Europe in the Middle

Ages 1000 –1500

Section 1 Peasants, Trade, and Cities
Section 2 Medieval Christianity
Section 3 Culture of the High Middle Ages
Section 4 The Late Middle Ages

MAKING CONNECTIONS
What caused the formation of
universities?
The intellectual revival of the High Middle Ages led to the creation of
universities. The University of Oxford, shown in this photo, formed
when Henry II banned English students from the University of Paris in
1167. In this chapter you will learn more about culture and society
during the Middle Ages.
• How has the University of Oxford changed since the High
Middle Ages?
• What clues in the photograph on this page tell when the
University of Oxford was built?

1216
1073 Dominic de Guzmán
Gregory VII founds Dominican
EUROPE elected pope order

1000 1100 1200

THE WORLD 1100 1279

Problems arise between Christian Axum Kublai Khan establishes the
and its Muslim neighbors in Africa Yuan dynasty in China

332
(t) Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, (b) AAAC/Topham/The Image Works, Jason Hawkes/CORBIS
 FPO

Cause Effect

Identifying Cause Influence of Catholic Church

1347 1430 and Effect Use a

Two-Tab Book to describe causes and
Plague English capture 1500 effects related to the influence of the
spreads to Joan of Arc Eighty universities Catholic Church in Medieval Europe.
Italy and during Hundred exist throughout Select events from each century (the
France Years’ War Europe 1000s, 1100s, and 1200s) and identify
two or more cause-and-effect relation-
1300 1400 1500 ships for each.

1492
Christopher Columbus
reaches the Americas (ISTORY /.,).%
Chapter Overview—Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 10.

Jason Hawkes/CORBIS, Stapleton Collection/CORBIS

 Peasants, Trade, and Cities
During the High Middle Ages, new farming methods enabled
GUIDE TO READING Europe’s population to grow. The revival of trade led to a
The BIG Idea money economy and the growth of cities. Many serfs worked
Order and Security New farming prac- the land under the manorial system, while merchants and
tices supported population growth, and the revival artisans revived old cities and founded new ones.
of trade led to a money-based economy and the
rise of cities.

Content Vocabulary
The New Agriculture
• carruca (p. 334) • bourgeoisie (p. 339)
New inventions for farming and more efficient use of land contrib-
• manor (p. 336) • patricians (p. 340) uted to population growth in the High Middle Ages.
• serfs (p. 336) • guilds (p. 341)
HISTORY & YOU A farmer can plant a very large area today using modern equip-
• money economy • apprentice (p. 341)
ment. Read to learn how new devices helped medieval farmers grow more food.
(p. 338) • journeymen (p. 341)
• commercial capitalism • masterpiece (p. 341)
(p. 338) In the Early Middle Ages, Europe had a relatively small popula-
tion. In the High Middle Ages, however, population increased
Academic Vocabulary dramatically—doubling between 1000 and 1300 from 38 million
• technology (p. 334) • crucial (p. 334) to 74 million people.
What caused this huge increase? For one thing, conditions in
Places Europe were more settled and peaceful after the invasions of the
• Venice (p. 338) • Flanders (p. 338) Early Middle Ages had stopped. This increased peace and stabil-
ity also led to an expansion in food production after 1000.
Reading Strategy In part, food production increased because the climate changed
Determining Cause and Effect As during the High Middle Ages and improved growing conditions.
you read, use a chart like the one below to show In addition, peasants cultivated more land when they cut down
the effects of the growth of towns on medieval trees and drained swamps during the 1000s and 1100s. By 1200,
European society. Europeans had more land for farming than they do today.
Cause Effects Changes in technology also aided the development of farming.
The Middle Ages witnessed an explosion of labor-saving devices.
For example, the people of the Middle Ages harnessed the power
Growth of of water and wind to do jobs once done by human or animal
Towns power. Many of these new devices were made from iron, which
was mined in various areas of Europe. Iron was used to make
scythes, axes, and hoes for use on farms. It was also used in ham-
mers and nails for building.
Iron was crucial in making the carruca, a heavy, wheeled plow
with an iron plowshare. Unlike earlier plows, this plow easily
turned over heavy clay soils. Because of the weight of the carruca,
six or eight oxen were needed to pull it. However, oxen were slow.
The inventions of a new horse collar and the horseshoe made it
possible for a series of horses to pull the carruca faster and plow
more land in the rocky, heavy clay soil of northern Europe.
Use of the carruca also led to the growth of farming villages,
because people had to work together. Because iron was expensive,
an entire community had to buy a carruca. Likewise, one family

334
 Organization of a Manor

Village
Stream
Parson’s
fields Parson’s
B Forest Common house
B
pasture
Church

E Barn

Wine Fallow
E D
press Spring land
C
planting

E Mill

Fall E Bake
C
planting house

A Manor
house

A Manor house Home to the lord and his family and refuge for
the peasants during an attack
B Common lands Shared areas such as pasture where
peasants could graze animals or forest where peasants could The medieval manor was a mostly self-
hunt, fish, and gather firewood sustaining community.
C Cultivated land Spring and fall plantings laid out in long 1. Explaining How did the heavy plows of
strips to minimize the number of turns required while plowing the time influence the layout of the fields?
D Fallow land During crop rotation, land left unplanted to allow 2. Making Inferences In what ways did the
it to recover manorial system promote group
E Common workshops Shared work areas such as a mill to cooperation?
grind grain; bake house to bake bread; wine press to make
wine; or barn to shelter and care for animals

could not afford a team of animals, so vil- wheat) that they harvested in summer.
lagers shared their beasts. To minimize the They planted the second field in spring
amount of turning of the heavy carruca, with grains (oats and barley) and vegeta-
people plowed land in long strips. bles (peas and beans) that they harvested
Shifting from a two-field to a three-field in fall. They allowed the third field to lie
crop rotation also increased food produc- fallow. This way, only one-third, rather
tion. In the Early Middle Ages, peasants than one-half, of the land lay fallow at any
divided their land into two fields of equal time. This practice of rotating crops kept
size. They planted one field and allowed the soil fertile, while allowing people to
the other to lie fallow (unplanted) to regain grow more crops.
its fertility. Now, however, lands were
divided into three parts. Peasants planted ✓Reading Check Analyzing What factors led to
one field in the fall with grains (rye and population growth in the High Middle Ages?

CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages 335

 The Manorial System not marry anyone outside the manor with-
out the lord’s approval. Lords often had
Under the manorial system of the political authority on their lands, which
Middle Ages, serfs worked the lands of lords. gave them the right to try peasants in their
own courts. Peasants were required to pay
HISTORY & YOU Does your family celebrate reli-
gious holidays? Read to learn about the holidays that
lords for certain services, such as having
serfs observed during the Middle Ages. their grain ground into flour in the lords’
mills.
Even with these restrictions, however,
You will remember from Chapter 9 that serfs were not slaves. The land assigned to
feudalism created alliances between nobles serfs to support themselves usually could
(lords and vassals). The landholding not be taken away, and their responsibili-
nobles were a military elite whose ability ties to the lord remained fairly fixed. It
to be warriors depended on their having was also the lord’s duty to protect his
the leisure time to pursue the arts of war. serfs, giving them the safety to farm the
Landed estates, located on the fiefs given land.
to a vassal by his lord and worked by peas-
ants, provided the economic support that
made this way of life possible.
The Peasant Household
A manor was an agricultural estate that The life of peasants in Europe was sim-
a lord ran and peasants worked. Although ple. Their cottages had wood frames sur-
free peasants continued to exist, increas- rounded by sticks, with the spaces between
ing numbers of free peasants became serfs, sticks filled with straw and rubble and
or peasants legally bound to the land. Serfs then plastered over with clay. Roofs were
had to provide labor services, pay rents, simply thatched.
and be subject to the lord’s control. By 800, The houses of poorer peasants consisted
probably 60 percent of western Europeans of a single room. Others, however, had at
were serfs. least two rooms—a main room for cook-
A serf’s labor services included working ing, eating, and other activities and another
the lord’s land. The lord’s land made up room for sleeping. There was little privacy
one-third to one-half of the cultivated land in a medieval household. A hearth in the
scattered throughout the manor. Peasants main room was used for heating and cook-
used the rest of the estate’s land to grow ing. Because there were few or no win-
food for themselves. Such tasks as build- dows and no chimney, the smoke created
ing barns and digging ditches were also by fires in the hearth went out through
part of the labor services peasants pro- cracks in the walls or, more likely, through
vided. Serfs usually worked about three the thatched roof.
days a week for their lords.
The serfs paid rents by giving the lords Cycle of Labor
a share of every product they raised. Serfs The seasons of the year largely deter-
also paid the lords for the use of the man- mined peasant activities. Each season
or ’s common pasturelands, streams, brought a new round of tasks. Harvest
ponds, and surrounding woodlands. If a time in August and September was espe-
serf fished in the pond or stream on a cially hectic. A good harvest of grains for
manor, he turned over part of the catch to making bread was crucial to survival in
his lord. Peasants were also obliged to pay the winter months.
a tithe (a tenth of their produce) to their A new cycle of labor began in October,
local village churches. when peasants worked the ground for the
In the feudal contract, lords and vassals planting of winter crops. In November
were tied together through mutual obliga- came the slaughter of excess livestock,
tions to each other. On individual estates, because there was usually not enough
lords had a variety of legal rights over food to keep the animals alive all winter.
their serfs. Serfs could not leave the manor The meat would be salted to preserve it
without the lord’s permission and could for winter use. In February and March, the

336 SECTION 1 Peasants, Trade, and Cities

land was plowed for the planting of spring persons. The three great feasts of the Cath-
crops—oats, barley, peas, and beans. Early olic Church were Christmas (celebrating
summer was a fairly relaxed time, although the birth of Christ), Easter (celebrating the
there was still weeding and sheepshearing resurrection of Christ), and Pentecost (cel-
to be done. ebrating the descent of the Holy Spirit on
In every season, of course, the serfs Christ’s disciples). Other feasts dedicated
worked not only their own land but also to saints or the Virgin Mary, the mother of
the lords’ lands. They also tended the Jesus, were also celebrated. More than 50
small gardens next to their dwellings, days were essentially holidays.
where they grew the vegetables that made Religious feast days, Sunday mass, bap-
up part of their diet. tisms, marriages, and funerals all brought
Peasants did not face a life of constant peasants into contact with the village
labor, thanks to the feast days, or holidays, church, a crucial part of manorial life. The
of the Catholic Church. These feast days village priest taught the peasants the basic
celebrated the great events of the Christian ideas of Christianity so that they would
faith, or the lives of Christian saints or holy gain the Christians’ final goal—salvation.

The Peasant’s Wheel of Life

r AU
tembe Octob
e TU
Sep r M
N
No
t
ER

us ve
wheat ; sowing
as
M
g

m
Au

e
M

sting p

be
and ry
Harve ns
SU

r
ew s;
ts

ea

fir pig
d
ng oa

oo
and b

Plowin
sti d

ng ng
rve an

cti ri
lle hte
Ha rley

Dec
co ug
ba

Sla
July

embe

d rye
p, an ng flax, s
t, hem r task
Indoo g, crafts)
sti
whea g; harve
r

in
(spinn
in
Weed

sheari Cleari
n
n
Mowin g sheep cuttin g ditches
Janua

g hay g wo ;
; od
June

Pr
m ant

an uni
ak ing
Pl

ry
ing v

d ng
ca tr
re ege

Plow and oat

flax an peas, beans,

lve ee
P
pa ta

barle

s b s; l
la
irs ble

or am
n

ing; s
ti

WI

n b
y
n
d hem

s
g
s;

Fe
owin

NT
br
ay

ua
E
g

M
s

r
R

y
G
RIN April
Marc
SP h

This illustration is from a

medieval Book of Hours called
Très Riches Heures. Books of
Hours were personal prayer books
Peasant’s Wheel of Life that often contained calendars
noting important dates of the year.

1. Identifying In what months did

peasants plant?
2. Analyzing Visuals Based on the chart,
what season does the illustration
represent?

Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY

 However, village priests were often peas-
ants themselves; most could not read. No
The Revival of Trade
one knows how much church teaching the The revival of trade during the High
peasants actually understood. Very likely, Middle Ages gave rise to a money economy.
they saw God as an all-powerful force who HISTORY & YOU Do you have to trade one product
needed to be appeased by prayer to bring for another? Read about the emergence of a money
good harvests. economy.
The position of peasant women in mano-
rial society was both important and diffi-
Medieval Europe was an agricultural
cult. They were expected to work in the
society with small villages. In the 1000s
fields and at the same time bear children.
and 1100s, however, the economic founda-
How well they managed the household
tion of European civilization changed.
determined whether their family starved
Changes included a revival of trade and an
or survived.
associated growth of towns and cities.
The revival of trade in Europe after the
Food and Drink chaotic Early Middle Ages was gradual.
Though simple, the daily diet of peas- Cities in Italy took the lead. Venice devel-
ants was adequate when food was avail- oped a mercantile fleet (a fleet of trading
able. The basic staple of the peasant diet, ships) and by the end of the 900s had
and of the medieval diet in general, was become a major trading center in the Medi-
terranean. The towns of Flanders, an area
bread. Women made the dough for the
along the coast of present-day Belgium
bread. The loaves were usually baked in
and northern France, were ideally located
community ovens, which the lord owned.
for northern European traders. Merchants
Highly nutritious, peasant bread contained
from England, Scandinavia, France, and
not only wheat and rye but also barley,
Germany met there to trade their goods for
millet, and oats. These ingredients gave
the high-quality woolen cloth of Flanders.
the bread a dark appearance and a very
By the 1100s, a regular exchange of goods
heavy, hard texture.
had developed between Flanders and Italy.
Numerous other foods added to the To encourage this trade, the counts of
peasant’s diet: vegetables from the house- Champagne, in northern France, initiated
hold gardens; cheese from cow’s or goat’s a series of trade fairs. Six fairs were held
milk; nuts and berries from woodlands; every year in the chief towns. At these
and fruits, such as apples, pears, and cher- fairs, northern merchants brought the furs,
ries. Chickens provided eggs and some- woolen cloth, tin, hemp, and honey of
times meat. Peasants usually ate meat only northern Europe and exchanged them for
on the great feast days, such as Christmas the cloth and swords of northern Italy and
and Easter. the silks, sugar, and spices of the East.
Grains were important not only for bread As trade increased, demand for gold and
but also for making ale. In the Middle silver coins arose at fairs and trading
Ages, it was not easy to obtain pure sources markets of all kinds. Slowly, a money
of water to drink. Consequently, while economy—an economic system based on
wine became the choice of drink for mem- money, rather than barter—began to
bers of the upper classes, ale was the most emerge. New trading companies and bank-
common drink of the poor. If records are ing firms were set up to manage the
accurate, enormous quantities of ale were exchange and sale of goods. All of these
consumed. A monastery in the twelfth cen- new practices were part of the rise of
tury records a daily allotment to the monks commercial capitalism, an economic sys-
of three gallons of ale a day. Peasants in the tem in which people invested in trade and
field probably consumed even more. goods to make profits.

✓Reading Check Explaining What role did ✓Reading Check Evaluating Why were the
peasant women play in manorial society? towns of Flanders busy trading centers?

338 SECTION 1 Peasants, Trade, and Cities

 The Growth of Cities Usually, a group of merchants built a set-
tlement near a castle because it was located
The revival of trade spurred the along a trade route and because the lords
growth of cities, which became centers for manufac- of the castle would offer protection. If the
turing and trade. settlement prospered and expanded, new
HISTORY & YOU How would you describe life in walls were built to protect it. The mer-
your town or city? Read to learn what cities were like chants and artisans of these cities later
in the Middle Ages. came to be called burghers or bourgeoisie,
from the German word burg, meaning “a
walled enclosure.”
The revival of trade led to a revival of Medieval cities were small in compari-
cities. Towns had greatly declined in the son with either ancient or modern cities. A
Early Middle Ages, especially in Europe large Medieval trading city would number
north of the Alps. Old Roman cities had about 5000 inhabitants. By the late 1200s,
continued to exist, but they had dwindled London—England’s largest city—had
in both size and population. more than 40,000 people. Italian cities
tended to be even larger than this. For
Cities Old and New instance, Venice, Florence, and Milan each
With the revival of trade, merchants had more than 80,000 inhabitants. Even
began to settle in the old Roman cities. the largest European city, however, seemed
They were followed by craftspeople or small when compared to the Byzantine
artisans—people who had developed skills capital of Constantinople or the Arab cities
and saw a chance to make goods that the of Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo.
merchants could sell. In the course of the Most towns were closely tied to the land
eleventh and twelfth centuries, the old around them because they depended on
Roman cities came alive with new popula- the food grown in the surrounding man-
tions and growth. ors. In addition, the towns were often part
Many new cities or towns were also of the territory belonging to a lord, and
founded, especially in northern Europe. therefore were subject to his authority.

MEDIEVAL TRADE ROUTES

Stockholm
Edinburgh Visby Novgorod
ea

50 North
cS

°N Sea
Boston lti Vitsyebsk
Trade route Ba
London
Winchester Hamburg Danzig ina
Ch

40 ATLANTIC Bruges Kyiv Aral 70°E

To

°N
Paris Frankfurt Kraków (Kiev)
OCEAN Dn
Sea
N Nuremberg iep
To India
Bordeaux R. er
W Lyon
Milan
Ca

Moncastro
Venice Danub
sp

Genoa
30
ian

e R Feodosiya
°N E Marseille Florence .
Lisbon Black Sea
S
Se a

Valencia Rome Dubrovnik Trabzon

Tabrı̄z
Cádiz Almería Naples Constaninople
Tigr
Foça
is

Honein Bejaïa Tunis

R.

Modon
Eup
hr a Baghdad
te
20°W 10°W 0° Mediterranean Candia Beirut s R. To East
Tripoli Sea Indies
Acre Pe
rsi
Alexandria an
Gul
f
Cairo
0 400 kilometers
1. Place What geographical factors contrib- 60°E
0 400 miles
Nile R.

uted to the growth of Constantinople?

Re
d

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

Se

2. Place What geographical characteristics

a

do many of the cities along the trade routes 20°E 30°E 40°E 50°E
share?
 The lords wanted to treat townspeople as there for some time were citizens. In many
they did their vassals and serfs. However, cities, these citizens elected the city council
townspeople saw things differently. members, who served as judges and city
Townspeople needed freedom to trade. officials and who passed laws. Elections
They needed their own unique laws and were rigged so that only patricians—
were willing to pay for them. Lords and members of the wealthiest and most power-
kings, in turn, saw that they could also ful families—were elected.
make money and sold to the townspeople
the liberties they wanted. City Life
By 1100, townspeople had numerous Medieval towns were surrounded by
rights from local lords. These included the stone walls. Walls were expensive to build,
right to buy and sell property, freedom so the space within was tightly filled. Thus,
from military service to the lord, a written medieval cities had narrow, winding
law that guaranteed townspeople their streets. Houses were crowded against one
freedom, and the right for an escaped serf another, with the second and third stories
to become a free person after living a year built out over the streets. The danger of fire
and a day in the town. was great. Dwellings were mostly made of
The people in almost every new town wood before the 1300s and candles were
and city gained these basic liberties. Some used for light and heat. Medieval cities
new towns also received the right to govern burned rapidly once a fire started.
themselves by choosing their own officials The physical environment of medieval
and having their own courts of law. cities was not pleasant. Often dirty, cities
Over time, medieval cities developed smelled from animal and human waste.
their own governments for running the Air pollution was also a fact of life. Smoke
affairs of the community. Only males who from wood fires, present everywhere, or
had been born in the city or who had lived from the burning of cheap grades of coal

The Medieval Guild System

Medieval merchants and artisans formed guilds to promote their

common interests. Guilds achieved a monopoly over their commercial
activity in the local area. This protected their members from competition
from artisans of other cities and from competition among themselves.
Guilds set rules to assure that all members would prosper equally.
Guilds helped to build the economic structure of Europe. They
increased the number of skilled artisans and merchants. They built
roads and schools. Guilds often controlled town governments, creating a
stable environment for commerce. In these ways guilds served as a
transition from feudalism to a new economic system—capitalism. By
the 1500s, wealthy merchants had begun to form early factories. Guilds
were formed for cooperation, not competition. They could not compete
with the efficiency of large-scale production in the factories, and the
guild system slowly faded away.

1. Making Inferences How might the guild

system have affected prices for local
consumers?
2. Identifying the Main Idea What char- Emblems of different medieval
acteristic of guilds eventually led to their guilds in Umbria, Italy
decline?

Art Archive/Museo dell’Opera del Duomo Orvieto/Dagli Orti

filled the air. Water pollution was also a problem. Butchers
dumped blood and all other waste products from their
butchered animals into the rivers. Tanners, who converted
animal hides to leather, unloaded tannic acids and other
waste products of their operations. Cities did not use the
rivers for drinking water but relied instead on wells. While Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: technology,
medieval towns had private and public baths—Paris had
crucial, carruca, manor, serfs, Venice,
32—they were closed during the great plague of the four- Flanders, money economy, commercial
teenth century (discussed later in this chapter). capitalism, bourgeoisie, patricians, guilds,
Considerably more men than women lived in medieval apprentice, journeymen, masterpiece.
cities. Women were expected to supervise the household,
prepare meals, raise the children, and manage the family’s
Main Ideas
finances. Often, they helped their husbands in their trades. 2. Explain how the new crop rotation
Some women developed their own trades to earn extra increased food production.
money. Sometimes, when a master craftsman died, his
3. Identify the economic developments of the
widow carried on his trade. It was thus possible for women
Middle Ages that allowed commercial
in medieval towns to lead quite independent lives. In fact, capitalism to emerge. Use a diagram like
many women became brewers, weavers, and hatmakers. the one below.

Industry and Guilds

With the revival of trade, cities and towns became impor-
tant centers for manufacturing a wide range of goods,
Commercial
such as cloth, metalwork, shoes, and leather goods. Many Capitalism
craft activities were carried on in houses located in the
narrow streets of medieval cities. 4. Describe the physical environment of
From the 1000s on, craftspeople began to organize them- medieval cities.
selves into guilds, or business associations. Guilds played
a leading role in the economic life of cities. By the 1200s, Critical Thinking
there were guilds for almost every craft (tanners, bakers) 5. The BIG Idea Determining Cause and
and separate guilds for specialized groups of merchants, Effect What were some major results of
such as dealers in silk, spices, or wool. farming improvements and the revival of
Craft guilds directed almost every aspect of the produc- trade in the Middle Ages?
tion process. They set the standards for the quality of the 6. Comparing and Contrasting How did
articles produced, specified the methods of production to living and working in a medieval city differ
be used, and even fixed the price at which the finished from living and working on a manor?
goods could be sold. Guilds also determined the number 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the illustration
of people who could enter a specific trade and the proce- on page 340. Choose three emblems and
dure they must follow to do so. try to name the craft each represents.
A person who wanted to learn a trade first became an
apprentice, usually at around the age of 10, to a master Writing About History
craftsperson. Apprentices were not paid, but they did 8. Persuasive Writing Imagine you are a
receive room and board from their masters. After five to trader doing business at the beginning of
seven years of service during which they learned their the money economy. Write a letter
craft, apprentices became journeymen and worked for addressed to other traders convincing them
wages for other masters. Journeymen aspired to become to convert to a money system from
masters as well. To do so, they were expected to produce bartering.
a masterpiece, a finished piece in their craft. This piece
allowed the master craftspeople of the guild to judge
whether a journeyman was qualified to become a master
and join the guild. (ISTORY /.,).%
✓Reading Check Evaluating What role did guilds play in the For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
economic life of the cities?

341
 Medieval Christianity
Under Pope Gregory VII, the Catholic Church disentangled
GUIDE TO READING itself from secular influence in the eleventh century. The Church
The BIG Idea reached the height of its political power in the thirteenth century
Ideas, Beliefs, and Values With its under Pope Innocent III. Religious enthusiasm spread and new
strong leadership, the Catholic Church became a
monastic orders emerged. By the High Middle Ages, the Catholic
dominant and forceful presence in medieval
society. Church had become a dominant and forceful presence in
European society.
Content Vocabulary
• lay investiture (p. 342) • heresy (p. 346)
• interdict (p. 344) • relics (p. 347) The Papal Monarchy
• sacraments (p. 344)
During the papacy of Pope Innocent III in the thirteenth century, the
Academic Vocabulary Catholic Church reached the height of its political power.
• pursue (p. 342) • remove (p. 343) HISTORY & YOU Can a religious leader be an effective military leader? Read
how Church officials were obliged to carry out military duties for their lords.
People, Places, and Events
• Papal States (p. 342) • Hildegard of Bingen
• Pope Gregory VII (p. 345) Since the fifth century, the popes of the Catholic Church had
(p. 342) • Franciscans (p. 345) claimed supremacy over the affairs of the Church. They had also
• Henry IV (p. 343) • Dominicans (p. 345) gained control of territories in central Italy that came to be known
• Concordat of Worms • Saint Francis of Assisi as the Papal States. This control kept the popes involved in politi-
(p. 343) (p. 345) cal matters, often at the expense of their spiritual duties.
• Pope Innocent III • Assisi (p. 345) At the same time, the Church became increasingly involved in
(p. 344) • Inquisition (p. 346) the feudal system. Chief officials of the Church, such as bishops
• Cistercians (p. 344) and abbots, came to hold their offices as grants from nobles. As
vassals, they were obliged to carry out the usual feudal services,
Reading Strategy including military duties. Lords often chose their vassals from
Categorizing Information As you other noble families for political reasons. Thus, the bishops and
read, use a chart like the one below to list charac- abbots they chose were often worldly figures who cared little
teristics of the Cistercian and Dominican religious
about their spiritual duties.
orders.
Cistercians Dominicans
Reform of the Papacy
By the eleventh century, Church leaders realized the need to be
free from the lords’ interference in the appointment of Church
officials. When an individual became a Church official in the Mid-
dle Ages, he was given a ring and a staff. These objects symbolized
the spiritual authority with which the Church granted, or invested,
the official. Secular, or lay, rulers usually chose nominees to Church
offices and gave them the symbols of their office, a practice known
as lay investiture. Pope Gregory VII decided to fight this practice.
Elected pope in 1073, Gregory was convinced that he had been
chosen by God to reform the Church. To pursue this aim, Gregory
claimed that he—the pope—was truly God’s “vicar on earth” and
that the pope’s authority extended over all the Christian world,
including its rulers. Only by eliminating lay investiture could the

342
 The Investiture Controversy
Conflict Between King Henry IV
and Pope Gregory VII
1075: Gregory bans lay investiture, asserting supremacy of
Church over lay authority. Henry invests a new
bishop of Milan, replacing Gregory’s choice.
1076: Gregory deposes and excommunicates Henry.

“I withdraw. . .from Henry the king. . .

the rule over the whole kingdom of the
Germans and over Italy. And I absolve all
Christians from the bonds of the oath
which they have made or shall make to
him. . . I bind him in thy stead with the
chain of the anathema [a damned
person]. . .”
—Pope Gregory VII, February 1076
1077: Henry submits to Gregory and is absolved. German
princes declare Henry dethroned and elect Rudolf,
sparking civil war.
1080: Gregory supports Rudolf over Henry. Henry names
an antipope, Clement III. Gregory excommunicates
them both.
1081: Henry wins the civil war and marches on Rome.
1084: Henry conquers Rome. Gregory flees the city.
1105: Henry is forced to abdicate as his continued support
for Clement III weakened his rule.

Henry humbles himself before

1. Analyzing What does this conflict Gregory, who removes the
indicate about medieval ideas of power, excommunication, 1077.
authority, and governance?
2. Drawing Conclusions How did Henry’s
conflict with Gregory affect Henry’s reign?

Church regain its independence. The receiving their investiture from lay leaders:
Church would appoint clergy and run its “We decree that no one of the clergy shall
own affairs. If rulers did not accept this, receive the investiture . . . from the hand of
the pope would remove them. an emperor or king or of any lay person.”
Gregory VII and Henry IV, the king of Henry, however, had no intention of obey-
Germany, disagreed about these claims. ing this decree.
German kings had appointed high-ranking The struggle between Henry IV and
clerics, especially bishops, as their vassals, Gregory VII, known as the Investiture
in order to use them as their administra- Controversy, continued until a new
tors. Without them, the king could not German king and a new pope reached
maintain power over the German nobles. the Concordat of Worms agreement in
In 1075, Pope Gregory issued a decree 1122. Under it, a bishop in Germany
forbidding high-ranking clerics from was first elected by Church officials.

CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages 343

SEF/Art Resource, NY
 After election, the new bishop paid hom-
age to the king as his lord. The king in turn
New Religious Orders
invested him with the symbols of temporal As religious enthusiasm spread
(earthly) office. A representative of the through Europe, new monastic orders emerged.
pope then invested the new bishop with
HISTORY & YOU What does the phrase “innocent
the symbols of his spiritual office. until proven guilty” mean to you? Read to learn how
the Inquisition “proved” the guilt of heretics.
The Church Supreme
Pope Gregory VII also tried to improve In the late 1000s and early 1100s, a wave
the Church’s ability to provide spiritual of religious enthusiasm seized Europe. This
guidance to the faithful. Twelfth-century movement led to a rise in the number of
popes did not give up the reform ideals of monasteries and the emergence of new
Pope Gregory VII, but they were even monastic orders. Both men and women joined
more inclined to strengthen papal power religious orders in increasing numbers.
and build a strong administrative system.
During the papacy of Pope Innocent III in
the 1200s, the Catholic Church reached the A New Activism
height of its political power. At the begin- In the eleventh century, more new
ning of his rule in 1198, in a letter to a monastic orders arose and became impor-
priest, the pope made a clear statement of tant. One of the most important new orders
his views on papal supremacy: of the Middle Ages was the Cistercian
(sis•TUHR•shuhn) order. It was founded
in 1098 by a group of monks who were
PRIMARY SOURCE unhappy with the lack of discipline at their
“As God, the creator of the universe, set two own Benedictine monastery. Cistercian
great lights in the firmament of heaven, the monasticism spread rapidly from southern
greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light France into the rest of Europe.
to rule the night so He set two great dignities in The Cistercians were strict. They ate a
the firmament of the universal Church, . . . the simple diet, and each had only a single
greater to rule the day, that is, souls, and the robe. All decorations were eliminated from
lesser to rule the night, that is, bodies. These their churches and monastic buildings.
dignities are the papal authority and the royal More time for prayer and manual labor
power. And just as the moon gets her light from
was gained by spending fewer hours at
the sun, and is inferior to the sun . . . so the royal
religious services.
power gets the splendor of its dignity from the
papal authority.” The Cistercians played a major role in
—Pope Innocent III
developing a new, activistic spiritual model
for twelfth-century Europe. While Benedic-
tine monks spent hours inside the monas-
To achieve his political ends, Innocent
tery in personal prayer, the Cistercians took
used the spiritual weapons at his com-
their religion to the people outside the
mand. His favorite was the interdict. An
monastery. More than any other person,
interdict forbids priests from giving the
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux embodied the
sacraments (Christian rites) of the Church
new spiritual ideal of Cistercian monasti-
to a particular group of people. The goal
cism: “Arise, soldier of Christ, arise! Get up
was to cause the people under interdiction,
off the ground and return to the battle from
who were deprived of the comforts of reli-
which you have fled! Fight more boldly
gion, to exert pressure against their ruler.
after your flight, and triumph in glory!”
With an interdict, Innocent III forced the
king of France, Philip Augustus, to take
back his wife after Philip had tried to have Women in Religious Orders
his marriage annulled. Women were also actively involved in
the spiritual movements of the age. The
✓Reading Check Explaining What was the number of women joining religious houses
significance of the Concordat of Worms? grew dramatically. In the High Middle

344 SECTION 2 Medieval Christianity

Ages, most nuns were from the ranks of The Franciscans were founded by Saint
the landed aristocracy. Convents were con- Francis of Assisi. Francis was born to a
venient for families who were unable or wealthy Italian merchant family in Assisi.
unwilling to find husbands for their daugh- After having been captured and impris-
ters, for aristocratic women who did not oned during a local war, he had a series of
wish to marry, or for widows. dramatic spiritual experiences. These expe-
Female intellectuals found convents a riences led him to abandon all worldly
haven for their activities. Most learned goods and material pursuits and to live
women of the Middle Ages, especially in and preach in poverty, working and beg-
Germany, were nuns. This was certainly ging for his food. His simplicity, joyful
true of Hildegard of Bingen, who became nature, and love for others soon attracted a
abbess of a religious house for females in band of followers, all of whom took vows
western Germany. She was one of the first of absolute poverty, agreeing to reject all
women composers and was an important property and live by working and begging
contributor to the body of music known as for their food.
Gregorian chant. Her work is remarkable The Franciscans became very popular.
because she succeeded at a time when They lived among the people, preaching
music, especially sacred music, was almost repentance and aiding the poor. Their calls
exclusively the domain of men. for a return to the simplicity and poverty
of the early Church, reinforced by their
Franciscans and Dominicans own example, were especially effective.
In the 1200s two new religious orders The Franciscans also undertook mission-
emerged that had a strong impact on the ary work, first throughout Italy and then
lives of ordinary people. They were the to all parts of Europe and even to the
Franciscans and the Dominicans. Muslim world.

Hildegard of Bingen St. Francis of Assisi

1098–1179 Medieval Abbess 1182–1226 Medieval Monk

Hildegard was a weak and sickly child. From an Although Francis of Assisi is associated with a life of
early age, she received mystical visions. “I saw poverty, humility, and devotion to the example of
much, and related some of the things seen to Jesus, he did not start out that way. As a youth
others, who would inquire with astonishment, he was handsome and fun-loving with a
whence such things might come. . . . I would fondness for fancy clothes and popular
relate future things, which I saw as if present.” songs. He even fought bravely in a war
When she was 43, the Church confirmed the before being captured and imprisoned. How-
authenticity of her visions. With Church ever, his sympathies were always with the
approval, she recorded 26 prophecies in her poor. On one occasion he embraced a poor,
work Scivias (Know the Way). Powerful men, disfigured leper and gave him all the money
including kings and popes, sought her he had. On a pilgrimage to Rome he
advice. About 1147 Hildegard founded a emptied his money pouch at the tomb
new convent, where she continued to of St. Peter, giving it all to the poor
record her visions and write on many and exchanging his fancy clothes
topics. She also composed lyric with those of a beggar. His humil-
poems and music. Although never ity and generosity have made
formally canonized, she is consid- him one of the Catholic
ered a saint by the Catholic Church’s most beloved saints.
Church. Why did powerful men With whom did Francis of
seek Hildegard’s advice? Assisi sympathize?

(l) Michael Teller/akg-images, (r) akg-images

 The Inquisition

The Inquisition’s goal was to identify people who had committed

heresy and convince them to confess. In most cases, the sentence
was an act of penance, such as a pilgrimage. More extreme
punishments were reserved for those who refused to repent or
repeated their heresy.
In the 1270s a breakaway group of Franciscans, called the
Spirituals for their extreme vow of poverty, challenged the
leadership of their order. The Beguines supported them. Beguines
were enthusiastic Catholic women but outside the Church’s formal
control. The Church saw a potential threat to its authority with the
activities of these two groups. By 1318, the Church had begun to
define disobedience to its authority as heresy, and started burning
Spirituals. The next year, it expanded this extreme punishment to
the Beguines. Two decades of executions followed as the
Inquisition sought to control these splinter groups.
At first, the Inquisition left Europe’s Jewish populations alone.
Then in 1242, the Inquisition condemned the Talmud and burned
thousands of copies. The Inquisition remained active into the
late 1700s.

1. Interpreting How did the Inquisition

reinforce the authority of the Catholic Heretics are burned
Church? at the stake, 1557
2. Explaining How had the Church’s
definition of heresy changed by 1318?
Why did it make this change?

The Dominican order was founded by a Dominicans became especially well known
Spanish priest, Dominic de Guzmán. Dom- for their roles as examiners of people sus-
inic wanted to defend Church teachings pected of heresy.
from heresy—the denial of basic Church Those who confessed to heresy per-
doctrines. The spiritual revival of the High formed public penance and received pun-
Middle Ages had led to the emergence of ishment, such as flogging. Beginning in
heresies within the Church. Adherents of 1252, the Inquisition added the element of
these movements were called heretics. torture to extract confessions. Those who
Heretical movements became especially did not confess but were still considered
widespread in southern France. Dominic guilty and those who had done penance
believed that a new religious order of men for heresy and then relapsed were subject
who lived in poverty and could preach to execution by the state.
effectively would best be able to attack Thirteenth-century Christians believed
heresy. the only path to salvation was through the
Church. To them, heresy was a crime
against God and humanity. In their minds,
The Inquisition using force to save souls from damnation
The Church created a court called the was the right thing to do.
Inquisition, or Holy Office, to deal with
heretics. This court developed a regular ✓Reading Check Analyzing Why did the
procedure to find and try heretics. The Franciscans choose to live simply?

346 SECTION 2 Medieval Christianity

akg-images
Religion in the High Middle Ages
Ordinary people observed the Church’s sacraments, vener-
ated saints, and took pilgrimages to holy shrines.
HISTORY & YOU Do you have a good luck charm? Read to learn about Vocabulary
the importance of relics to people in the High Middle Ages. 1. Explain the significance of: Papal States,
lay investiture, Pope Gregory VII, pursue,
remove, Henry IV, Concordat of Worms,
The Church of the High Middle Ages was a crucial part Pope Innocent III, interdict, sacraments,
of ordinary people’s lives from birth to death. The sacra- Cistercians, Hildegard of Bingen,
ments, such as baptism, marriage, and the Eucharist (Com- Franciscans, Dominicans, Saint Francis of
munion), were seen as means for receiving God’s grace Assisi, Assisi, heresy, Inquisition, relics.
and were necessary for salvation. Since only the clergy
could administer these rites, people depended on them to Main Ideas
achieve this goal. Ordinary people also venerated saints— 2. Summarize the opposing viewpoints in the
men and women who, because of their holiness, had investiture controversy and the resulting
achieved a special position in Heaven. Since saints could compromise at Worms. Use a diagram like
ask for favors before the throne of God for people who the one below.
prayed to them, they were very popular with all Christians.
Pope Gregory’s View King Henry’s View
Among the recognized saints were Jesus Christ’s apos-
tles, the Virgin Mary, and numerous local saints of special
significance to a single area. The Italians, for example, had Concordat of Worms
Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of children, who is known
today as Santa Claus. Of all the saints, the Virgin Mary, 3. Explain how women were involved in the
mother of Jesus, was the most highly regarded in the High spiritual movements of the Middle Ages.
Middle Ages. A sign of Mary’s importance is the number 4. Define a relic and explain its significance
of churches all over Europe that were dedicated to her in to people of the Middle Ages.
the 1100s and 1200s. (Such churches in France were named
Notre Dame, or “Our Lady.”) Critical Thinking
Emphasis on the role of the saints was closely tied to the 5. The BIG Idea Evaluating Why was the
use of relics, usually bones of saints or objects connected Church such a powerful influence in lay
with saints. Relics were considered worthy of worship people’s lives during the Middle Ages?
because they provided a link between the earthly world 6. Drawing Conclusions Do you think the
and God. It was believed that relics could heal people or Inquisition’s methods accurately identified
produce other miracles. A twelfth-century English monk heretics? Explain.
wrote about an abbey’s relics: “There is kept there a thing 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the painting
more precious than gold, . . . the right arm of St. on page 343. What does King Henry’s
Oswald. . . . This we have seen with our own eyes and posture tell you about his relationship with
have kissed, and have handled with our own hands. . . . Pope Gregory?
There are kept here also part of his ribs and of the soil on
which he fell.” Writing About History
Medieval Christians also believed that a pilgrimage to a 8. Persuasive Writing Take on the role of
holy shrine produced a spiritual benefit. The greatest either Pope Gregory VII or King Henry IV of
shrine, but the most difficult to reach, was the Holy City of Germany. Argue the question of lay
Jerusalem. On the continent two pilgrim centers were espe- investiture from the viewpoint of either the
cially popular in the High Middle Ages: Rome, which con- pope or the king and justify the
tained the relics of Saints Peter and Paul, and the Spanish compromise that you reached.
town of Santiago de Compostela, supposedly the site of the
tomb of the Apostle James. Local shrines dedicated to the
Blessed Virgin Mary also became pilgrimage centers.
(ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Examining Why were saints important to History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
Christians in the High Middle Ages?

347
 Culture of the High Middle Ages
During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Europe witnessed
GUIDE TO READING a surge in architectural innovations and an intellectual revival.
The BIG Idea The development of ribbed vaults, pointed arches, and flying
New Technologies Technological innova- buttresses allowed the building of expansive, beautiful cathedrals.
tions made Gothic cathedrals possible, while an
The innovative design became known as the Gothic style. An
intellectual revival led to the formation of
universities. intellectual revival gave rise to Europe’s first universities.

Content Vocabulary
• theology (p. 350)
• scholasticism (p. 350)
• chanson de geste
(p. 351)
Architecture
• vernacular (p. 351) Gothic cathedrals, an artistic triumph of the High Middle Ages, were
built in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Academic Vocabulary HISTORY & YOU Have you seen stained glass windows in a church? Read to
• construction (p. 348) • corporation (p. 350) learn how builders in the High Middle Ages improved on an architectural style of
the ancient Romans.
People, Places, and Events
• Bologna (p. 350) • Saint Thomas Aquinas
• Paris (p. 350) (p. 350) The eleventh and twelfth centuries witnessed an explosion of
• Oxford (p. 350) • Summa Theologica building in medieval Europe, especially building of churches. The
(p. 350)
• Aristotle (p. 350) cathedrals of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were built in the
Romanesque style. Romanesque churches were normally built in
Reading Strategy the basilica shape used in the construction of churches in the late
Contrasting As you read, use a chart to con- Roman Empire.
trast the Romanesque style of architecture with the Basilicas were rectangular buildings with flat wooden roofs.
Gothic style of architecture. How did the churches Romanesque builders replaced the basilica’s flat wooden roof
built in these two styles differ?
with a long, round stone arched vault (called a barrel vault) or
Romanesque Gothic with a cross vault, in which two barrel vaults intersected. The
builder used the cross vault to create a church plan in the shape
of a cross. Barrel and cross vaults were considered more beautiful
than flat roofs.
Because stone roofs were extremely heavy, Romanesque
churches required massive pillars and walls to hold them up. This
left little space for windows, so Romanesque churches were dark
on the inside. With massive walls and pillars, these churches
resembled fortresses.
A new style, called Gothic, appeared in the twelfth century and
was brought to perfection in the thirteenth. The Gothic cathedral
remains one of the greatest artistic triumphs of the High Middle
Ages. Two basic innovations made Gothic cathedrals possible.
One innovation was the replacement of the round barrel vault
of Romanesque churches with a combination of ribbed vaults and
pointed arches. This change enabled builders to make Gothic
churches higher than Romanesque churches. The use of pointed
arches and ribbed vaults also creates an impression of upward
movement, as if the building is reaching to God.

348
 St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague
Gothic Architecture

A Gothic vault, or arched

ceiling, uses diagonal, pointed
ribs to hold the masonry.

Decorative pinnacles

Stained glass windows

provide a play of light and
color throughout the day.
Pointed arches draw
worshippers’ eyes upward,
toward God.

Flying buttresses support the heavy

vaulted ceiling, allowing for a higher
ceiling and more windows to bring
natural light into the expansive interior.
1. Locating Where are flying buttresses
located?
2. Making Inferences What role might
stained glass windows play in addition to
providing light and color in the cathedral?

St. Etienne Cathedral, Bourges, France

Another technical innovation was the These windows depict both religious
flying buttress—a heavy, arched support scenes and scenes from daily life. The col-
of stone built onto the outside of the walls. ored glass windows create a play of light History
ONLINE
Flying buttresses made it possible to dis- inside the cathedral that varies with the
Student Web
tribute the weight of the church’s vaulted sun at different times of the day. Natural Activity—
ceilings outward and down. This elimi- light was believed to be a symbol of the Visit glencoe.com and
nated the heavy walls needed in Roman- divine light of God. The Gothic cathedral, complete the activity
esque churches to hold the weight of the with its towers soaring toward Heaven, on the Middle Ages.
massive barrel vaults. bears witness to an age when most people
Gothic cathedrals were built, then, with believed in a spiritual world.
relatively thin walls. Since they were not
supporting great weight, these walls could ✓Reading Check Explaining How was a cross
be filled with stained glass windows. shape created in Romanesque buildings?

CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages 349

(inset) Andrea Pistolesi/Getty Images, (bkgd) Art Kowalsky/Alamy Images
 Universities

The Granger Collection, New York

and started their own university at Oxford,
England. Kings, popes, and princes thought
Medieval university students applied it honorable to found universities. By 1500,
scholasticism to the study of theology. Europe had 80 universities.
Students began by studying the liberal
HISTORY & YOU For how many more years are you
prepared to go to school? Read to learn how medieval
arts—grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic,
students earned a degree. geometry, music, and astronomy. Teachers
lectured by reading from a basic text and
then adding their explanations. To get a
The university of today, with faculty, degree, students took oral examinations
See page R39 students, and degrees, was a product of after studying four to six years. A student
to read excerpts from
the High Middle Ages. The word univer- could earn a bachelor of arts and later a
Christine de Pizan’s
A Woman May Need sity comes from the Latin word universitas, master of arts.
to Have the Heart of meaning “corporation” or “guild.” A student could earn a doctor’s degree
a Man in Primary The first European in law, medicine, or theology in about ten
Sources and university appeared ENGLAND more years. The most highly regarded sub-
Literature Library. Oxford
in Bologna (buh• ject was theology—the study of religion
LOH•nyuh), Italy. Paris and God. Those with doctor’s degrees
Students, men only, were officially able to teach but could pur-
FRANCE
came from all over sue other careers.
Europe to learn law Bologna The study of theology was strongly
from the great teacher ITALY influenced by a philosophical and theo-
Irnerius. The Univer- logical system known as scholasticism.
sity of Paris was the first university in Scholasticism tried to reconcile faith and
northern Europe. In the late 1300s, many reason—to show that what was accepted
students and masters (teachers) left Paris on faith was in harmony with what could
be learned through reason and experience.
Its chief task was to harmonize Christian
teachings with the works of the Greek phi-
losophers. The philosopher Aristotle
reached his conclusions by rational
thought, not by faith, and his ideas some-
St. Thomas Aquinas times contradicted Church teachings.
1225?–1274 Medieval Theologian In the 1200s, Saint Thomas Aquinas
(uh•KWY•nuhs) made the most famous
Just before Thomas’s birth, a village holy man predicted to his
mother, “so great will be his learning and sanctity that in his day no attempt to reconcile Aristotle with the doc-
one will be found to equal him.” By the end of his trines of Christianity. Thomas Aquinas is
life, this prophecy had been fulfilled. He entered best known for his Summa Theologica
the religious life at an early age and spent many (summa was a summary of all knowledge
years in study and meditation. Over time he on a given subject). His masterpiece was
became one of the greatest intellectuals the organized according to the logical method
Catholic Church ever produced. He left a body of scholarly investigation. Aquinas first
of more than sixty scholarly works on a wide posed a question such as, “Does God
variety of subjects, chiefly Greek philosophy exist?” He then cited sources that offered
and Christian doctrine. Thomas was once opposing opinions before reconciling them
asked what he considered the greatest and coming to his own conclusions. He
gift he had ever received. He replied,
believed that truths arrived at through rea-
“I think that of having understood
son could not conflict with truths arrived
whatever I have read.” What
were the chief subjects of at through faith. Reason, unaided by faith,
St. Thomas’s writings? could uncover truths about the physical
universe but not spiritual truths.

✓Reading Check Explaining What was the

main goal of scholasticism?
Vernacular Literature
Troubadour poetry and the heroic epic poem were popular
forms of vernacular literature in the twelfth century.
HISTORY & YOU What types of books do you enjoy—mystery, science Vocabulary
fiction, nonfiction? Read to learn what type of literature was popular dur- 1. Explain the significance of: construction,
ing the High Middle Ages. corporation, Bologna, Paris, Oxford,
theology, scholasticism, Aristotle, Saint
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica,
Latin was the universal language of medieval civiliza- vernacular, chanson de geste.
tion. Used in the Church and schools, Latin enabled
learned people to communicate anywhere in Europe.
Main Ideas
However, in the twelfth century, much new literature was 2. Summarize the evolution of church
being written in the vernacular—the language of every- architecture by describing the features and
day speech in a particular region, such as Spanish, French, innovations in a diagram like the one
English, or German. A new market for vernacular litera- below.
ture appeared in the twelfth century when educated lay-
people (religious people who were not clergy) at courts Basilica Romanesque Gothic
and in the cities took an interest in new sources of
entertainment.
Perhaps the most popular vernacular literature of the
3. List the fields of study in which a medieval
twelfth century was troubadour poetry, which was chiefly university student could earn a doctor’s
the product of nobles and knights. This poetry told of the degree.
love of a knight for a lady, who inspires him to become a
4. Identify the chief events in heroic epic
braver knight and a better poet. A good example is from
poems.
the noble Jaufré Rudel, who cherished a dream woman
from afar. He feared that he would never meet her, but
would always love her. Critical Thinking
5. The BIG Idea Analyzing How did the
architecture of the Gothic cathedral reflect
PRIMARY SOURCE medieval religious values?

“Most sad, most joyous shall I go away, 6. Comparing and Contrasting Compare
Let me have seen her for a single day, what you know of modern university
My love afar, courses of study with those of the first
I shall not see her, for her land and mine European universities. What are the
Are sundered, and the ways are hard to find, similarities and differences?
So many ways, and I shall lose my way, 7. Analyzing Visuals Imagine yourself
So wills it God. standing inside the Gothic cathedral shown
Yet shall I know no other love but hers, on page 349. How would you describe the
And if not hers, no other love at all.” look and feel of the interior?
—Jaufré Rudel
Writing About History
Another type of vernacular literature was known as the 8. Persuasive Writing Use a word
chanson de geste, or heroic epic. The earliest and finest processing program to create an illustrated
example of such literature is the Song of Roland, which brochure to attract students to a new
appeared around 1100 and was written in French. The medieval university in Venice. Include
chief events described in heroic epic poems are battles and information on the method of education
political contests. The epic world is one of combat, in and degree and course offerings. Provide a
“frequently asked questions” section.
which knights fight courageously for their kings and lords.
Women play only a small role or no role at all in heroic
epic poems. (ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Identifying What were two popular types of History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
vernacular literature in the twelfth century?

351
 The Late Middle Ages
Medieval European society reached its high point in the
GUIDE TO READING 1200s. However, everything changed in the 1300s when a series
The BIG Idea of disastrous forces overwhelmed Europe. The Black Death
Devastation of War Disastrous forces spread, killing over one-third of the population. People’s faith
overwhelmed Europe in the fourteenth century with
in the papacy was undermined when the Great Schism rocked
lasting consequences.
the Catholic Church. Then, the Hundred Years’ War started.
Content Vocabulary Recovery began in the 1400s, and rulers responded by
• anti-Semitism (p. 353) • taille (p. 357)
establishing their “new” monarchies.
• new monarchies
(p. 357)

Academic Vocabulary The Black Death

• abandoned (p. 352)
Spreading throughout Europe during the mid-fourteenth century,
• consequences (p. 353)
the Black Death had disastrous social and economic effects.

People, Places, and Events HISTORY & YOU What if one-third of your town’s population just suddenly
• Black Death (p. 352) • Henry V (p. 356) disappeared? Read to learn about the spread of the Black Death.
• Pope Boniface VIII • Agincourt (p. 356)
(p. 355) • Joan of Arc (p. 356)
The Middle Ages in Europe had reached a high point in the
• King Philip IV (p. 355) • Orléans (p. 356)
1200s. In the 1300s, however, some disastrous changes took place.
• Avignon (p. 355) • Isabella (p. 359)
Especially catastrophic was the Black Death, the most devastat-
• Great Schism (p. 355) • Ferdinand (p. 359)
ing natural disaster in European history. One observer wrote that
• John Hus (p. 355)
“father abandoned child, wife [abandoned] husband, one brother
[abandoned] another, for the plague seemed to strike through
Reading Strategy
breath and sight. And so they died. And no one could be found to
Determining Cause and Effect As
you read, use a diagram like the one below to iden-
bury the dead, for money or friendship.”
tify three reasons for the decline of the papacy.
The Plague Spreads
Bubonic plague was the most common form of the Black Death.
Decline of the Papacy It was spread by black rats infested with fleas carrying a deadly
bacterium. Italian merchants brought the plague with them from
Caffa, on the Black Sea, to the island of Sicily in October 1347. The
plague had spread to southern Italy and southern France by the
end of 1347. Usually, the path of the Black Death followed trade
routes. In 1348 and 1349, the plague spread through France, the
Low Countries (modern Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Nether-
lands), and Germany. It ravaged England in 1349 and expanded
to northern Europe and Scandinavia. Eastern Europe and Russia
were affected by 1351.
Out of a total European population of 75 million, possibly one-
third to one-half of the population died of the plague between
1347 and 1351. Especially hard hit were Italy’s crowded cities,
where 50 to 60 percent of the people died. In England and Ger-
many, entire villages disappeared.

352
 SPREAD OF THE BLACK DEATH
10°W 0° 10°W 20°W 30°W
50°W 60°W 70°W

40°E
0 400 kilometers

60° 0 400 miles

N
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
Bergen
20°W
Stockholm
Edinburgh Novgorod

a
50 North

Se
°N N
Sea

ic
lt E
Ba W
S
ATLANTIC London Lübeck Danzig
Winchester Bruges
OCEAN
Ghent
Paris Frankfurt Kyiv (Kiev)
Bay of Kraków
Nuremberg
Biscay Augsburg
Bordeaux Lyon Vienna
Buda

Ca
40° Milan Venice
N León

sp
Genoa Belgrade Feodosiya

ia
Lisbon Marseille
Black

n
Barcelona Florence
Toledo

Se
Sea
Valencia -@INQB@ #NQRHB@

a
Rome
Córdoba Constantinople
3@QCHMH@ Naples

3HBHKX Athens
Tunis M ia
ed to Syr
ite #XOQTR
rra #QDSD
nea
Extent of Spread n Sea
1347 1350
Middle of 1348 1351
30°N
End of 1348 1353
1349 1. Movement Genoa and Barcelona were
Major sea trade route seriously affected by the Black Death. Why
Partially or totally spared do you think this was so?
Seriously affected
2. Movement Describe the general direction
of the spread of the Black Death over time.

Social and Economic Impact a dramatic rise in the price of labor. At the
People did not know what caused the same time, the decline in the number of
plague. Many believed that God sent it as people lowered the demand for food,
punishment for their sins or that the devil resulting in falling prices.
caused it. Some reactions became extreme Landlords were now paying more for
and led to anti-Semitism—hostility toward labor while their incomes from rents were
Jews. Some accused Jews of causing the declining. Some peasants bargained with
plague by poisoning town wells. The worst their lords to pay rent instead of owing
attacks occurred in Germany. Many Jews services. This change freed them from serf-
fled from Germany to Poland, where the dom, an institution that had been declin-
king protected them. ing throughout the High Middle Ages.
The death of so many people also had
severe economic consequences. Trade ✓Reading Check Explaining How was the
declined, and a shortage of workers caused plague spread?

CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages 353

 THE BLACK DEATH

The Black Death greatly decreased the population of

Europe and brought about significant economic and
social changes in the late Middle Ages. Simple flea bites
unleashed a sickness that killed as many as one-third to
one-half the people in Europe within four years. A labor
shortage developed, manufactured goods became
scarce, and trade slowed drastically. The labor shortage
gave the serfs bargaining power. Many negotiated to
become wage earners instead of serfs.
Peasants moved to cities in greater numbers, seeking
higher wages. The economic system of wealth tied to
owning land was weakening. In its place rose a system
based on paying money for labor. The newly empowered
peasants and guild members stood up for their rights
more boldly after the plague. All over Europe, peasants
revolted over taxes and serfdom.
Faced with the Black Death, people turned to the
Church to save them. The Church, however, proved to
be powerless against the plague. Clergy died alongside
worshippers. As Church influence weakened, In this fourteenth-century
intellectuals dared to explore ideas formerly forbidden English text, a priest blesses
by the Church. monks who show the
characteristic black spots of
bubonic plague. The inability
of the Church to stop the
“Black Death” affected its
status in medieval society.

Effects of the Black Death

ECONOMIC EFFECTS
Drastic decline in population led to:
• Labor shortages
—higher wages for laborers and artisans
—bargaining power for serfs with landlords Images of death became common in art. Here,
a priest gives the last rights while a smiling
• Decline in trade (along with labor shortage) devil/skeleton attacks the victim with a spear.
—scarcity of manufactured goods God appears in the upper right.
—higher prices for manufactured goods
• Less demand for food
—lower food prices
SOCIAL EFFECTS
1. Comparing What common elements
• Decline of serfdom exist in the art shown about the
• Growth of cities Black Death?
• Peasant revolts 2. Analyzing Why could peasants
• Decline in Church influence stand up for their rights more boldly
after the plague than before it?
• Preoccupation with death in art and literature

354 SECTION 4 The Late Middle Ages

The British Library/Topham-HIP/The Image Works
 Decline of Church Power The Great Schism
Perceiving the decline in papal prestige,
The Great Schism of the Catholic Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377
Church caused great political conflict and left Europe but soon died. When the cardinals met to
divided for four decades. elect a new pope, the citizens of Rome
HISTORY & YOU Have you and a friend ever dis- warned that the cardinals would not leave
agreed? Read to learn about the Great Schism. Rome alive unless they elected an Italian.
The cardinals wisely elected an Italian,
Pope Urban VI. Five months later, a group
The popes reached the height of their of French cardinals declared the election
power in the 1200s. In the 1300s, the invalid and chose a Frenchman as pope.
Church’s power declined. This pope returned to Avignon.
Because Urban remained in Rome, there
The Popes at Avignon were now two popes, beginning the Great
European kings had begun to reject Schism of the Church. Lasting from 1378
papal claims of supremacy by the end of to 1417, the Great Schism divided Europe.
the 1200s. The struggle between Pope France and its allies supported the pope in
Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of Avignon. As France’s enemies, England
France had serious consequences for the and its allies supported the pope in Rome.
papacy. Philip claimed the right to tax the In addition to creating political conflict,
clergy. Boniface argued that taxing the the Great Schism damaged the Church.
clergy required the pope’s consent, because The pope was widely believed to be the
popes were supreme over both Church true leader of Christendom. When each
and state. Philip rejected the pope’s posi- line of popes denounced the other as the
tion and sent French forces to Italy to bring Antichrist (one who opposes Christ), peo-
Boniface back to France for trial. The pope ple’s faith in both the papacy and the
escaped but died soon afterward. Church were undermined. The situation
Philip then engi- became worse when an effort to resolve
neered the election the problem in 1409 resulted in the simul-
FRANCE
of a Frenchman, taneous reign of three popes. A church
Clement V, as pope council finally met at Constance, Switzer-
Avignon in 1305. Clement land, and ended the schism in 1417. The
took up residence in competing popes either resigned or were
ITALY
Avignon (a•veen• deposed. A new pope, acceptable to all,
Rome was then elected.
YOHN), in southern
Mediterranean Sea France. From 1305 These crises led to calls for reform. Czech
to 1377, the popes reformers led by John Hus called for an
lived in Avignon. end to corruption of the clergy and to
Sentiments against the papacy grew dur- excessive papal power within the Church.
ing this time. Many believed that the pope Hus was accused of heresy by the Council
as bishop of Rome should reside in Rome, of Constance and burned at the stake in
not in Avignon. The splendor in which the 1415. In response, the Czechs led a revolu-
pope and cardinals were living in Avignon tionary upheaval in Bohemia that was not
also led to strong criticism of the papacy, crushed until 1436.
as expressed by the Italian poet Petrarch: By the early 1400s, then, the Church had
lost much of its political power. The pope
PRIMARY SOURCE could no longer assert supremacy over the
state. Although Christianity remained cen-
“Here reign the successors of the poor tral to medieval life, the papacy and the
fisherman of Galilee; they have strangely forgotten Church had lost much of their spiritual
their origin. I am astounded . . . to see these men authority.
loaded with gold and clad in purple, boasting of
the spoils of princes and nations.” ✓Reading Check Explaining Why were popes
—Italian poet Petrarch criticized for living in Avignon?

CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages 355

 The Hundred Years’ War stunning English victory: “[with their
longbows] the English continued to shoot
England and France waged the long, into the thickest part of the crowd, wasting
violent Hundred Years’ War. none of their arrows. They impaled or
wounded horses and riders, who fell to the
HISTORY & YOU How would you react to someone
who claimed to have visions? Read to learn about
ground in great distress, unable to get up
Joan of Arc. again without the help of several men.”
The Battle of Crécy was not decisive,
however. The English simply did not have
Plague, economic crisis, and the decline enough resources to conquer all of France.
of the Catholic Church were not the only Nevertheless, they continued to try. The
problems of the late Middle Ages. War and English king, Henry V, achieved victory at
political instability must also be added to the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. The heavy,
the list. The Hundred Years’ War was the armor-plated French knights tried to attack
most violent struggle during this period. Henry’s forces across a muddy field. They
were disastrously defeated, and 1,500
The War Begins French nobles died in battle. The English
Trouble began over the duchy of Gas- were masters of northern France.
cony in France. England possessed it, and
France wanted it. King Edward III of Eng- Joan of Arc
land was also the duke of Gascony and a The seemingly hopeless French cause
vassal to the French king. However, when now fell into the hands of Charles, heir to
King Philip VI of France seized the duchy the French throne. Quite unexpectedly, a
in 1337, Edward declared war on Philip. French peasant woman saved the timid
Thus began the Hundred Years’ War monarch.
between England and France. The daughter of prosperous peasants,
The war began in a burst of knightly Joan of Arc was a deeply religious person.
enthusiasm. Trained to be warriors, knights She experienced visions and believed that
viewed battle as a chance to show their saints had commanded her to free France.
fighting abilities. The Hundred Years’ War Though only 17, Joan’s sincerity and sim-
proved to be an important turning point in plicity persuaded Charles to allow her to
the nature of warfare, however. Peasant accompany a French army to Orléans.
foot soldiers, not knights, won the chief Apparently inspired by Joan’s faith, the
battles of the war. French armies found new confidence and
France’s heavily armed noble cavalry- seized Orléans. Joan had brought the war
men, or knights, viewed foot soldiers as to a turning point but did not live to see its
social inferiors. The English also used end. The English captured Joan in 1430
heavily armed cavalry, but they relied and turned her over to the Inquisition on
more on large numbers of peasants, paid charges of witchcraft. At the time, visions
to be foot soldiers. English soldiers were were thought to be inspired by either God
armed not only with pikes, or heavy spears, or the devil. Joan was condemned to death
but also with longbows. The longbow had as a heretic.
greater striking power, longer range, and Joan’s achievements, however, were
more rapid speed of fire than the crossbow decisive. Although the war dragged on for
(formerly the weapon of choice). another two decades, defeats of English
armies in Normandy and Aquitaine led to
Crécy and Agincourt a French victory by 1453. Also important to
The first major battle of the Hundred the French success was the use of the can-
Years’ war occurred in 1346 at Crécy. The non, a new weapon made possible by the
larger French army followed no battle plan invention of gunpowder.
and attacked in a disorderly fashion. The
English archers devastated them. ✓Reading Check Identifying What event
As the chronicler Froissart described the sparked the Hundred Years’ War?

356 SECTION 4 The Late Middle Ages

Political Recovery of these reestablished states as the new
monarchies. This term applies especially
France, England, and Spain emerged as to the monarchies of France, England, and
new monarchies by the late 1400s. Spain as they existed at the end of the
1400s.
HISTORY & YOU After a setback, do you come
back stronger and better? Read to learn about the
new monarchies in Europe. France
The Hundred Years’ War left France
exhausted. However, the war had also
In the 1300s, European rulers faced seri- developed a strong degree of French
ous problems. Many hereditary monar- national feeling toward a common enemy.
chies or dynasties in Europe were unable The kings used that spirit to reestablish
to produce male heirs. The founders of royal power.
new dynasties had to fight for their posi- The development of a strong French
tions when groups of nobles supported state was greatly advanced by King Louis
opposing candidates for the kingship. Rul- XI, who ruled from 1461 to 1483. Known
ers found themselves with financial prob- by many as the Spider because of his devi-
lems as well. ous ways, Louis strengthened the use of
In the 1400s, however, recovery set in as a the taille—an annual direct tax usually on
number of new rulers in Europe attempted land or property—as a permanent tax
to reestablish the centralized power of imposed by royal authority. This tax gave
monarchies. Some historians have spoken Louis a sound, regular source of income.

Hundred Years’ War

Joan of Arc’s claims to mysterious

visions led to her greatest successes.
She predicted that the French army
would suffer a major defeat. When Hundred Years’ War
that happened, officials began to
take her seriously. She was taken to Held by England, 1429
King Charles VII, who disguised Loyal to France, 1429
himself to test her. She had never Boundary of France, 1453
seen him before, yet she picked him English victory
out of a group without hesitation. ENGLAND 52°W
French victory
When the king offered her a sword, Bruges
London Ghent
Joan of Arc announcing her she said she wanted the sword that FLANDERS
mission to Charles VII mysterious voices told her was Agincourt 1415
buried behind the altar of a nearby sh C hannel Joan of Arc is burned at the
Engli Crécy 1346 stake for heresy in 1431.
church. It was found exactly where she said it would be. However, Formigny 1450 Rouen Reims
after her capture, Joan’s claims of visions worked against her. NORMANDY Paris Joan of Arc’s faith inspires
Many people believed that only witches had visions, and witches BRITTANY the French armies to victory.
48°W
were heretics. Her pious conduct at the stake moved witnesses to Orléans 1429
tears. Few doubted that she died a faithful Christian. Bay of
HOLY
BURGUNDY
Biscay ROMAN
FRANCE EMPIRE
N

W
1. Identifying What did Joan of Arc E Castillon 1453
envision buried behind an altar? S AQUITAINE
44°N GASCONY 44°N
2. Drawing Conclusions Based on 0 200 kilometers
the map, when did the tide begin to 0 200 miles
turn in favor of the French during the Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection 5°E 10°E
Hundred Years’ War?

akg-images
 The Reconquista of Spain

In A.D. 711 Muslims from northern Africa, called

Moors, invaded Spain. Within three years, they had
conquered nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula. Soon,
the remaining Christian kingdoms began to slowly
reconquer Spain and Portugal. This Reconquista
ended in 1492, when Catholic monarchs Ferdinand II
and Isabella I conquered Granada.
That same year, Ferdinand and Isabella declared
that all Jews must either leave Spain or convert to
Christianity. Ten years later, a similar edict was
issued against Muslims. Many Jews and Muslims
left, but others chose conversion. Some were forcibly
baptized by zealous friars and mobs. Many of these
conversos, or “New Christians,” became genuine
Catholics. However, many continued to practice
Judaism or Islam in secret.
The Moorish kings of Granada pay tribute to the
Spanish Christians never fully trusted the
Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella.
conversos. This distrust led to measures such as
banning usury (the loaning of money in exchange for
interest), circumcision, and Moorish dress. Ultimately,
suspicion of unwilling conversos led to the expansion
of the Spanish Inquisition.
1. Describing Who were the conversos, and
what in their lives changed after 1492?
2. Making Connections How did the
Reconquista and the Spanish Inquisition
share a common goal?

To curb the power of the great French nobles, ment. Henry ended the wars of the nobles
Louis relied on support from the lower by abolishing their private armies. He was
nobility and middle class. He added Anjou, also very thrifty. By not overburdening the
Maine, Provence, and other regions to his nobles and the middle class with taxes,
kingdom. By consolidating power and by Henry won their favor. They thus provided
promoting industry and commerce, he cre- much support for his monarchy.
ated the foundations of a strong monarchy.
Spain
England Spain, too, experienced the growth of a
The Hundred Years’ War had also strong national monarchy at the end of the
strongly affected the English. Both the cost 1400s. Muslims had conquered much of
of the war and losses in manpower strained Spain by about 725. During the Middle
the economy. At the end of the war, Eng- Ages, Christian rulers in Spain had fought
land faced even greater turmoil when civil to regain their lands from the Muslims.
conflicts—known as the Wars of the Several independent Christian kingdoms
Roses—erupted. Noble factions fought to had emerged in the course of the long
control the monarchy until 1485, when reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Among
Henry Tudor established a new dynasty. them were Aragon and Castile.
As the first Tudor king, Henry VII Aragon and Castile were both strong
worked to create a strong royal govern- kingdoms. When Isabella of Castile married

358 SECTION 4 The Late Middle Ages

The Art Archive/CORBIS
Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469, it was a major step toward
unifying Spain. Castile and Aragon remained distinct
political kingdoms with separate councils of state and par-
liaments. However, Isabella and Ferdinand worked
together to strengthen their royal control in the dual
monarchy. Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: Black Death,
Ferdinand and Isabella also believed that religious unity
abandoned, anti-Semitism, consequences,
was necessary for political unity. The rulers pursued a Pope Boniface VIII, King Philip IV, Avignon,
policy of strict conformity to Catholicism. In 1492, they Great Schism, John Hus, Henry V,
took the drastic step of expelling all professed Jews from Agincourt, Joan of Arc, Orléans, new
Spain. monarchies, taille, Isabella, Ferdinand.
Muslims, too, after their final loss in 1492 to the armies
of Ferdinand and Isabella, were “encouraged” to convert Main Ideas
to Catholicism. They had the choice of conversion or vol- 2. Explain why anti-Semitism increased
untary exile. In 1502, Isabella issued a decree expelling all during the spread of the Black Death.
professed Muslims from her kingdom. To a very large
3. Identify the innovations from the Hundred
degree, Ferdinand and Isabella, the “most Catholic” mon- Years’ War that changed the nature of
archs, had achieved their goal of religious uniformity. To warfare. Use a diagram like the one below.
be Spanish was to be Catholic.
Hundred Years’ War
Central and Eastern Europe
Unlike France, England, and Spain, the Holy Roman
Empire did not develop a strong monarchical authority.
The failures of German emperors in the 1200s had made
Germany a land of hundreds of states. Almost all of these 4. Explain how Henry VII strengthened his
states acted independently of the German ruler. monarchy in the 1400s.
After 1438, the position of Holy Roman emperor was
held by the Hapsburg dynasty. As rulers of the Austrian Critical Thinking
lands along the Danube, the house of Hapsburg had 5. The BIG Idea Analyzing How did the
become one of the wealthiest landholders in the empire. economic effects of the Black Death help
By the mid-1400s, these rulers had begun to play an impor- to break down the institution of serfdom?
tant role in European affairs. 6. Finding Main Ideas What key issue
In eastern Europe, rulers found it difficult to centralize underlay the dispute between Pope
their states. Religious differences troubled the area as Boniface VIII and King Philip IV over taxing
Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and other the clergy?
groups, including Mongols and Muslims, confronted one 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the image of
another. In Poland, the nobles gained the upper hand and Joan of Arc on page 357. What details in
established the right to elect their kings, a policy that dras- the image suggest that Joan was not a
tically weakened royal authority. In Hungary, one king typical medieval woman?
broke the power of the wealthy lords and created a well-
organized central administration. After his death, how- Writing About History
ever, his work was largely undone. 8. Informative Writing Write a newspaper-
Since the 1200s, Russia had been under the domination type obituary for Joan of Arc. Include
of the Mongols. Gradually, the princes of Moscow rose to information on her life and her
prominence by using their close relationship to the Mon- achievements. Write a tribute or quote
gol khans to increase their wealth and expand their pos- that you believe sums up Joan’s life.
sessions. During the reign of the great prince Ivan III, a
new Russian state was born. Ivan III annexed other Rus-
sian territories. By 1480, he had thrown off the yoke of the
Mongols. (ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Identifying Conflicts among what groups made History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
it difficult for eastern Europe to form new monarchies?

359
 The Black Death
The Black Death spread throughout Europe from 1347 to 1351. The disease
wiped out nearly half of Europe’s population. Many towns and villages lost
most of their population, and some completely disappeared. There were three
versions of the disease that plagued the population, the most well-known of
these being the bubonic plague. Flea-infested rats aboard trading ships carried
the disease along trade routes and throughout the continent. As the fleas
jumped to humans, the pandemic began.

The bubonic plague hit urban areas

hardest, where crowded conditions and
poor sanitation helped spread disease.

Disposal of bodies became

a nightmarish problem.
Communal graves became
common, as was disposal
in rivers.

There was no garbage

collection or sanitation. All
forms of refuse were simply
thrown into the street, aiding

ESCAPING DEATH the breeding of disease.

Many people believed the impure air carried the disease. Those who
could afford it escaped to the countryside. They boarded up their homes
and either left their sick loved ones in the care of servants, or just left
them inside. Still others isolated themselves in their homes in hopes of
avoiding infection. The poor had no means of escape. They lived with and
cared for their sick. Because they were in close quarters, the poor often
fell victim to the disease themselves.

360
 The plague terrified people. It
was not uncommon for
families to abandon the sick,
including husbands, wives,
and children, in an attempt
to save themselves.

The bubonic plague

was transmitted
from rats to humans
by fleas.

There was no running

water. People seldom Inflamed lymph
bathed, so it was node (bubo).
common for them to
have lice and fleas.

ANALYZING VISUALS
A TERRIBLE DEATH 1. Cause and Effect
What effects of the Black
The Black Death was so-named because of the black color of the Death do you think had the
swollen lymph nodes, called buboes, its victims experienced. They greatest impact on
European history? Why?
appeared in the neck, armpits, legs, and groin. Other symptoms were
2. Comparing How is the
severe head and body aches, high fever, rapid pulse, general weakness,
response to pandemics
and vomiting of blood. Symptoms appeared within a few days of today different from the
exposure; the bursting of the buboes and death followed in just a ones of the Middle Ages?
few days more. Are there any similarities?

361
 Visual Summary
You can study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes
and flash cards to your PDA from glencoe.com.

Merchants Selling Their Goods

Society in the HIGH MIDDLE AGES d
• Farming inventions and efficient use of land contributed to s.
population growth.
• Under the manorial system, serfs were legally bound to the
land they worked for the lord.
• Revival of trade changed the economy from a barter system
to one based on money.
• As trade grew, cities expanded and became manufacturing
and trade centers.

Religious Enthusiasm
Spread Through Europe

CATHOLICISM, INNOVATIONS, AND

INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL in the Middle Ages
• Political power of the Catholic Church peaked during the papacy
of Pope Innocent III.
• Religious fervor led to new monastic orders.
• Advances in technology allowed the building of impressive
Gothic cathedrals.
• Europe’s first universities were founded.
• Popular troubadour poetry and heroic epic poems were written
in the vernacular.

Hundred Years’ War

Disruptive Forces of the

LATE MIDDLE AGES
• The Black Death spread through Europe, devastating
societies and economies.
• The Great Schism damaged the Church’s power
and divided Europe.
• In the Hundred Years’ War, peasant
foot soldiers, not knights, won the chief battles.
• Recovery began in the late 1400s as new monarchies
emerged in France, England, and Spain.

362 CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages

(t) Historical Picture Archive/CORBIS, (c) Chateau de Versailles, France/Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library, (b) The Granger Collection, New York
 Assessment
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST-TAKING TIP
Although most test questions ask you about what you have learned by reading the text or by listening in
class, using common sense can help you arrive at the correct answers, too. To answer questions, consider
what you know about the topic and then read the answer choices.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
the sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 334–341)
1. The were the wealthy, powerful families that usu- 5. Approximately what portion of western Europeans were serfs
ally made up the government of a medieval city. by 800?
A bourgeoisie A 80 percent
B patricians B 40 percent
C journeymen C 20 percent
D imperators D 60 percent

2. A was an agricultural estate that a lord ran and 6. How did the French counts of Champagne encourage trade
peasants worked. with Flanders?
A castle A Invented money
B guild B Initiated trade fairs
C carruca C Instituted capitalism
D manor D Developed a mercantile fleet

3. By using to deny people Christian rites, popes could

Section 2 (pp. 342–347)
pressure them to do the popes’ bidding.
7. What was the result of the Concordat of Worms?
A tailles
A The Hundred Years’ War ended.
B sacraments
B Europe’s loyalties were divided between different popes.
C interdicts
C A compromise was reached in the Investiture Controversy.
D heretics
D Many people were burned at the stake.

4. is the language of everyday speech.

8. Who founded the Franciscans?
A Vernacular
A Saint Francis of Assisi
B Chanson de geste
B Dominic de Guzmán
C Lay investiture
C Pope Innocent III
D Scholasticism
D Hildegard of Bingen

Need Extra Help?

If You Missed Questions . . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Go to Page . . . 340 336 344 351 336 338 344 345
GO ON

CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages 363

Section 3 (pp. 348–351) Critical Thinking
9. What new architectural style appeared in the twelfth Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
century?
A Neoclassic Use the following map and your knowledge of world history to
answer question 14.
B Romanesque
C Baroque Hundred Years’ War in France
D Gothic ENGLAND LOW English
COUNTRIES controlled,
London 1360
10. Who wrote most of the troubadour poetry? Calais
Agincourt 1415 FLANDERS French
A Clergy Ch an ne l Crécy 1346 controlled,
En gl ish 1360
B Nobles and knights Battle
Paris
C Peasants CHAMPAIGN HOLY
D Medieval university students Orléans 1429 ROMAN
EMPIRE
FRANCE BURGUNDY
ATLANTIC N
Section 4 (pp. 352–359) OCEAN
E
W
11. Which of the following was an accomplishment of King Bay of
Biscay S
Henry VII of England?
0 200 kilometers Avignon
A A strong royal government
0 200 miles
n Se a
B A Reconquista Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection anea
Mediterr
C The taille
D The Great Schism 14. Where did the first battle of the Hundred Years’ War take
place?
12. Who led the Czech reformers during the Great Schism of the A In Burgundy
Catholic Church? B In central France
A Henry VI C In northern France
B Hildegard of Bingen D In English territory
C Joan of Arc
D John Hus 15. What is one reason for the growth of medieval cities?
A The spread of the Black Death
13. Why did Isabella and Ferdinand expel Jews and Muslims B The decline of the manorial system
from Spain?
C The revival of trade
A For control of their land
D The decline of feudalism
B For religious unity
C For control of trade
16. Which of the following factors was key to the rise of com-
D For racial purity mercial capitalism?
A The manorial system
B Craft guilds
C Cities
D A money economy
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364 CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages

 Assessment
17. What issue was at the heart of the Investiture Controversy? Document-Based Questions
A Control of the Inquisition Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer ques-
B Supremacy of Church or state tions that follow the document. Base your answers on the document
and on your knowledge of world history.
C Location of the papal residence
D Anti-Semitism A twelfth-century English monk described his abbey’s relics:

Base your answer to question 18 on the following illustration and on

your knowledge of world history.
“There is kept there a thing more precious than gold . . .
the right arm of St. Oswald . . . This we have seen with our
own eyes and have kissed, and have handled with our own
hands. . . . There are kept here also part of his ribs and of
the soil on which he fell.”

19. What made these objects “relics”?

20. Why would a relic be considered “a thing more precious
than gold”?

Extended Response
21. Explain the economic effects of the Black Death.

18. What structural innovation illustrated by this drawing

allowed for the support of a heavy vaulted ceiling in a
Gothic cathedral?
A Barrel vaults
B Cross vaults
C Flying buttresses
D Basilicas
(ISTORY /.,).%
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
Chapter 10 at glencoe.com.

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CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages 365

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