪ State whether the findings achieved all ▪ One of the `excellent` conditions ▪ Two of the `excellent` condition is ▪ More than three of the `excellent` ▪ No conclusion.
6. the objectives or not. is not met. not met. condition is not met.
▪ State the validity of the experiment
Conclusions
including an experimental error.
▪ Includes the suggestion methods of
improvement and what was learned
from the experiment.
(0)
▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
References are listed from the multiple References are listed from the References are listed from two Only one source of the
7. sources (e.g. journal, book, magazine, multiple sources (e.g. book, sources only (e.g. book, internet etc.) reference is listed. (1 -2 references) ▪ No references are listed.
References internet etc.) (more than 9 references) magazine, internet etc.) (6 – 8 (3 – 5 references) ▪ Not written in standard format as
▪ Written in standard format as references) ▪ Not written in standard format as mentioned in the lab manual.
mentioned in the lab manual. ▪ Written in standard format as mentioned in the lab manual.
mentioned in the lab manual. (0)

Based on attendance:
i. Absent: score = 0%
ii. Doing an experiment but lab report is not submitted: Maximum score = 10%
 Quick Reference – Selected Material Properties of Metal

Material Density Modulus of Modulus of Yield strength Ultimate Ultimate shear Poisson`s Brinell
(Kg/m3) elasticity rigidity (GPa) (MPa) strength (MPa) strength ratio hardness
(GPa) (MPa)

Carbon steel 7.85 190 – 210 75–80 250– 1600 340 – 1900 330 0.29 – 0.3 120
Stainless steel 7.92 195 75 260 – 520 655 – 860 200 0.3 228
Gray cast iron 7.0 – 7.4 83 – 170 32–69 120 – 290 69 – 480 400 0.2 – 0.3 183
Brass 8.4 – 8.75 83 – 110 36–41 70– 550 200 – 620 200 – 400 0.34 65
Copper 8.92 110 – 120 40–47 55– 330 230 – 380 42 0.33 – 0.36 35
Aluminum 2.71 70 26 20 70 48 0.33 15
Bronze 7.8 – 8.8 96 - 120 36–44 182 - 690 200 - 830 230 – 490 0.34 70
 FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
PULAU PINANG

PEER AND SELF EVALUATION FORM FOR LAB EXPERIMENTS

MEC 291: MECHANICS AND MATERIAL LAB

Note: This form must be filled out honestly by each student and submitted to the laboratory
technician separately from the laboratory report at the end of the week for each lab venue.

Lab venue: ____________________________________________________________

Group: _____________________ Date:______________________
% contribution

Your name and signature: _______________________________________ ___________

Member name: __________________________________ ___________
Member name: __________________________________ ___________
Total 100%

For each item below, circle the number that best reflects your opinion of how each team member
performed during the experiment and in writing the laboratory report, including yourself. (rating scale: 1
= unsatisfactory, 5 = excellent)

No Performance items Your name Member name Member name

1 Quality of individual work 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

2 Quantity of individual work 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
3 Attendance at team meetings 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
4 Compromised and co-operated 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
5 Took initiative when needed 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
6 Contributed ideas 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
7 Willingness to share ideas 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
8 Willingness to share workload 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
9 Dependability 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
10 Overall contribution 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Overall score you would give:
(0 to 5)
Comments:

Okt 2013
 FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
PULAU PINANG

LABORATORY ASSESSMENT FORM

MEC 291 (MECHANICS AND MATERIALS LAB)

EXPERIMENT:

VENUE :
PREPARED BY:

NAME GROUP UiTM ID NO. SIGNATURE

1.

2.

3.

DATE PERFORMED :

DATE SUBMITTED :
LECTURER`S NAME :

LAB TECHNICIAN`S NAME :

For office use only

ASSESSMENT
Marks Score (%)
No Items (%) Weightage 1 2 3
1 Appearance, organization, front 10 1x scale(……….) =
page and etc (CO5:PO8)
2 Objective and theory information 10 1x scale(……….) =
(CO1:PO1)
a) Conducting experiment following 5
the procedure (CO3:PO3)
3 b) Apparatus and procedure 5 0.5x scale(……….)
(CO3:PO3)
Sub total score
4 Results (data, graphs, calculation 20 2x scale(……….) =
and etc) (CO2:PO1)
5 Discussion (CO4:PO4) 30 3xscale(…..…..)

6 Conclusions (CO4:PO4) 10 1xscale(…..…..)

7 References (CO5:PO8) 10 1xscale(….…..)

Total score 100

Mac 2018