MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA TERENGGANU

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BUKIT BESI CAMPUS

MEC 291:
MECHANICS AND MATERIALS LAB
LABORATORY MANUAL

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

CONTENTS
Page

Preface 2

1. Introduction 3

1.1. Course information 3

1.2. General laboratory instructions 6

1.3. General lab report 6

1.4. General laboratory safety measures 10

2. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB 11

2.1. S1: Struct Buckling 11

2.2. S2: Torsion Test 19

2.3. S3: Straight Beam Experiments 25

3. MATERIAL SCIENCE LAB 28

3.1. M1: The Effects of Heat Treatment on the Microstructure of Steel 28

3.2. M2: Observation on the Microstructure of Cast Iron 32

3.3. M3: Jominy Hardenability Test 36

4. DYNAMICS LAB 41

4.1. D1: Crank and Slider Mechanism 41

4.2. D2: Flywheel Apparatus 45

4.3. D3: Wheel and Axle Apparatus 51

Bibliography 56

Appendices 57
Laboratory report rubric
Quick Reference – Selected Material Properties of Metal
Laboratory assessment form
Peer and self evaluation form for lab experiments

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

PREFACE

This laboratory manual is written primarily for students on diploma courses in Mechanical
Engineering for those undertaking laboratory works in the 3rd semester. The essential
experiments covered were selected based on what would be frequently encountered in the
field of practiced and satisfied the syllabus requirements of Dynamics (MEC 221), Strength
of Materials (MEC 211) and Materials of Science (MEC 281). In order that students have a
fairly good understanding of the theory underlying the experiments, the entire course is
designed such that classroom lectures precede lab work. Students are advised to pay close
attention in class and lab briefing so that they can perform well in the lab.
One purpose of this lab course is to develop the student ability to communicate
technical data through written documents. To that end, the students will be required to write a
lab report for each lab experiment. A lab report is a self-contained description of the
experiment being performed, the data collected, sample calculations and an analysis based on
the data that addresses the motivation for performing the experiment. Since measurements are
never exact, it is also necessary to include an estimate of the experimental uncertainty in the
measurements, which should be considered whenever comparing measured results. The
method in which the data and other content of the lab report is also important. All numerical
values should be written with the proper number of significant figure that reflect the
uncertainty of the value and must include the appropriate units. Beyond the content of the lab
report, a well written lab report should adhere to a set of style guidelines which included in
this lab manual.
We are wish to thank our technicians for their helpful and cooperative on lab
experiment activities and good maintained the laboratory equipments and housekeeping. The
most importantly our gratitude goes to the Almighty God for giving us the strength,
inspiration and knowledge to contribute, although a little to the development of mankind.

Rosley Bin Jaafar (RP)

Aziurah Binti Mohd Shah
Nor Liawati Binti Abu Othman

20 November 2012
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
UiTM Penang

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. COURSE INFORMATION

COURSE CODE : MEC291

COURSE NAME : Mechanics and Materials Lab
PROGRAMME CODE : EM110
PROGRAMME : Diploma in Mechanical Engineering
CREDIT HOURS : 1.0
CONTACT HOURS : Practical : 2 hrs/week
PART : 3
COURSE STATUS : Non-core
CO-REQUISITE : MEC211, MEC221, MEC281
LECTURER IN CHARGE : Norhashidah binti Manap
Office: 09-833 5168

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
The course consists of practical works involving the investigations and analysis in the area
of mechanics and material science.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:
a. Show the ability to use mechanics and materials laboratory equipment
following the established procedures. (P2)
b. Measure the experimental data accordingly as required by each experiment (P4)
c. Able to perform collaboratively in class discussion and practice safety rules (A2)

3


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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

SYLLABUS CONTENT:

Topics of the laboratory report works include:

1. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1.1 Struct Buckling
1.2 Torsion Test
1.3 Straight Beam Experiments

2. MATERIAL SCIENCE
2.1 The Effects of Heat Treatment on the Microstructure of Steel
2.2 Observation on the Microstructure of Cast Iron
2.3 Jominy Hardenability Test

3. DYNAMICS
3.1 Crank and Slider Mechanism
3.2 Flywheel Apparatus
3.3 Wheel and Axle Apparatus

VENUE:
1. Material Science Lab, BB MEM 1B6
2. Strength of Materials Lab, BB MEM 1B7

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

1.2. GENERAL LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS

1. Students must be prepared prior to the lab by reading the lab manual and
completing all assigned pre-lab work for the experiments.
2. Each group supposedly 2 to 3 students only (Depends on student registration).
Small group will be developed by LIC MEC291. Students change the group given
without notifications from lecturers are prohibited.
3. Group selection of experiments and reports will be updated on Telegram Channel
4. Students should be arrived on time and signed the provided attendance form.
5. Students must actively participate in performing the experiments.
6. Please consult to the representative lecturer for any matter.
7. Students who unable to attend/absence the lab work as per schedule should give an
attachment such as medical certificate, official letter for activities, etc. in order to
support your reason(s).

1.3. GENERAL LAB REPORT

1. The lab reports MUST be hand-written. All sections from result onward (results,
discussions, conclusions, recommendations, references) MUST be hand-written.
Other sections (Title, objective, apparatus, theory, procedure, etc.) are allowed to
use computer. The graphical work can be by hand (i.e. using drafting instruments)
or computer.
2. The results should be analyzed together.
3. A report for each group must with multiple discussions, conclusions,
recommendations and references (Each student of the group should write their own
discussions, conclusions and references).
4. The raw data should be validated by the lecturer.
5. The lab reports must be original work. Prohibited copying or pasting the report.
Stern action will be charged.
6. The lab report must be submitted to the lecturer/assistant engineer at specified date
and time (Depends on lecturer). Marks will be deducted for late submission.
7. Failing the laboratory means “Failing the Course!” All failures occurred due to
insufficient submission of reports and attendance.
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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

REPORT WRITING
The following explanation has been prepared to guide the students for writing good
experimental laboratory reports in mechanical engineering laboratory courses. All reports in
the Mechanics and Materials Laboratory course (MEC291) require a formal laboratory
report. The report should be written in such a way that anyone can duplicate the
performed experiment and find the same results as the originator. The reports should be
computer or hand written (i.e. pencil will not be accepted), simple and clearly written.
The report should communicate several ideas to the reader:
1. The report should be neatly done. The experimenter is in effect trying to convince
the reader that the experiment was performed in a straightforward manner with
great care and with full attention to detail.
2. The report should be well organized. The reader should be able to easily follow
each step discussed in the text.
3. The report should contain accurate results. This will require checking and
rechecking the calculation until accuracy can be guaranteed.
4. The report should be written in the third person, past tense with correct grammar
and spelling.

The following format must be in order which is to be used for formal laboratory reports:
1. Title
The title of the experiment and other information should be fill in clearly in the form
provided by the faculty .The form will be used for front page cover of the report.

2. Objective
This is one of the most important parts of the laboratory report because everything included
in the report must somehow relate to the stated objectives. The objectives of each
experiment are stated in the laboratory sheet. A few explanatory sentences may be
included, if needed.

3. Apparatus
What material was tested is called test specimen and what apparatus was used is called
test equipment and instrumentation. List the test equipment and instrumentation used for
data collection and analysis. Be specific such as the brand name and the model number.
Also, sketch the specimens and equipment used and make sure that you clearly label all
components of the specimens and equipment.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

4. Theory
The theory should explain all equations, theoretical principles, and assumptions that are
used in the experiment and the analysis. The primary purpose of the theory section is to
show how the raw data is manipulated to become results. Relevant equations used are to be
presented and described to illustrate their basis and origin. This section should include
diagrams where needed. Define all variables used in the equations.

5. Procedure
Describe the procedure used to conduct the lab in detail. For instance, what type of machine
was used for the experiment, what did you measure in the lab, what did you measure
those quantities with, how did you do it, etc. Outline exactly by-step how the experiment
was performed in case someone desires to duplicate it. Include any changes or additions in
the procedure sources of ingredients, etc.

6. Results
Present the results of the raw data in the easiest way for your reader to understand with
graphs, tables, figures, etc. All tables and figures should be label and numbered in the
order they appear and should be referenced sequentially. Figure captions should be placed
below the figures and table captions should be placed above the tables. Always show a
sample of calculation performed on the data in this section as part of the analysis. Show how
you calculate your results. Explain what you are doing in these calculations. If any analytical
expression is to be verified, calculate % error*.
 % error – There are many ways to find % error, but one method is
introduced here for consistency. Take the difference between the
empirical and theoretical results and divide by the theoretical result.
Multiplying by 100% gives the % error.

7. Discussion
This is the most important part of your report. This section should give an interpretation of
the results explaining how the objective of the experiment was accomplished. Explain the
results of the experiment, comment on the shapes of the curves, compare obtained results
with expected results, give probable reasons for discrepancies from the theory, answer
any questions outlined in the instructions and solve any problems that my have been
presented. Compare the results with previously done experiments. Account for the sources

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

of experimental error, suggestion for the improvement of the experimental procedure or

result, or any other aspect of the experiment should be included in this section.

8. Conclusion
The conclusions must summarize the report and must be based on the experimental results
and should reflect back to the stated objectives. State your discoveries, judgments and
opinions from the results of the experiment. Make recommendations for further study and
suggest ways to improve the results of the experiment.

9. References
Citations of relevant theoretical background material and other related work should be
included in the reference list. Follow the standard format for typing a reference:

1. S.S. Rao, (2004) Mechanical Vibrations, Fourth Edition, Prentice-Hall,

Inc., New Jersey.
2. Little, P., and Cardenas, M., (2001) “Use of Studio Methods in the
Introductory Engineering Design Curriculum,” Journal of Engineering
Education, Vol. 90, No. 3, pp. 309-318.
3. Lister, B., “Next Generation Studio: A New Model for Interactive
Learning,” www.ciue.rpi.edu/pdfs/nextGenStudio.pdf. (Accessed, 8th
June 2007).

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

1.4. GENERAL LABORATORY SAFETY MEASURES

1. Students must wear faculty laboratory coat (FKM Lab Coat) and shoes that cover
toes. Slippers are not allowed in the laboratory.
2. Students should obey and read carefully the general laboratory safety procedures
and rules as provided in the laboratory manual.
3. Students are not allowed to enter the laboratory without permission from the
lecturers or assistant engineers. Working alone or unsupervised in laboratories is
forbidden.
4. Students are not allowed to eat, drink or smoke while working in the laboratory.
5. Students are not allowed to run the experiments with their hands wet, sleepy or
under medication.
6. Do not touch anything that you are not completely familiar with.
7. Ensure that the circuit and equipment connections are correct before turning ON
the power supply.
8. Ensure that the switches are OFF, the plugs are unplugged and the working area is
cleaned before you leave the laboratory.
9. Place the equipment, tools and components back to their original place after the
experiments.
10. Notify your lecturer or assistant engineer immediately if there is an accident or the
equipment is breakdown.
11. Keep the working area clear of all materials except those needed for your work.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

2. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

2.1. S1: STRUCT BUCKLING

STRUCT BUCKLING (FIXED ENDED)

1.0 Objective

To determine the buckling load for a fixed end strut:

2.0 Introduction

The strut buckling for fixed ended strut is the most commonly performed in the
mechanical test. In this experiment, a specimen is subjected to define the critical value of
the load Pcr. The typical testing procedure is to determine the conditions under which the
configuration of a curved shape is possible. The load of Pcr data is recorded during the
experiment, so this data can be plotted once the procedure is complete. The student will
be learn how to properly conduct the fixed ended strut of buckling test and obtain the
relevant material properties from the results.

3.0 Background

Mechanical testing play an important role in evaluating fundamental properties of

engineering material as well as in developing new materials and in controlling the quality
of material for use in design and construction. The stability of elastic columns by
considering a fix-ended column subjected to a centric axial load and the stability of the
structures by determining the effective buckling length of the structural member. The
problem of stability is very important and because of this effect may lead to disastrous
results or unjustified factor of safety.

Buckled Shape

P P

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

When a member, clamped (fixed) at both ends, is subjected to a compressive load, the
member will buckle when the load exceeds the theoretical buckling load given by the
following equation:

Pcr = 4π2 EI/L2

And the formula for Moment of inertia of member is given by;

I = (b x t3/12)

4.0 Apparatus

Strut Buckling Machine, two column frames with a fixed base and a moveable top platen,
specimen (column), screw jack and steel ruler.

5.0 Brief Procedure

1. Choose a specimen and measure its length, width and thickness at three places. Note the
readings.
2. Calculate the theoretical buckling load for a strut with fixed end condition.
3. Placed the specimen in the slot of the attachment for the end conditions. Refer appendix
for proper installation of the specimen.
4. If the distance between the two attachments is less than the length of the strut, turn the
screw jack handle clockwise to lower the position of the attachment for the end condition.
If the distance is greater than the length of the strut, turn the screw jack handle counter
clockwise to close the gap.
5. Note the reading on the digital indicator. If it is not zero press the „TARE‟ button.
6. Check the position of the dial gauge to ensure that it is at the mid-span. Set the dial
gauge reading to zero by turning the face of the dial gauge.
7. Load the specimen at suitable increments by turning the screw jack handle slowly in the
counter clockwise direction.
8. Increase the load and for each load increment record the load and the corresponding mid-
span deflection. (Important: please ensure that the applied load is always less the
buckling load.)
9. Unload the specimen once the desired maximum is reached.

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6.0 Result
Length of member = mm
Width of member = mm
Thickness of member = mm
Moment of inertia of member = mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 div = 0.01 mm

Load, P d/P
Mid-Span Deflection, d
N div mm mm / N

1. From the above data plot the graph of deflection versus (deflection/load)

Southwell Plot
Deflection (mm)

Fixed - End

Deflection/Load (mm / N)

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

2. Draw the best straight line through the points plotted.

3. From the plot determine the slope of the line. This represents the buckling load for the
specimen.
4. Compare the theoretical and the experimental value.
5. Comments on your findings.

7.0 Discussion

1. Compare and discuss the result in table to reference value and comment the possible
reasons for discrepancies obtained for tested specimen.
2. Compare and discuss the similarities and differences between theoretical and
experimental of buckling for the material tested.
3. Establish a linear relationship between the buckling (deflection/load) and the deflection
of the strut.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

STRUCT BUCKLING (PINNED ENDED)

1.0 Objective

To determine the buckling load for a pinned ended strut:

2.0 Introduction

The strut buckling for pinned ended strut is the most commonly performed in the
mechanical test. In this experiment, a specimen is subjected to define the critical value of
the load Pcr. The typical testing procedure is to determine the conditions under which the
configuration of a curved shape is possible. The load of Pcr data is recorded during the
experiment, so this data can be plotted once the procedure is complete. The student will
be learn how to properly conduct the pinned ended strut of buckling test and obtain the
relevant material properties from the results.

3.0 Background

Mechanical testing play an important role in evaluating fundamental properties of

engineering material as well as in developing new materials and in controlling the quality
of material for use in design and construction. The stability of elastic columns by
considering a pin-ended column subjected to a centric axial load and the stability of the
structures by determining the effective buckling length of the structural member. The
problem of stability is very important and because of this effect may lead to disastrous
results or unjustified factor of safety.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

The Euler‟s formula or the critical buckling load, Pcr, for a pinned ended strut is given by;
Pcr = π2 EI / (L2)

And the formula for Moment of inertia of member is given by;

I = (b x t3/12)

4.0 Apparatus
Strut Buckling Machine, two column frames with a fixed base and a moveable top platen,
specimen (column), screw jack and steel ruler.

5.0 Brief Procedure

1. Switch on the digital indicator and warm it up for at least 10 minutes.
2. Choose a specimen and measure its length. The width and thickness of the beam is
19mm and 3mm respectively.
3. Calculate the theoretical buckling load for a strut with pinned end condition. This is
to ensure that the load applied to the strut does not exceed the buckling load.
4. Placed the grooved support into the slot of the attachment for the end conditions and
tightened the side screws.
5. Move the top platen upwards or downwards to bring the distance between the two
supports closer to the length of the strut
6. Press the tare button on the digital indicator to set the reading to zero.
7. Place the specimen in the groove of the top support.
8. While holding the specimen, adjust the jack so that the lower end of the specimen just
rest in the groove of the bottom support. (If the distance between the two supports is
slightly less than the length of the strut, turn the screw jack handle counter clockwise.
If the distance between the two supports is slightly greater than the length of the strut,
turn the screw jack handle clockwise.
9. Note the reading on the digital indicator. If the load is greater than 10 N turn the jack
handle counter clockwise to bring it to less than 10N.
10. Check the position of the dial gauge to ensure that it is at the mid-length of the
specimen. Set the dial gauge reading to zero.
11. Press the tare button to set the load indicator to zero.
12. Load the specimen in small increments by turning the screw jack handle slowly in the
clockwise direction.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

13. For each load increment record the load and the corresponding mid-span deflection.
(Important: please ensure that the applied load is always less than 80 % of the
buckling load.)
14. Unload the specimen by turning the jack handle in the counter clockwise direction.

6.0 Result
Length of member = mm
Width of member = mm
Thickness of member = mm
Moment of inertia of member = mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 div = 0.01 mm

Table 1
d/P
Load, P Mid-Span Deflection, d
N div mm mm / N

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

6. From the data in Table 1 plot the graph of deflection versus (deflection/load)

Southwell Plot

Deflection (mm)
Pinned - End

Deflection/Load (mm / N)
7. Draw the best straight line through the points plotted.
8. From the plot determine the slope of the line. This represents the buckling load for the
specimen.

Assuming the value of E as 200 GPa, calculate the theoretical critical buckling load from the
following formula:
Pcr = (π2 * EI)/(L2)

7.0 Discussion

1. Compare and discuss the result in table to reference value and comment the possible
reasons for discrepancies obtained for tested specimen.
2. Compare and discuss the similarities and differences between theoretical and
experimental of buckling for the material tested.
3. Establish a linear relationship between the buckling (deflection/load) and the deflection
of the strut.

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2.2. S2: TORSION TEST

1.0 Objective
i. To determine the modulus of rigidity, maximum shearing stress, maximum
shearing strain and Poisson`s ratio for the tested specimen.
ii. To study the linearly elastic behaviour of the tested specimen under torsion
and to obtain the relationship between torsional load and angle of twist for a
full range of strains until failure.

2.0 Introduction
The purpose of torsion testing usually parallels that of uniaxial tension tests. In this
experiment, solid cylindrical specimen of steel or brass will be subjected to a torsional
load. The test will be conducted until failure (i.e. it will end in the fracture). During the
test, the angle of twist and the applied torque are measured as the test proceeds. From the
a pplied torque, the student will calculate the shear stress and shear strain of the tested
material. The modulus of rigidity will be obtained from the plotted graph and compared
to reference value.

3.0 Background
Torsional loads are created by propellers on aircraft, transmissions in cars or by highway
signs that are twisted by wind. Torsion loading results in twisting of one section of a body
with respect to a contiguous section. Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about
its longitudinal axis. Shearing strains are induced in members under torsion. Shafts are
widely used in engineering applications to transmit power from one point to another. A
torque, T is applied to the shaft as shown in Figure 1 where the shaft is fixed at one end and
free at the other.As a result, complementary shear stresses are developed on the longitudinal
p lanes which cause a distortion of filaments.

Figure 1

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

In a torque against angle of twist relationship, the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
of the tested specimen can be determined by using the following relationship:

G = TL / J Ø
and G = τ / γ

where; T = applied torque

L = length of the shaft
G = modulus of rigidity
Ø = angle of twist within the tested length.

The largest shear stress occurs at the outside surface of the material and can be calculated
using the following relationship:

τ = Tr / J

where; τ = shear stress

r = radius of the shaft
J = polar moment of inertia of the shaft

The shearing strain occurs along the tested length of the shaft can be determined using the
following relationship:

γ=rØ/L

where; γ = shear strain

The relationship between the modulus of rigidity and modulus of elasticity within the
linear elastic range of the material is described by Hooke`s law, which relates the
Poisson`s ratio of the tested material is given by;

E = 2G (1+v)

where; v = Poisson`s ratio

E = modulus of elasticity

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The torque can also be obtained by using the following relationship;

T = G (Jθ)

where; θ = Ø / L = angle of twist per unit length

4.0 Apparatus
WP 500 torsion testing machine, caliper, solid cylindrical specimens (steel and brass).
Sketch the specimen with complete dimensions.

Figure 2

5.0 Procedure
The experimental apparatus is setup as shown in Figure 2.
1. Measure the diameter and the length of the test specimen.
2. Draw a straight line using pencil lead on the specimen length in order to observe
the effect of twisting. Fixed the both end of the specimen into the specimen
holder.
3. Mount the specimen between the loading device and the torque measuring unit.
Make sure that the shifting specimen holder of the load is in the mid position.
4. Make sure that the specimen is not initially loaded. Turn on the hand wheel
clockwise to provide the applied load. Switch on the measurement amplifier and
sets it to zero. The read out values is the applied torque.
5. For the first rotation choose an increment of a quarter rotation (900), for the
second and third rotation of a half rotation (1800) and for the fourth to 8th rotation
of one rotation (3600). For the 9th to specimen fracture, take the reading of the
applied load and angle of twist for each 5 or 10 rotations.

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Note:
It is best to count the number of rotations and then later convert it to degrees when writing
the report. Record the final torque reading of the specimen at failure a nd also measure the
new diameter at the fracture point.

6.0 Result
1. The experimental data should be filled in the table as provided in the worksheet
and complete the tables by using the appropriate equations ( i.e. calculate the shear
st rain from experimental angle of twist and shear stress from applied torque).
2. Plot the graph:
i. Torque (y-axis) vs angle of twist (x-axis)
ii. Shear stress (y axis) vs shear strain (x-axis)
3. Determine the experimental modulus of rigidity from the graph (i) (i.e. the slope of
the line). Then, in conjunction with the modulus o f elasticity from a reference value,
calculate the Poisson`s ratio. Also, determine the yield shear stress, ultimate shear
stress and fracture shear stress.
4. Sketch the fracture surface of the tested specimen.

7.0 Discussion
1. Compare the results of this test between the experiment and reference (standard)
value of modulus of rigidity, Poisson` ratio, shear stress and shear strain.
Comment on any differences and possible sources of error.
2. Describe the behaviour of this material as it responds to increasing applied torque.
3. Is the Hooke's law for shearing stress and strain valid? Explain.
4. Describe the appearance of the fracture surface of the tested specimen and discuss
the mode of failure (ductile failure or brittle failure under torsion).
5. Which should be able resist more torque – a solid bar or hollow bar of the same
material and cross-sectional area? Explain.

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WORKSHEET FOR TORSION TEST

Table 1: Experimental and calculation data of tested specimen

Applied torque Angle of twist Calculation value
Scale reading Amplifier Shear stress Shear strain
(revolution) reading Degree Radian (Pa)
(degree) (Nm)
0
0 (0 )
¼ (900)
½ (1800)
¾ (2700)
1 (3600)
2 (7200)
3
4
5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
160
180
210
240
270
300
340
380
420
460
500
540
580
600
...
...
...
……Fracture

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Table 2: Determine the following properties for the tested specimen

Material Diameter Length Polar moment Modulus of
(m) (m) of inertia (m4) elasticity (Pa)
Steel
Brass

Table 3: Determine the properties and % error of the tested specimen

Experimental Theory/reference
Item % error
Value value
Modulus of rigidity, G (Pa)
Poisson`s ratio, v
Maximum shear stress, τmax (Pa)
Maximum torque, Tmax (Nm)
Maximum shearing strain, γmax
Failure shear stress, τf (Pa)

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

2.3. S3: STRAIGHT BEAM EXPERIMENTS

1.0 Objective
To determine the reaction force in the straight beam from a bending test of tested specimen.

2.0 Introduction
In this experiment, a straight beam of steel or brass is installed as a simply supported beam.
This experiment will be determined the reaction forces for a beam loaded of a concentrated
load.

3.0 Background
Load arrangements for the beam as shown below.

L/2 L/2

Simply Supported Beam

4.0 Apparatus
A support frame, reaction support pier, load hangers, beam specimen, a meter ruler to
measure the span of the beam and a set of weights.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

5.0 Procedure
1. Switch on the display unit to warm up the unit.
2. Choose your beam configuration.
3. Clamped the reaction piers to the support frame using the plate and bolt supplied with the
apparatus and at predetermine distance between the supports.
4. Place the beam specimen between the two cylindrical pieces of each support. Tightened
the two screws at the top of each support with your fingers.
5. Fix the load hanger at the position where the beam is to be loaded.
6. Connect the load cell from the support pier to the display unit, each load cell occupying
one terminal on the display.
7. Beginning with channel 1 record the initial reading for each channel.
8. Place a suitable load on the load hanger and note the reading of each load cell. This
represents the reaction at each pier.
9. Choose another loading arrangement and record the pier reaction.

6.0 Results
1. Draw the beam with the supports and load arrangement. Indicate the distances and
the magnitude of the load.
2. Show the theoretical calculation for the support reaction and compare this with the
experimental value

7.0 Discussion
1. How does the experimental reactions compare with the theoretical.
2. Is it possible to obtain a downward reaction at the support. Demonstrate your answer with
a simple calculation using the beam configuration that you have chosen.
3. State the possible factors that might have influenced your results and possible means of
overcoming it.

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WORKSHEET FOR STRAIGHT BEAM EXPERIMENTS

Brass

Applied Load (W) Left Reaction (N) Right Reaction (N)

(N) Experiment Theory Experiment Theory
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0

Steel

Applied Load (W) Left Reaction (N) Right Reaction (N)

(N) Experiment Theory Experiment Theory
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

3. MATERIAL SCIENCE LAB

3.1. M1: THE EFFECTS OF HEAT TREATMENT ON THE

MICROSTRUCTURE OF STEEL

1.0 Objectives
 To study on preparing of metallographic sample for microstructures observation.
 To study the effects of heat treatment on the microstructure of steel.
 To discover the microstructure of ferrite, pearlite, cementite, austenite and martensite
under microscopic view.

2.0 Apparatus
 Optical microscope.
 Five different sample of heat treated steel:
Sample Number Type of Heat Treatment
1 Without Heat Treatment
2 Water Quenched
3 Oil Quenched
4 Normalizing
5 Annealed

3.0 Introduction
The properties of steels can be changed or altered by several techniques such as alloying
and heat treatment. Heat treatment process is a process of ability to change the properties by
applying heat. Such treatment modifies microstructures, producing a variety of mechanical
properties that are important in manufacturing, such as improve formability and
machinability.

3.1 Heat Treatment Process

3.1.1 Annealing
Heat treatment in which a material taken to an elevated temperature, kept there for some time
and then slowly cooled. Purpose:
 Reduce hardness and brittleness.

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 To alter the microstructure so that desirable mechanical properties is achievable.

 To soften metals for improved machinability or formability.
 To recrystallize cold worked (strain hardened) metals.

3.1.2 Normalizing
An annealing heat treatment process accomplished by heating at approximately 55°C to 88°C
above upper critical temperature and followed by air cooling. Purpose:
 Higher strength and hardness material.
 Improve machinability.
 To refine grain by decreasing grain size and more uniform distribution.

3.1.3 Quenching
Process of heating sample to the austenite range and then cooled rapidly. Various quenching
mediums can be used during the process: i.e. water, oil, air, and brine which each will give
different result on the structures and mechanical properties.

The effect of cooling rate on the material can be summarized as in table below:
Cooling Rate Fast(Quenching) Slow
Properties Hard Soft
Strong Weak
Brittle Ductile
Microstructure Martensite Ferrite- Pearlite- Cementite
Grain Size Small Large

3.2 Sample Preparation

The objective of sample preparation for metallographic observation is to generate a flat
surface with a mirror like surface. The metal that appears in the microscopic photographs
must be prepared and polished carefully before a good microscopic view can be seen. The
surface that we observe under optical microscope must first be totally flat and smooth. In
order to obtain the smooth and flat surface, several techniques are required. These include
cutting, moulding, grinding, polishing and etching.

3.2.1 Moulding
The sample usually moulded in plastic after cutting to ease holding during polishing.

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3.2.2 Grinding
Surface is ground to remove rough scale and imperfection on the surface, followed by fine
grinding until it begins to reflect light.

3.2.3 Polishing
 Rough Polishing – remove the imperfection that grinding has left.
 Fine polishing – remove all scratches.

3.2.4 Etching
 The surface of sample is cleaned with alcohol and dried.
 The surface of sample is immersed in the etching reagent for a few seconds.
 The sample is place under a steam of water to remove all traces of acid.
 Then the sample is washed again with alcohol to prevent watermarks.
 The sample is ready to be viewed under microscope.

4.0 Experimental Procedures

a. Students will be provided with five different samples of heat-treated steel.
b. Observe and sketch the microstructure of each sample.
c. Identify and label the microstructures.

5.0 Results and Discussion

i. What is the purpose of etching process in the preparation of metallographic sample
and how it is done?
ii. Describe the heat treatment procedures for steel (annealing, normalizing, quenching
and tempering) and the intended final microstructure(s).
iii. Briefly describe the characteristics of martensite microstructure.

6.0 Conclusion
Conclude your finding.

7.0 References
List all references that you have made during the course of your finding.

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3.2. M2: OBSERVATION ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF

CAST IRON

1.0 Objectives
 To observe microstructures of cast iron under optical microscope.
 To identify the classification of cast iron according to the characteristic of the
microstructures obtained.

2.0 Apparatus
 Three unidentified samples of cast iron.
 Optical microscope.

3.0 Introduction
Cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents between 3.0 and 4.5 wt. %
and small amounts of silicon. It should be noticed that cast iron and iron are totally different
terms. Cast irons become completely liquid at temperatures between 1150°C and 1300°C,
which they are easily melted and able to cast. Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound and
under certain conditions it can be decomposed to form α-ferrite and graphite according to
following reaction:

Fe3C 3 Fe (α) + C (graphite)

For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure and
mechanical behavior depends on the composition and heat treatment. The most common types
of cast irons are gray, nodular (ductile), white and malleable cast iron.

Gray Cast Iron

Gray cast iron is the most widely used of all types of cast iron due to its reliability to almost
engineering application. The carbon and silicon content of this cast iron is between 2.5 and
4.0 wt. % and 1.0 and 3.0 wt. %. The graphite exits in the form of flakes, which are
surrounded by ferrite or pearlite matrix.

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Nodular Cast Iron

Adding a small amount of magnesium or cerium to the gray cast iron before casting can form
graphite into nodules or sphere-like particles. The matrix phase surrounding these particles is
either ferrite or pearlite depending on the heat treatment process.

White and Malleable Cast Iron

For cast irons which containing less than 1.0 wt. % silicon and rapid cooling rates, most of the
carbon exits as cementite instead of graphite. Heating white cast iron at temperature between
800°C and 900°C for a prolonged time period and in neutral atmosphere causes a
decomposition of cementite to form clusters or rosettes graphite surrounded by ferrite or
pearlite matrix.

4.0 Experimental Procedures

a. Students will be provided with three samples of cast iron.
b. Observe and sketch the microstructure of each sample.
c. Identify and label all microstructures drawn.

5.0 Results
Draw and label the microstructures of all given specimens.

Specimen 1 Specimen 2

Specimen 3

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

6.0 Discussion
i. Identify the cast iron samples according to the characteristic of the microstructures
obtained.
ii. Differentiate between steel and cast iron with reference to their carbon percentage
and hardness.
iii. On the basis of microstructure, briefly explain why gray iron is brittle and weak in
tension.
iv. Compare the cast iron observed with respect to (a) composition (b) microstructure,
and (c) mechanical characteristic.

7.0 Conclusion
Conclude your finding.

8.0 References
List all references that you have made during the course of your finding.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

3.3. M3: JOMINY HARDENABILITY TEST

1.0 Objectives
 To study hardness as a function of quench rate and investigate the hardenability of
steels.

2.0 Apparatus
 Jominy cylindrical bar.
 Optical microscope.

3.0 Introduction
The hardenability of a steel is defined as that property which determines the depth and
distribution of hardness induced by quenching from austenitic condition. The dependence of
hardness upon quenching rate can be understand from the time-temperature-transformation
(T-T-T) characteristics of steel, and, for a particular steel, can be estimated from the T-T-T
diagram.
A part may be hardened by quenching into water, oil, or other suitable medium. The
surface of the part is cooled rapidly, resulting in high hardness, whereas the interior cools
more slowly and is not hardened. Because of the nature of the T-T-T diagram, the hardness
does not vary linearly from the outside to the centre. Hardenability refers to capacity of
hardening (depth) rather than to maximum attainable hardness.

The hardenability of a steel depends on:

 The composition of the steel.
 The austenitic grain size.
 The structure of the steel before quenching.

In general, hardenability increases with carbon content and with alloy content. The most
important factor influencing the maximum hardness that can be obtained is mass of the metal
being quenched. In a small section, the heat is extracted quickly, thus exceeding the critical
cooling rate of the specific steel and this part would thus be completely martensitic. The
critical cooling rate is that rate of cooling which must be exceeded to prevent formation of
non-martensite products. As section size increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to extract
the heat fast enough to exceed the critical cooling rate and thus avoid formation of non-

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martensitic products. Hardenability of all steels is directly related to critical cooling rates.
Figure 6.1 and 6.2 below show the example of Jominy end quench test.

Figure 6.1: Jominy end quench diagram Figure 6.2: Graph results of hardness

Furthermore, the specimen given with indentations along the length. The Vickers Hardness
equipment used to measure the hardness values. Each measurement should be made in the
centre of the flat area. In the Vickers hardness testing method, the hardness is measured by the
load applied over the area of impression. The Vickers indenter is a square pyramid with 136 o
angles between opposite site and the force constantly applied is 1000g. The Vickers hardness
number or (HV) are found from the following formula:

4.0 Experimental Procedures

a. The Jominy cylindrical bar will be provided to students.
b. The specimen is position on the stage and moved under the objective lens.
c. By viewing through the eyepiece, shift the specimen with X-Y coordinate
micrometre screws, which mounted at the stage, select the area for testing.
d. Find the diagonal shape. The diagonals of the impression measured with the special
micrometre eyepiece.

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e. The impression seen through the microscope is a square with diagonals running
between the corners as shown in Figure 6.3.
f. The diagonal shape start from 0mm (end quench) until 100mm. Thus, 11 indentation
readings should be recorded.

Figure 6.3: Impression made by Vickers Indenter

5.0 Results and Discussion

Table 6.1: Hardness values with correspond to distance.

Distance from end quench Hardness value
0mm
10mm
20mm
30mm
40mm
50mm
60mm
70mm
80mm
90mm
100mm

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

By using the data obtained in the table above, prepare a report and answers the following
questions:

1. Evaluate the hardenability of the steel used in this experiment using the plotted
hardenability curve.
2. What effect does surface scale have on hardness measurement?
3. What is the effect of cooling rate on hardness of steel?

6.0 Conclusion
Conclude your finding.

7.0 References
List all references that you have made during the course of your finding.

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4. DYNAMIC LAB

4.1. M1: CRANK AND SLIDER MECHANISM

1.0 Objective
To obtain the maximum displacement, velocity and acceleration of a crank slider mechanism.

2.0 Introduction
In this laboratory we will investigate the kinematics of some simple mechanisms used to
convert rotary motion into oscillating linear motion and vice-versa. This bench top unit
demonstrates the conversion of smooth rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The input
angle is set on a ball bearing mounted crank disc and read off on an angle measuring scale
integrated into the base plate. Crank radius and connecting rod length can both be adjusted,
each have three positions. The simple insertion of a bolt enables the swiveling cylinder to be
locked, thus a crank drive with either a fixed or oscillating cylinder can be demonstrated.

3.0 Apparatus
Crank and Connecting rod apparatus.

Connecting Rod

Piston

Crank

Figure 1 : Crank and Connecting rod apparatus.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

4.0 Theory
There are three types of planar rigid body motion.

Translation:
Translation occurs if every line segment on the body remains parallel to its original direction
during the motion. When all points move along straight lines, the motion is called rectilinear
translation. When the paths of motion are curved lines, the motion is called curvilinear
translation.

Rotation about a fixed axis.

In this case, all the particles of the body, except those on the axis of rotation, move along
circular paths in planes perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

General plane motion.

In this case, the body undergoes both translation and rotation. Translation occurs within a
plane and rotation occurs about an axis perpendicular to this plane.
From theory,
The piston displacement is given by;
X= r ( 1 - cos θ ) + I ( sin2 θ) / ( 2N2 )
Where r is the crank radius
I is the length of the link
N is the ratio of the link to the crank radius

The piston velocity is given by;

V = ω r [(sin θ + (sin 2θ)/2N)]
The piston acceleration is as follows;
F = ω2 r [(cos θ + (cos 2θ)/2N)]

5.0 Procedure
i. Decide on the crank radius and the connecting rod length.
ii. Rotate the crank to check the working of the whole assembly.
iii. Before taking reading, turn the crank slowly and watch the movement of the piston. The
piston will slide in one direction, then reverse.
iv. Locate the position where the piston starts to reverse.
v. Use this position as the start point.
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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

vi. Use one end of the piston as the marker to measure the piston movement.
vii. For accurate result, take small increment of the piston readings.
viii. Rotate the crank and record the corresponding piston movement.
ix. Take reading for every 5 degrees of the crank rotation.
x. Record the readings in table provided.

6.0 Result

Crank Piston Crank Piston Crank Piston Crank Piston

Rdg Movement Rdg Movement Rdg Movement Rdg Movement
θ (mm) θ (mm) θ (mm) θ (mm)
0 95 185 275
5 100 190 280
10 105 195 285
15 110 200 290
20 115 205 295
25 120 210 300
30 125 215 305
35 130 220 310
40 135 225 315
45 140 230 320
50 145 235 325
55 150 240 330
60 155 245 335
65 160 250 340
70 165 255 345
75 170 260 350
80 175 265 355
85 180 270 360
90

Table 1: Experimental Data

Crank radius = mm
Length of connecting rod = mm

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

Draw the Crank and Connecting rod assembly to scale.

 From the data in the Table above, plot the displacement diagram using Excel
Spreadsheet.
 Using the „Add Trend‟ option, plot the trend curve and obtain the equation for the
Experimental data.
 Differentiate the trend displacement equation obtained from the trend velocity and
trend acceleration equation.

Describe the type of displacement the piston undergoes as the crank rotates.
Find the maximum displacement, velocity and acceleration.
Why it is important to know the maximum acceleration.

7.0 Discussion
i) Explain how a crank and slider system works.
ii) Compare and discuss the result from the theoretical and experimental tables.
iii) Give your comment or suggest any cause of errors.
iv) List some of the practical applications of a crank and slider mechanism.

8.0 Conclusion
Write your conclusion about the experiments.

9.0 References
List all the references that you have made during the course of your finding.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

4.2. M2: FLYWHEEL APPARATUS

1.0 Objective
To determine the mass moment of inertia of the flywheel (assuming frictionless bearing).

2.0 Introduction
By using this apparatus, basic experiments on uniformly accelerated angular motion can be
performed. A flywheel mounted in ball bearings is placed in motion by a weight attached to a
pulley. The inertia of the flywheel can be determined from the fall time of the weight.

3.0 Apparatus
Flywheel apparatus, stop watch, set of weights.

Flywheel

Figure 1: Flywheel Apparatus

4.0 Theory
Equation and Symbols
Item Linear Motion Angular Motion
1 m mass I mass moment of inertia
2 P force T torque
3 s Distance transverse θ angular displacement
4 v velocity ω angular velocity
5 a acceleration α angular acceleration
6 m*a force equation I* α torque equation

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7 m*v momentum I* ω angular momentum

8 P*s work done T* θ work done
9 a=r*α r radius of flywheel
v=r*ω θ = ω0 t + ½ α t2
s = s0 t + ½ a t 2 ω = ω0 + α t
v = v0 + a t

Energy Equation
mgh = [(mv2)/2] + [(Iω2)/2]
[(Iω2)/2] = [mgh] - [(mv2)/2]
v = r * ω …………………………..(radius of torque pulley)
[(Iω2)/2] = [mgh] - [(m r2 ω2)/2]
I = [(2mgh) / ω2] – [m r2] ………… (1)
ω = ω0 + α t
ω0 = 0 ….. at the start of the experiment
ω=αt
α = ω/t Units of measurements
2
s=h=½at 1 m = mass in kg

a = 2h/t2 2 I = mass moment of inertia in kg-m2

3 ω = angular velocity rad/sec
a=r*α
4 t = time in sec
r * α = 2h/t2
5 h = linear distance in m
2
r * (ω/t) = 2h/t 6 T = torque in N-m
ω = (2*h)/(r*t)
substitute in equation 1
I = m r2 { [(gt2)/(2h)] -1}

5.0 Procedure
i) Attach the ring and the small disk to the flywheel.
ii) Measure the circumference of the torque pulley.
iii) Wound a cord around the torque pulley.
iv) Take a load hanger of known weight and hang it at the free end of the cord.
v) Place a load of 3N on the load hanger and hold the load in position.
vi) Set the stopwatch to zero.
vii) Release the load while simultaneously pressing the stopwatch button.
viii) After 1 revolution (or as user decide), stop the flywheel and the stopwatch
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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

simultaneously.
ix) Record the time taken for the load to travel through 1 revolution (or as user
decide).
x) Repeat step 5 to 9 for another 4 different sets of load which are 4N, 5N, 6N
and 7N.
xi) Record the measurements in Table 1.
xii) Remove the small disk from the flywheel to obtain a new mass moment of
inertia.
xiii) Repeat the experiment with the new mass moment of inertia.

6.0 Result

Mass of the flywheel, Mf = 15.04 kg

Radius of Flywheel, rf = 125 mm
Thickness of flywheel, tf = 40 mm
Mass of the ring, Mr = 3.7 kg
Outer diameter, rro = 250 mm
Inner diameter , rri = 180 mm
Mass of the small disc, Md = 3.6 kg
Outer diameter, rdo = 180 mm
Inner diameter , rdi = 40 mm

Radius of torque pulley, r = 20 mm

Radius of torque pulley, r = 0.02 m
Weight of hanger = 0.3 N
(since the pulley is small, assume tension in the cord equals the load on the hanger)

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

Table 1
Average Average
Load Time Time Load Time Time
W, (N) t, (sec) t, (sec) W, (N) sec sec

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

Table 2

Mass on Distance
torque travelled Average Time
hanger, m = by Torque
W/g Load
kg h, (m) t, (sec)

Table 3

mr2 gt2/2h (gt2/2h) - 1 I

kg-m2 kg-m2

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Calculate the theoretical mass moment of inertia of the flywheel

Theoretical mass moment of inertia = 0.5 Mf rf2

7.0 Discussion
i) Draw the free body diagram and kinetic diagram for the flywheel and weight.
ii) Compare and discuss the result of the mass moment of inertia of the flywheel
apparatus using theoretical equation and compared to the measurement in the
experiments.
iii) Give your comment or suggest any cause of errors.

8.0 Conclusion
Write your conclusion about the experiments.

9.0 References
List all the references that you have made during the course of your finding.

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4.3. M3: WHEEL AND AXLE APPARATUS

1.0 Objective
To compare the mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle arrangement for different lifting
pulley diameter.

2.0 Introduction
The wheel and axle is a simple machine which consists of two or more circular objects
connected by a shaft. When the axle turns, the wheels connected to the axle are also turn. The
mechanical advantage can be investigated by the relationship between the force and distance
inputted and outputted by the wheel and axle. This is directly related to the radius of the
wheel and axle.

3.0 Apparatus
A simple arrangement of two pulleys connected to a shaft.
Set of weights: 0.1 N, 0.2N, 0.5N, 1N and 5N
Weight of hanger = 0.04N

Figure 1: Wheel and Axle Apparatus

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

4.0 Theory
The Figure 1 above shows the arrangement of a set of pulleys. They are anchored to the
frame by means of a shaft. The aluminium pulley with the largest diameter is the wheel
pulley. The remaining pulleys are used as lifting pulley. The wheel pulley has a diameter of
100 mm while the lifting pulleys have diameter 25 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm.

The mechanical advantage of this system can be determined by plotting the graph of load
lifted verses effort load

The mechanical advantage is given by:

Load raised or lowered

Mechanical advantage =
Effort Load

Comparison can be made between different diameters of lifting pulley.

5.0 Procedure
i) Choose a pulley for lifting.
ii) Measure the diameter of the wheel and the lifting pulley.
iii) Wound a cord around the wheel and the lifting pulley.
iv) Hang a hanger at the free end of each cord.
v) Place a load to be lifted on the hanger of the lifting pulley.
vi) Let the hanger rest on the table but keep the cord taut.
vii) Place load on the hanger of the wheel (effort load) and watch the lifting pulley. If
the lifting hanger is not lifted, remove the effort load from the wheel hanger.
Increase the effort load and place it again on the wheel hanger. Repeat until the
effort load is able to raise the lifting hanger. Record the smallest load that causes
the lifting hanger to rise. This is the effort load.
viii) Record the loads in the Table provided.
ix) Increase the load on the lifting hanger and repeat step 6 to 9 for at least 5 load
increments.
x) Remove all loads on both pulleys.
xi) Choose another lifting pulley and repeat the experiment.

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

6.0 Results

Diameter of effort pulley = 100 mm

Diameter of lift pulley = 25 mm
Ratio of effort to lift pulley =

Table 1: Load raised by the effort

Load on Lift Pulley +
Load on Wheel + Hanger Hanger

(N) (N)

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Diameter of effort pulley = 100 mm

Diameter of lift pulley = 50 mm
Ratio of effort to lift pulley =

Table 2 Load raised by the effort

Load on Lift Pulley +
Load on Wheel + Hanger
Hanger
(N) (N)

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MEC291 : Mechanics and Materials Lab

Diameter of effort pulley = 100 mm

Diameter of lift pulley = 75 mm
Ratio of effort to lift pulley =

Table 3 Load raised by the effort

Load on Lift Pulley +

Load on Wheel + Hanger
Hanger
(N) (N)

 Using the data in Table1, Table 2 and Table3, plot the graph of Load Lifted versus Effort
Load.
 Obtain the slope of each graph passing through zero intercept. This represents the average
mechanical advantage of the system.

7.0 Discussion
i) Explain how the wheel and axle system works.
ii) Compare and discuss the mechanical advantage between different lifting pulley
and diameter.
iii) Give comment or suggest any cause of errors
iv) Lists some of the practical applications related to mechanical advantage.

8.0 Conclusion
Write your conclusion about the experiments.

9.0 References
List all the references that you have made during the course of your finding.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.H. Bernard. (1987). Laboratory experiments in college physics.6th edition. John Wiley &
Son.
H. Larry. (2001).Fundamentals of materials science for technologist: properties, testing and
laboratory exercises, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall.
J. Hannah and R. C. Stephens. (1998).Mechanics of machines: advanced theory and
examples, 2nd ed. Arnold International students.
F.P. Beer, E.R. Johnston, J. T. DeWolf and D.F. Mazurek, (2009).Mechanics of Materials, 5th
edition, edition, McGraw Hill Publication.
F.P. Beer and E.R. Johnston. (2007).Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics, 8th edition,
McGraw-Hill Publication.

R.C. Hibbeler. (2011).Mechanics of Materials, SI 8th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall.

R.C. Hibbeler. (2010). Engineering Mechanics - Dynamics, 12th edition, Pearson Prentice
Hall .
T. Fischer. (2009).Materials science for engineering students, Elsevier/Academic Press.
W. F. Smith. (2006).Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 4th edition.
McGraw-Hill Publication.

W. D. Callister, Jr., (2007). Materials Science and Engineering, an Introduction, 7th ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

http://www.engineeringarchives.com/les_mom_stressstraindiagram.html;(accessed Mei 2011)

http://www.ejsong.com/mdme/memmods/MEM23061A/Torsion/.html; (accessed Mei 2011)

http://www.engr.iupui.edu/me/courses/me272lab/; (accessed Mei 2011)

http://emweb.unl.edu/NEGAHBAN/Em325/intro.html.(accessed Mei 2011)

http://courses.washington.edu/me354a/labman.html(accessed Mei 2011)

http://www.calce.umd.edu/TSFA/Hardness_ad_.htm.(accessed June 2011)

http://www.efunda.com/materials/common_matl/Common_Matl.cfm?MatlPhase=Solid&Matl
Prop=Mechanical#Mechanical.(accessed Mei 2011)

http://amrita.vlab.co.in/?sub=1&brch=74&sim=571&cnt=1.(accessed June 2011)

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APPENDICES

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58