CSS Islamic Studies Notes

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Table of Content
I. Introduction of Islam.

 Concept of Islam................................................................ 5

 Importance of Deen in Human Life.................................... 12

 Difference between Deen and Religion. ……………………. 32

 Distinctive Aspects of Islam.... ………………………………..35

 Islamic Beliefs & its Impact on Individual & Society and the Fundamental of Islam… 54
 Islamic Worships: Spiritual, Moral and Social Impact. ………60

II: Study of Seerah of Prophet Mohammad (PBAH) as Role Model for:-.... 83

 Individual……………………………………………………….. 83
 Diplomat..............................................................................89

 Military Strategist……………………………………………...99
 Educator………………………………………………………. 10

 Peace Maker …………………………………………………....121

III. Human Rights & Status of Woman in Islam. 128

 Dignity of Men and Women……………………………………...148

IV. Islamic Civilization and Culture:

 Meanings and the Vital Elements……………………………………..151

 Role of Civilization in Development of Human Personality and Communities...`157

 Distinctions of Islamic Civilization (Tauheed, Spiritualism, Dignity of Man, Equality,

Social Justice, Moral Values, Tolerance, Rule of Law).............201

V. Islam and World.

 Impact of Islamic Civilization on the West and Vice Versa…...159

 The Role of Islam in the Modern World…………………………. 233

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 Muslim World and the Contemporary Challenges. ………… 184

 Rise of Extremism……………………………………………. 196

VI. Public Administration and Governance in Islam

 Concept of Public Administration in Islam……………………..238

 Quranic Guidance on Good Governance.............................242
 Concept of Governance and its Applications in the light of Quran, Sunnah and

Fiqh......................................................................................246
 Governance Structure in Islam i.e. (Shura, Legislation, Sources of Islamic Law)....260

 Governance under Pious Khelifat...........................................268

 Particular letters of Hazrat Umar (R.A) and Hazrat Ali (R.A) to different Authority.
 Responsibilities of Civil Servants…………………………………..300
 System of Accountability in Islam………………………………...302

VII. Islamic Code of Life....309

 Salient Features of Islamic Systems, Social System, Political System, EconomicSystem,

Judicial System, Administrative System,……………………………...309

 Procedure of Ijmah and Ijtehad……………………………………….349

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Introduction of Islam
Concept of Islam:

Islam is the embodiment of the code of life which God,the Creator and Lord of the universe has

revealed for the guidence of mankind.All of its teachings are harmoniously conceived and to
compliment each other,nothing is superflous and nothing is lacking. With the result of solid

composure and absolute balance its teachings and postulates both create a strong and long
lasting impression on both beleivers and non believers.it is a religion which purely provides
guidence for each and every aspect of mankind and the universe.

Man requires two significant things for the proper development of his existence.He requires

resources to maintain life and fulifill the needs of both the individual and the society.Secondly he
must attain the knowledge regarding the principles of individual and social behaviour which

enables him maintain justice and tranquility in human life.The Lord of the universe had provided
for both of these in full measure.In order to cater for the individual needs of man God has

provided nature with all kinds of resources which lie at the disposal of man.To provide for his
spiritual,social and cultural needs He has raised His prophets from among men and revealed to

them the code of life which can guide man's steps to teh right path.This code of life is known as
Islam,the religion preached by all the prophets of God.According to the Holy quran,

"He has ordained for you (O Muhammad) that faith which He commended to Noah and that
which he commended to Abraham ,Moses and Jesus saying,"Establish the Faith and be not

divided therein".

Thus all of the Prophets were the messengers from God who have been revealed the real truth

regarding the existence of this universe and who were assigned the task to guide men to the
right path.All of them gave the same message and all of them stood for the same cause,Islam.

" O you who beleive! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and make not your deeds vain".

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The Meaning of Islam:

Islam,an arabic word which denotes submission.surrender, and pure obedience of Allah.The

literal meaning of the word is 'peace' which signifies the most vital aspect of the islamic religion

that a person can acheive the true tranquility of both heart and mind only through his obedience
of one God who is Omnipotent,Omnipresent and the Sustainer of the universe.Such a life with
obedience can also help in the establishment of peace and harmony among the memebers of

teh society.As Quran says,

"Mankind is a single nation. So Allah raised Prophets as bearers of good news and as warners,

and He revealed with them the book with truth, that it might judge between people concerning

that in which they differed . And none but the very people who were given it, differed about it
after clear arguments had come to them, envying one another. So Allah has guided by His will
those who believe to the truth about which they differed. And Allah guides whom he pleases to

the right path " [2:213]

According to the Quran

"Those who believe and whose heart find rest in the remembrance of Allah -indeed it is in the
thought of Allah alone that the heart of man really finds rest-those who believe and act

righteously ,joy is for them and a blissful home to return to."

This message was preache by all the prophets of God,who showed men the right way of life.But

man veered away from this path again and again and also distorted the code of guidence which

prophets had bequeathed.That is why other prophets were sent to restate the original message

and guide man to the right path.The last of these prophets was Muhammad (PBUH) who

presented God's guidence in its final form.and arranged to preserve it for all the time.It is this
guidence which is known as "Al Islam" and is enshrined in the quran and is the lif example of
the Prophet (PBUH)

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BASIC CONCEPT OF ISLAM:

The basic Islamic concept is based on Tauheed and the belief that Muhammad (PBUH) is the

last prophet sent by God as a messenger to guide and teach the mankind to the right path.

The beleif of Tauheed is a revolutionary concept and constitutes the essence of teh teachings of
islam.It means that there is only One Supreme Lord of the universe who is the sustainer of
mankind.His presence and governess can be felt if we observe the scattered stars in the infinite

space, the harmony of seasons,the vast panorama of nature with its charm and beauty all point
towards one fact that this system of universe is being governed by only one God who has

created all of the things around us.Truly Allah said,

"O,Mankind worship your Lord,who created you and those before you,so that you may ward off
evil.Who has appointed the earth a resting place for you,the sky a canopy?and who causes

water to pour down from the heavens ,thereby producing fruits as food for you?So do not setup

rivals to Allah ,when you know better".

The second part of the islamic belief signifies that God has not left any man without any

guidence for the conduct of his life.He has made revelations to his prophets who further became
apostels of God and guided men towards the teachings of Allah.The Quran said,

"Every Messenger who was sent by Us was sent for the purpose that he should be obeyed
under the sanction of Allah."

The third and very significant postulate of the Islamic concept is the belief in the life hereafter.

The world according to Islam is a place of trial and man is accountable for whtever deeds he
performs in this world.It will be in life after death that man will be rewarded or punished for his

deeds and misdeeds.Those who live in the present world a life in complete obedience to God

will enjoy eternal bliss and those who disobey his commands will ahve to suffer for his misdeeds
in the life of eternity.

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BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ISLAMIC IDEOLOGY:

SIMPLICITY:

Islam's as a religion is simple as it is free from superstitions and irrational beliefs.The unity of
God,the Prohethood of Muhammad (PBUH) and the concept of life after death are the beasic
articles of this faith.All the teachings of Islam follow from these three articles and are based on
sound logic and reason.In Islam there is no heirarchy of priests,no far fetched abstarctions,no

complicated rites and rituals and everybody can translate the book of God and dictates it into
practice.

RATIONALISM:

Islam enjoins man to see things in the light of reality.It teaches man to use his intellect and

observe as well understand the real meanings of the presence of the things around him .The
Prophet of Islam said,

"He who leaves his home in the search of some knowledge walks in the pathof God."

Quran advised man to pray ,"O ,my Lord! Advance me in Knowledge"

Muhammad (PBUH) also stressed regarding the attainment of knowledge in the following
words,

"To seek knowledge is obligatory for mankind."

Islam appreciates the intellectual activites of man to such a degree as to place him above the
angels.No other religion went ever so far in asserting the dominance of reason and ,of learning

above all other manifestations of life.As Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) also asserted in the

following words,

"If anybody goes on his way in search of knowledge,God will make easy for him the way to

Paradise."

And also,

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"The superiority of a learned man over a mere worshipper is like the supeiority of the moon on a

night when it is full over all other stars."

Thus from the above mentioned hadith's it can be vividly understood that Islam as a religion
teaches rational approach towards life.

Practical:

Islam, as a religion is not based on empty or futile theories .Infact it intensely educates in
attaining a practical approach towards one's existence both as an individual and as a social

being.It says that Islam is not a mere profession of beleifs ,it is the essence of life.It is a religion
which is something to be lived and not an object of mere lip service.The Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) said in this regard,

"God does not accept belief,if it is not expressed in deeds,and does not accept deeds,if they do

not conform to beleif".

Material prosperity in islam is desireable,though not the goal in itself.The goal of all our practical
activities always should be the creation and maintenece of both personal and social conditions
which can be helpful in the development of a moral stamina in man.In other words,Islam leads
man towards a conciousness of moral responsibility by his adoption of practicality in his life.

Unity between Matters and Spirit:

One of the unique characterisitics of Islam is that it does not divide life in water tight
compartments of matter and spirit.It is against ascetisim and believs in the achievemnet of

spiritual elevation by living piously in this world with a complete sense of virtue and morality

instead of renouncing the world.Every individual Muslim has to regard himself as personally
responsible for all the happenings around him and to strive for the establishment of Right and
abolition of Wrong at every time and every direction.A sanction for this attitude can be found in

the verses of Quran,

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"You are the best community that has been sent forth unto mankind :You enjoin the Right and
forbid the Wrong and you have faith in God."

Islam stresses again and again in the attainment of moderation and decency in all walks of

life.It's injunction is,

"Eat and drink but do not exceed".

The Holy Prophet said that,

"A Muslim who lives in the midst of the society and bears with patience and afflictions that come
to him is better than the one who shuns society and cannot bear any wrong done to him."

Islam enjoins man to devote all his energies to the reconstruction of life on healthy and moral

foundations.It teaches that both moral and material powers can be welded together and spiritual
salvation can be acheived by using teh material resources for the betterment of man in the
service of just ends instead of runing away from the challenges of life.An establishemnt of of a

equilibrium is strongly desired by the religion of Islam between both the material and spiritual

aspects of life.

Complete Way of Life:

Islam as a religion has a wide horizon and a scope.It is not only restricted to the private matters
and affairs concerning an individual rather it deals with all the fields of human existence.It
carries withing its teachings a complete guidence concerning the individual and social,material

and moral,economic and political,legal and cultural,national and international.It also clearly
states that its objectives are the purification of teh soul and the reformation of the society.As
Quran says,

"We verily sent Our messengers with clear proofs and revealed with them the Scripture and the
Balance,that mankind may observe justice and the right measure."

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Islam is a complete way of life as it integrates man with God, awakens in him a new moral
conciousness and invites him to deal with all problems of life in complete accordance with his

commitment to God.

Universality and Humanism:

God in Islam is the God of all the world.In Islam there is no distinction on the basis of
colour,creed ,language or nationality.All men are equal in the eyes of Islam and it insits in the

removal of all the impediments on the basis of status,wealth and social status.

"O Lord! Lord of my life and of everything in the universe! I affirm that all human beings are

brothers to one another."

Islam wants to unite all the human race under one code of life and presents a message of hope

and a glorious future for its followers.According to Holy Prophet (PBUH),

"Respect God and be affectionate to the family of God."

Islam leads man to a unification of all aspects of life.Its a universal religion which stresses on
the equality of all human beings with basic equal rights for all.It is a dynamic belief and a
revolutionary doctrine.It means that all men are the creatures of one God .Discrimination based
on colour,class,race or territory is unfounded and illusionary.It is remnant of the days of
ignorance which chained men down to servitude.Humanity is one single family of God and there

can be no sanction for those barriers.Men are one and gives a revolutionary concept of the unity
of mankind.

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Importance of Deen in Human Life:

The Function of Deen (Deen and Man)

We have stated that a careful study of Islam is likely to give us an insight into the nature and
function of deen. Before embarking on this study, however, it would be advisable to consider its
role in human life. The primary function of deen is the development of human personality. It

determines man’s outlook on life and makes life meaningful to him. It aims at the transformation
of man’s character by organising his desires into a harmonious system of living. To the extent
that it succeeds in this aim, it eliminates the sources of internal conflict and enables man to live

at peace with himself and at peace with his environment. Success and happiness are basically

the fruits of a genuine personal conviction. But deen has its social side as well. It is concerned
with man as he exists in a network of social relationship.

It does not isolate man from his social setting; rather, it brings him closer to his fellow-beings. It

has a meaning for man as an individual; but it has a far richer meaning for him as a member of
a social group. Deen leads man to the realisation that he can develop his potentialities only by
co-operating with his fellow men in the attainment of common ends. In this way, it plays a vital
part in the development of customs, laws and institutions. It is, therefore, the proper subject of

study not only for the psychologist but also for the historian and the sociologist. All are equally
bound to take it seriously and are not justified in explaining it away (as in the case of religion) as
an illusion or a matter of mere personal concern. The philosopher, too, has the right to examine

the validity of deen’s view of Reality and to assess its value as a cohesive force in society. Deen

has nothing to fear from an impartial inquiry. It has survived the fiercest onslaughts of science
and philosophy so far directed against it.

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Iqbal* has rightly observed: “Higher religion

 recognized the necessity of (concrete)** experience as its foundation long before

Science learnt to do so.”

 He has also drawn attention to the central position of deen in a synthesis of all the data
of human experience.
 In this connection it should be noted that the response of deen to Reality is not a partial

one. It is not merely cognitive as it is in the case of science and philosophy, nor is it
merely emotional as it is in aesthetics. It is a total response involving all the elements in
the personality of the individual. Further, it is response of a coherent harmonious

personality, a personality organised on the basis of a synthetic principle. In the words of

Iqbal, “Religion … is neither mere thought, nor mere feeling, nor mere action; it is an
expression of the whole man.”

 We must not lose sight of this fact if we want to understand the real nature of deen. Let
us pause to consider the implications of this view. If deen is the expression of the whole

man, then his achievements whether in the sphere of action or of thought, must
somehow be related to his deen or, in other words, to his basic beliefs about his relation
to the Ultimate Reality. These beliefs essentially relate to deen. We see then that deen

has given the impetus to the noblest enterprises of man. It is generally claimed that a
scientific ideology can very well achieve this object. But this is not true, for the simple
reason that a scientific or materialistic ideology, by its very nature, cannot satisfy the
whole man. It may appeal to his reason or interest but will, certainly, remain unrelated to

other elements in his personality, and will in effect lead to the fragmentation of

personality itself. Science and art bring satisfaction to the rational and the emotional
(aesthetic) sides of human nature respectively. But deen sets out to build up a view of

the world which will satisfy all the deepest longings of man. Can deen really accomplish
this stupendous task? Some great thinkers of the modern age who confuse deen with
religion have posed this question, and stoutly maintain that in cannot do so. They point

out that in the past the fruits of religion have been not peace and harmony but strife and

discord. Cassirer’s criticism of religion deserves to be quoted in full:

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 Religion remains a riddle not only in a theoretical but also in an ethical sense. It is
fraught with theoretical antinomies and with ethical contradictions. It promises us a

communion with nature, with men, with supernatural powers and the gods themselves.
Yet its effect is the very opposite. In its concrete appearance, it becomes the source of

the most profound dissensions and fanatic struggles among men. Religion claims to be
in possession of an absolute truth, but its history is a history of errors and heresies. It

gives us the promise and prospect of a transcendent world, far beyond the limit of our

human experience – and it remains human, all too human.

It is certainly a devastating criticism, and as it has been made by a leading thinker of the present

age it deserves our serious consideration. To examine it, point by point, will take us far afield.

We can only indicate the general line our defence of deen, as distinguished from religion, should
take. The difficulty with Professor Cassirer is, as is the case with most of the critics of religion,

that he has not studied deen as such but some particular religions, and those too which were
either man-made or the revealed ones, though true in their origin, were subsequently vitiated by

human interpolations. He would but have reached a different conclusion if he had studied deen.
A true religion, if at all deen is styled so, is not a riddle; it rather solves so many riddles of man
and the universe. There are no antinomies in a true religion. On the other hand, it reconciles

contradictions in life and harmonises the opposites in human behaviour. It is true that religion
has bred strife in the past in human society and that the religious communities have been torn
by dissensions. But that is the result of the imperfect vision of truth entertained by each
contending group.

Deen, on the other hand, breeds humility and modesty, not arrogance and presumption. Men
have certainly fought among themselves in the name of religion. Their motives were political or
economic, masquerading as religious. But the man believing in deen is unwilling to impose his

views on others. Finally, deen involves the belief in a transcendent world but it is wrong to say
that this transcendent world is separate and remote from and unconnected with the world of

human experience. The transcendent world of deen is only an aspect of the same Reality of

which the world of the senses is another aspect. In fact, they interpenetrate each other and

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belong to the same Supreme Reality. Deen teaches us that the sensible world is an abstraction
from Reality and that we should adjust ourselves to the whole concrete Reality and not to one of

its aspects. We agree with Professor Cassirer that “religion” (deen, as we call it) is “human, all
too human.” Its function is to regulate human life in such a way that the individual develops his

personality and becomes a useful member of society. In order to attain this objective, it gives
what may be termed permanent values, which no other source of knowledge can provide.

It exhorts man to conquer the forces of nature, since the position it assigns to him in the
universe is next to God, and to utilise the power so acquired for the development of the whole of
humanity. It shows him the way to rise above animal level and to live the life of Man. It is

possible only if he leads his life in conformity with permanent values. There would be no

permanent values if there were no deen, and if there were no permanent values mankind will be
no better than a herd of beasts. This is the real value and place of deen in human life and

activity which has unfortunately escaped the notice of Professor Cassirer.

The Self:

So far we have been concerned with the Ultimate Reality with its infinity of aspects. One of
these aspects is the spatio-temporal world of our experience. Now, we can turn our attention to

the human self which seeks a meaningful relationship with Reality. The Real, in relation to the
human self, is God, and the self’s attitude to the Real is deen. The self is strengthened and
enriched through permanent values which are the various attributes of the Real Self called God.

What is the nature of the human self and what is its place in the scheme of the universe? We
will, first, state and critically examine the answers which modern science and philosophy have

supplied to these questions. In ancient and mediaeval philosophy the self was synonymous with

the soul, and the soul was believed to be an indestructible substance which existed before its

temporary conjunction with the material body and which survives the dissolution of the body.

The notion of the soul was taken over from primitive thought and was refined and elaborated by
philosophers. Aristotle was the only great philosopher who rejected this view and propounded a

theory more in consonance with natural science. He regarded the soul as the entelechy of the

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body, and as it was the form of the body, it was also inseparable from it. The soul was thus
placed squarely in the system of natural phenomena. However, for centuries after Aristotle, the

older view of an independent and supernatural soul was unquestionably accepted by both
scientists and philosophers. It was challenged only when modern science was well under way.

In the eighteenth century, the term “self” came into vogue. It had the advantage of being closer
to nature than the term “soul” which had a supernaturalistic flavour. The self was regarded as

the subject of experience. The unity of consciousness, unique in the world, became intelligible
only in the light of self which owned and held together the various sensations, feelings and
ideas which compose consciousness. It was regarded as free and not subject to natural laws.

Moreover, it was believed that the self remained unchanged and identical with itself throughout

the life-span of the individual. However, the line of thought which began with Locke and
culminated in the philosophy of Hume rendered this conception of the self wholly unacceptable

to English thinkers. Locke conceived the human mind as a blank tablet which passively received
impressions from the outside world. The contents of the mind were wholly derived from the

external world; it did not itself produce or create anything. It merely received and stored
impressions from external objects and forces. This view totally denies any activity to the mind.
Locke held that any idea in the mind which could not be traced to its source in an impression

was merely spurious. Berkeley applied this test to the idea of self and reached the conclusion
that it was not a valid idea. Nevertheless, he believed that the flow of ideas was orderly and
lawful as these existed in the mind of God and were owned by Him.

Hume delivered the coup de grace to the popular belief in an independent self. He carried out a

penetrating analysis of the mind and found not a shred of evidence for its existence. He affirmed
that whenever he looked into his mind he came across a sensation, an image or a feeling, but
not the self to which they are supposed to belong. The mind, according to him, is merely a

succession of ideas which are related to each other externally by virtue of existing in the same
or successive states of consciousness. Being a thoroughgoing empiricist, he could not accept

an idea which did not correspond to an actual fact of consciousness. He believed that

orderliness and coherence in the contents of the mind could be fully explained in terms of the

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principles of association. Thereafter, the English empirical thinkers dispensed with the concept
of self altogether.

Kant agreed that the self or ego was not a fact of experience. Nevertheless, he believed in a

transcendental ego which was the ground of experience. The idealistic philosophers, therefore,
continued to speculate about the transcendental self and its relation to experience.

The psychologists, with their naturalistic outlook, found the concept of a transcendental self as

of no use to them. They confined themselves to the study of the facts of experience. However,
as they found that the contents of the mind were not disconnected but centred round an “I” or

ego, they developed the concept of the empirical self. They set themselves to solve the

problems of the emergence of the empirical self and the changes it undergoes in the course of
mental development. However, as psychology attained the status of a full-fledged science, even
the concept of an empirical self was discarded as being associated with ideas of permanence

and stability.

In modern psychology the concept of personality has supplanted the older concept of self. The
psychologist now studies the origin of personality and the process of its development as well as
the process of its disintegration in abnormal cases. Personality is conceived not as an entity but

as the form or pattern which the raw material of the mind assumes when it is organised. The
organisation of the instinctive urges, tendencies and capacities which constitute the biological
equipment of the individual proceeds apace during the formative years of life. According to the
view which is most widely held, the ground plan of personality is laid during the first five years of

life. Two factors, the physiological and the social, determine the farther course of personality
development. The physiologists hold that the hormones secreted by the endocrine glands play a

decisive role in the growth and normal functioning of personality.

Social psychologists, on the other hand, tend to attach greater importance to the social milieu in

which the human child grows up. Personality, they believe, emerges through the process of
socialisation. The child internalises the group code and the social norms which immediately

begin to regulate his instinctive urges and motives. The group also assigns to him a particular

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role, and the child develops the capacities and gives free scope to the tendencies which he
needs for playing the role successfully.

Freud has constructed a theory of the origin of personality which, though not universally

accepted, is generally regarded as a valuable contribution to this field of investigation. He

attached great importance to home influences for personality. His theory throws light on why
man clings so tenaciously to his moral code even when it is detrimental to his interests and even

when his reason does not approve of it. It is because the moral code does not enter the child’s
mind by way of his intellect, which is still immature, but is received by and takes root in the
emotional part of his nature. The child loves both his father and mother – but in different ways.

His love for the mother is of the possessive kind. He wants the mother to be always with him, to

minister to his needs as soon as they arise. This love is also libidinal or has an element of
sexuality in it. The mother is the individual’s first love object.

The child’s love for the father, on the other hand, is ambivalent, or has an ingredient of hostility

in it. The child feels the father to be an obstacle in the gratification of his wishes and considers
him as his rival for the mother’s love. He naturally takes up a hostile attitude to the father.
However, he soon finds that this hatred of his father draws upon him strong social disapproval.
The contradictory impulses of love and hatred directed towards the same person lead to a
severe conflict in the child’s mind, which he is incapable of resolving himself rationally. He
resolves it by repressing his hostility to the father.

The repressed impulse and the ideas associated with it form the Oedipus complex. The father’s

image and the moral code, of which the father was the chief exponent, sink into the child’s
unconscious and constitute the super-ego or, in ordinary language, the conscience. As the child,

actuated by fear, unquestioningly had obeyed the father, so he now has no choice but to obey

the imperatives of the super-ego which, he feels, have their source outside himself. His attitude

to his father is transferred to the super-ego which is based on the repressed image of the father.

This, according to Freud, is the secret of the powerful influence that the conscience exerts on

the mind of the individual.

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Sociologists maintain that human personality takes root in a social environment and is shaped
by social forces. According to this point of view, the individual plays a negligible role in his own

development. He remains passive while society moulds him into the form which happens to
enjoy social approval at the moment.

The inadequacy of this view is obvious, for we see it happening before our eyes that two
children, brought up in the same social environment, develop different types of personality. If the

sociologists were right, the members of a particular social group would be indistinguishable from
each other in respect of personality. As compared to the sociologists’ view, the psychologists’
view is more in agreement with observed facts. According to this view, personality develops as

the result of the reactions of the individual himself.

The important thing for personality is not the social influence to which the individual is exposed,
but the way in which he reacts to it. Man, therefore, does not passively receive but actively

acquires personality. The biological factor operating in man is of crucial importance for

personality development. However, it will not do to disregard the social factor altogether. Man
has, perforce, to accommodate himself to the demands of the group on which he is dependent
and which provides him with security and the necessities of life. According to the psychological
theory, which does justice to both factors, personality is the product of the interaction between
the hereditary constitution of man and his social milieu.

Science aims not merely at knowledge but at precise knowledge. Precision is possible only
when the subject matter is susceptible of measurement and when the technique of

measurement has been perfected. For a long time it was believed that quantitative methods
could not be applied to so elusive and imponderable a phenomenon as personality. We cannot

deny the tribute of praise to the psychologists who, with commendable patience, hard work and

ingenuity, have tried to solve this difficult problem.

They first analysed personality into traits and then discovered that each trait had a certain
dimension. The next step was to devise and perfect the technique of accurately measuring each

trait. By combining the results of measurement we get an overall picture of personality or

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personality profile, as it is termed. Rorschach, Thurstone, Likert and Goddard have achieved
remarkable success in this field. The modern psychologist now has a repertoire of special

techniques for measuring each of the basic traits of human personality.

However, although the application of scientific methods to the study of personality has yielded a
rich harvest of results, most of these have little bearing on the questions which loom large in
religion. What is it in man which impels him to embark on the perilous and seemingly desperate

enterprise of coming to terms with the Ultimate Reality? Why and how does he hope to fulfil
himself by establishing a close and intimate contact with God?

Let us first see how far psychology and philosophy can help us to answer these questions.

When we question the psychologist on the point, he refers us to the psychological definition of
personality. Unfortunately, there is no definition which is accepted by all the major psychologists
of the present age. Personality has been defined as the total quality of the individual’s

behaviour. This definition brings out both the unity and complexity of personality. Personality is

inclusive, so that no important motive, tendency or capacity remains outside it, and yet it has a
unity which is not paralleled anywhere else in nature.

For our present purpose it will suffice to state one more definition. Personality is the integration

of the individual’s measurable characteristics and motivational undercurrents. This process

begins in early childhood and proceeds, at first slowly and then at an accelerated pace, during
adolescence until the emergence of the mature personality of the adult. Thereafter too,
personality continues to undergo at least some changes, though slight, throughout the life of the

individual. With senility, or through disease or traumatic experiences, a process in the reverse
direction may set in. The process of disintegration may lead to the splitting or even

fragmentation of personality. Cases of dual and multiple personality have been observed and

intensively studied by psychiatrists; therapeutic techniques have also been devised for

reintegrating the split personality.

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We now see clearly that there is nothing substantial about personality as it is conceived by the
psychologist. It is merely a structural form which mental elements may take on or discard.

Turning to the philosophers, we find that the Existentialists refuse to believe in any

transcendental entity. They refuse to take a single step beyond the world of experience. For
them too, the human self does not partake of Reality.

The Logical Positivists promptly reject any concept which cannot be traced back to a fact of

experience. Their vision too does not extend beyond the horizon of experience. Whatever is not
an experiential fact they dismiss as non-existent.

At this point, is natural to ask whether deen can get along with the concept of personality or of
empirical self. Obviously it cannot. It can have no use for the ephemeral self of the psychologist
or Logical Positivist. It needs something real which can enter into a meaningful transaction with

the ultimately Real.

It needs self which exists in mental phenomena and is also their underlying ground. Deeni
activity is the expression of the reality in man and it is directed to the Real in the universe. The

concept of personality may be scientifically sound, but somehow it leaves us dissatisfied. We

feel that the object we pursued has eluded us and what we have grasped is a mere shadow. We

suspect that scant attention has been paid to the depth factors in human life. The psychologist

works from the surface of the mind downwards, and often fails to plumb the depths of the
human mind.

At a later point in our discussion we will examine the Qur’anic concept of the self. Here let us

pause to consider the effect of the scientific view of the self on the life of the modern man. The

modern man lives at as superficial level. He pursues petty and selfish ends. No wonder that he
is discontented and unhappy. His deepest cravings are left unsatisfied. Thus he is in conflict
both with himself and with his fellow beings. In this connection, Iqbal’s remarks deserve to be

quoted in full:

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Thus, wholly overshadowed by the results of this intellectual activity, the modern man has
ceased to live soulfully, i.e. from within. In the domain of thought he is living in an open conflict

with himself; and in the domain of economic and political life he is living in open conflict with
others. He finds himself unable to control his ruthless egoism and his infinite gold hunger which

is gradually killing all higher strivings in him and bringing him but life weariness. Absorbed in the
fact, that is to say, the optically present source of sensation, he is entirely cut off from the

unplumbed depths of his own being.

Modern man is certainly a prey to the two types of conflict which Iqbal has mentioned. For that
matter, man may always have suffered from such a conflict. Modern civilisation, however,

seems to have accentuated it. Nobody can deny that conflict is an active source of misery and

unhappiness. Is mental conflict due to extraneous factors or to those which are inherent in the
mind? Iqbal, through long meditation on the problems of life, was admirably fitted to pronounce

a balanced judgment on this issue. The passage quoted above makes it clear that he blames
conflict on modern civilisation which puts a premium on the selfish side of man and provides

satisfaction for only a segment of the self instead of for the whole of it. This view deserves
serious consideration. To judge the question in all its aspects, however, we cannot disregard the
views of two psychologists who have made a solid contribution in this field.

The first psychologist who explored the depths of the human mind was Freud. On the basis of
extensive clinical work, he advanced a theory which illumined many points which hitherto had
remained obscure. He preferred the term Psyche, as it had no metaphysical implications. The

Psyche, he believed, is the seat of a number of instinctive drives, each of which blindly strives to

abolish or reduce the tension which accompanies it. Each of these drives is invested with a fund
of psychical energy. This psychical energy, as it is expended in activities directed to the
attainment of relief or pleasure, is termed the libido. Consciousness originates on the surface of

the Psyche, which is also the surface of the organism, as it receives the impact of the
environmental forces. As consciousness is in direct contact with the environment, it assumes

the role of mediator between the interior of the Psyche and the environment. The conscious

personality puts a curb on the instinctive drives and compels them to defer satisfaction to a

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suitable time. The formation of the Oedipus complex gives rise to the super-ego, which is the
third sub-system of the Psyche. The super-ego, as it embodies the group code and group

ideals, pursues ends which have social approval. The psyche has three components – the Id
(the instinctual drives of Psyche which are impersonal), the ego and the super-ego.

The libido finds its typical expression in the sexual activity of the adult. It can, therefore, be
regarded as sex energy. For this reason, Freud was, rather unfairly, accused of being a

pansexualist.

The ego and super-ego possess no libidinal energy at the beginning. But libido itself is highly

transferable. It can be detached from the impulse which owns it and can be transferred to

another which society approves of. This process is called sublimation. The ego suppresses the
libidinal urges and diverts the energy thus released into socially approved channels. Civilisation
is built up on the repression of the sex drive. The sexual impulses, however, cannot be

extinguished. In this way arises a never-ending conflict between the demands of the libido and

the demands of civilised society. Civilisation, however, rests on insecure ground. The repressed
sex urge may erupt any time and bring down its imposing structure of civilisation. Internal
conflict or conflict in the mind of man is the price we have to pay for civilisation. This conflict is
accentuated with every increase in the complexity of social organisation. However, this is not
the whole story.

Freud believes that as a living organism man has inherited a deeper and more fundamental
conflict. He defines instinct as the primitive tendency to revert to the previous state of existence

and the former level of functioning. A living organism is constantly in an unstable condition. With
the first stirrings of life in the erstwhile inanimate mass of matter, it felt the imperative urge to

revert to the previous state of stability and lifelessness. Freud believes that the death urge lies

at the root of our being. Death promises the final release from tension which is inseparable from

life. The longing for death is the deepest longing in the Psyche. We are reminded of Buddha’s

view of life and his longing for Nirvana. Freud may have been influenced by Schopenhauer’s

pessimistic philosophy, as, according to him, we are called upon to say Nay to life. Consciously
we may be aiming at and striving for self-development, but unconsciously we are moving

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towards the goal of self-annihilation. Which of the three alternatives open to us should we
choose – acceptance, rejection or non-committal attitude? It may be pointed out that man

naturally shrinks back from the prospect of extinction, that he passionately longs for immortality
and that he tenaciously clings to beliefs which are related to the continuation of life beyond

death. We may also note that eschatology forms an essential part of every religion the world
over, with the solitary exception of Buddhism. The highest flights of poetic imagination have

often been inspired by the hope that death is not the end of life but a transition to a higher state

of life.

We may briefly comment on Freud’s treatment of religion. For him religion is an illusion which

man has created to obtain solace and comfort in a world which is full of misery and affliction.

Man’s strongest desires are frustrated and their energy is dammed up. It finds an outlet in
imaginative activity which creates fantasies. Those repressed desires which are denied

gratification in the real world find it on the ideal plane. The Imago, or the image of the father
which lies buried deep in the unconscious, is projected on to the cosmos as God. Dr. William

Brown, himself a psychoanalyst, has taken strong exception to this view. On the basis of his
clinical work he affirms that a complex usually disappears when the patient is psychoanalysed.
Religion, however, does not disappear, but may even be strengthened in the mind of the patient

who has been psychoanalysed.

We may consider the views of another major psychologist, Carl Jung. Let us see what light he
throws on the causes of inter-personal and intra-personal conflicts. His theory of personality is,

in some ways, more profound than the psychoanalytic theory. In his view, the human personality

is a complex system which comprises a number of sub-systems. Conflict may arise between
any one of these and others. Jung’s theory of personality is highly complex and intricate, but it is
not necessary for us to consider it in detail. We will confine ourselves to that part of it which is

relevant to our immediate purpose. Jung’s observations on the chief source of discontent in the
present age deserve careful consideration: these are that the opposing trends in the several

systems are likely to clash with one another. The conscious desire may be in opposition to the

unconscious.

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A man may consciously desire wealth and may devote himself to making money. But his
unconscious may harbour the wish to become an artist. Such a man, even if he becomes a

millionaire, remains unhappy because the unconscious wish is frustrated. The remedy for
conflict lies in personality itself. It possesses a transcendent function. This function is endowed

with the capacity to unite the opposing trends of the several systems within and to work towards
an ideal goal of perfect wholeness (selfhood).

Jung’s conception of the symbol is of particular significance for religion, as religious truths are
generally expressed in symbolical language. Jung affirms that a symbol has two aspects –
retrospective and prospective. In its former aspect, the symbol expresses the stored-up racial

wisdom. In its prospective aspect it represents a level of development that is far ahead of man’s

present status. Man’s destiny, the highest evolution of the Psyche, is marked out for him by
symbols. We thus see that in religion symbols represent higher levels of development.

Another view of Jung has a direct bearing on religion. He believes that a fundamental urge in

man leads him to seek unification with the universe. He passionately desires to be at one with it.
The desire to achieve unification with Reality must be satisfied if man is to win peace and
happiness. But because the condition of life today frustrate this desire, the modern man feels
discontented and unhappy, although he does not know the reason for this state of his mind.

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The Qur’anic Concept of the Self:

We have now the proper background for grasping, judging and appreciating the Qur’anic

concept of the self. We have deliberately chosen the older term “self” in preference to the terms

“personality,” “psyche” and “empirical self” which are current in modern psychology and
philosophy. The reasons for this choice may be stated here briefly. The term “self” is in closer
correspondence with the Qur’anic term “nafs,” than any of the terms which have come into

vogue recently. Secondly, each of these terms suggests an ephemeral phenomenon which
appears at a certain point of time, and after a short period vanishes into the thin air, leaving
behind it no trace of its existence. Such a phenomenon cannot enjoy the status of a moral agent

or a responsible being. What it is and what it achieves are of no significance either for itself or

for the world. It is like the flame of a candle which shines for a moment and then is quickly
swallowed up by the surrounding darkness. Finally, being unreal itself, it cannot enter into a

meaningful relationship and co-operation with the Real. The characterisation of the self, which
we find in the Qur’an, will enable us to form an adequate idea of the self and a just estimate of

its capabilities.

The self partakes of Reality and consequently enjoys permanence and stability. It retains its
identity throughout its career. The trials which it undergoes and the influences to which it is
exposed change it without transforming it into something different from itself. It starts its career
in an undeveloped form but equipped with immense potentialities. It may or may not actualise
these potentialities but it never ceases to be itself. It is not a passive material which is moulded

by external forces; it is essentially active and dynamic. Its typical activity is dini activity in the

highest sense of the term, viz., the development and actualising of its basic characteristics, and
thereby “drawing closer” to the Most perfect Self – God – whose attributes serve as an objective
standard for the human self, and thus tasting the joy of proximity to Him. Death does not

terminate the activity of the self; it is but an episode in its career.

Further, the self, as conceived in the Qur’an is free. Freedom is an inalienable property of the

self. Although it operates in the sphere of nature, its activity flows from its own nature and is not

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determined by natural causes. As Dr. Rhine, in his book, New World of the Mind, aptly remarks:
“There is something operative in man that transcends the laws of matter.”

It is because the self is free that it functions as a moral agent. Duties and obligations have no

meaning for a being which is completely determined. If the self were not free, it would be
insensitive to the demands of “ought” and would respond only the demands of “must.” Its sense
of responsibility springs from its sense of freedom; it is capable of leading a moral life only

because it is free. This view implies that the self has a real choice of action. It can choose any
one of the alternative courses of action open to it, and responsibility for its choice rests squarely
on it.

Of course, the self does not enjoy absolute and unlimited freedom. Its freedom is circumscribed
by the conditions under which it lives. The world of fact checks and restrains its activities in
various ways and in various degrees. The self chafes under these restraints. It flourishes only in

an atmosphere of freedom. In a highly regimented society its sphere of action may be subjected

to increasing shrinkage. Such a society discourages all kinds of self-expression and curbs
liberty of action. Under these conditions, the self begins to languish. It can regain its vitality only
by regaining its freedom. The self burgeons, blossoms and fructifies in lofty thoughts and noble
actions only in an atmosphere of freedom.

Freedom is in the essence of the self and cannot be extinguished under external compulsion.
The self, however, feels cramped and frustrated in a regimented and totalitarian society, or an
“other-directed conformism,” or system of religion. The State, whose power has increased

enormously in recent times, poses a serious threat to the integrity of the self. It has been
steadily and relentlessly encroaching on the domain of the self. The individual’s freedom has

been seriously curtailed by the modern State, armed as it is with scientific techniques of

suggestion, propaganda and brain washing. The government can now influence the individual’s

mind to a degree which was undreamt of in the past. It can control not only man’s overt actions

but his inner thoughts as well. In these circumstances, the only citadel in which freedom can

take refuge is deen. It ensures complete freedom for self within the framework of permanent

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values. Deen should, therefore, be defended at any cost, as the region where man can still
enjoy freedom and function as a self and not merely as a cog in a machine.

Again, the self as viewed by the Qur’an is not static. It possesses infinite capacity for

development. With its own efforts (of course on the lines demarcated by permanent values), it
rises to higher and higher planes of existence. The Qur’an says, “Verily We will raise you to
higher and higher levels” (84:19). The self fulfils itself by developing and actualising its

potentialities. With death, man does not cease to exist but passes on to a higher plane of
existence. The Qur’an has prescribed deen, or the way of life, which fits man for the higher
level. When man is elevated to the higher level, he feels as if the gate of Heaven had been

thrown open to him. On the other hand, when he falls to a lower level he feels that he has been

flung into Hell.

The Qur’an opens out a vast vista of development to man. No term has been set to his

progress. Man’s destiny is marked out for him in symbols. To understand the symbols, however,

we need true insight. When we can catch a glimpse of the higher level, then only does the
symbol which represents it become intelligible. It is futile to discuss a symbol when we have no
inkling of the stage to which it refers. The Qur’an when studied intelligently provides us with the
insight to understand the true meanings of these symbols.

The self has the capacity for value-experience. It is sensitive to the higher qualities of its
experience and appreciates their value. Value-experience is non-existent at the sub-human
level. It becomes possible only when the self has emerged. Value- experience may be of a low

or high order. The higher in the scale an experience is, the more satisfying it is found to be.
When the self is fit to rise to a higher plane, it craves for a value-experience higher than that

with which it had been content hitherto. An experience of high value enriches and elevates the

self.

The self develops mainly through its own efforts. It rises or falls through its moral or immoral
actions. Says the Qur’an: “The self (nafs) owns only that which it earns” (74:38) and it changes

through what it assimilates, good or bad. The self is subject to the law of requital. Its a’maal-ul-

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hasanah enhance its worth and a’maal-us-sayyi’ah degrade it. God never does wrong to the
self. The Qur’an is explicit on this point. If the self is degraded, it is its own doing. External

forces cannot touch the self and God never deals with it unjustly. So the self is affected by
nothing except the results of its own actions. Suffering is the fruit of a’maal-us-sayyi’ah (mis-

deeds).

Finally, the self partakes of Reality and mirrors the Divine attributes. “I breathed My Ruh –

Divine Energy – into him (man),” says the Qur’an (15:29). The Nabi said, “Cultivate in
yourselves those qualities which reflect the Divine attributes.” By cultivating those qualities, the
self develops and draws, so to say, closer to God. Through a’maal-us-sayyi’ah, it gets further

away from God and Reality. A’maal-ul-hasanah (good deeds), as has already been observed,

strengthen the self and a’maal-us-sayyi’ah weaken it. The distance between God and the
human self is increased by the latter and is decreased by the former which cultivate Divine

qualities. This is the teaching of the Qur’an. Moreover, the self becomes more and more real as
it develops into itself the attributes of God, and more and more unreal as it recedes from Him.

The Divine attributes serve as an objective model after which man can strive to fashion himself.

ALLAH and Man:

The self can enter into meaningful relationship only with other selves, and for realising itself it
has to depend upon the help, sympathy and co-operation of other beings which have essentially
the same nature as its own. The self, therefore, seeks out other selves and prospers in their
company. It yearns to be in the midst of beings with whom it can communicate and in whose

aspirations and activities it can participate. For this reason man nowhere leads a solitary life, but
is everywhere found to be a member of a social group. Only in society can man enjoy mental

health and function efficiently.

But, above all things, the self longs for co-operation, i.e., being a co-worker, with the Supreme

Self or God. Such co-operation sustains and vivifies it. Without this, the self droops, languishes
and loses the zest for life and activity. It is happy only when it is engaged in purposive activity,

and happiest when it has the feeling of participation in the cosmic purpose. A compelling urge in

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the self impels it to seek the meaning of life and the world. The physical world, on the face of it,
is purposeless and meaningless. Eiman makes life and the world meaningful. For this reason

the self clings passionately and tenaciously to the belief in the Supreme Being, the most perfect
and ideal self.

The idea of God that the Qur’an presents is both simple and sublime. God is the creative force
which is at work throughout the universe. God manifests Himself in the visible world of nature.

The Qur’an says, “Whithersoever you turn, you look at the countenance of God” (2:115). The
Qur’an calls upon us to reflect and ponder over the grand natural phenomena – the earth and
sky, wind and rain, sun, moon and stars. All nature reflects the beauty and glory of God. Special

attention is drawn to God’s attribute of Rububiyyah, according to which He sustains and fosters

every being, and thus the lowliest organism develops and attains maturity and relative
perfection. Because God controls and governs the world, the world process is not purposeless

and meaningless. God guides and directs the cosmic process to a grand destiny, In human
history a Divine Plan is being worked out, slowly but surely, and a splendid destiny awaits man.

In the Qur’an, God is presented as both Immanent and Transcendent. He works in the world as
a creative urge and also exists outside it as its ground. He manifests Himself in nature and yet
transcends it. He is eternal and yet in the changing world every day a new phase of His glory is

presented to our view (55:29).

The Qur’an sheds new light on the relation between man and God. It is one of partnership,
although one of the partners is immeasurably higher than the other. The wide gulf that

separates man from God is, however, not an insuperable obstacle to fruitful co-operation

between them. Man is endowed with a self, and we have seen that a self can co-operate only
with another self. By virtue of possessing a self, man can, in his humble capacity, work together
with God in the carrying out of the Divine Plan. Man has a stake in the future of the world and as

a free self has the capacity to determine, however slightly, what that future is to be. It gives man
a new sense of dignity to feel that he is actively contributing to the success of the Divine Plan.

The Qur’an earnestly appeals to man to work with God in bringing about a world in which justice

and goodness are not merely ideas but realities. He can and should contribute to the sum total

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of goodness in the universe. Man’s acquisitive instincts make him selfish and greedy, and bring
him into conflict with his fellow beings. As such he cannot fit into the Divine scheme. However,

by encouraging and fostering his creative instincts, which enable him to create values, he will be
able to work in harmony with the moral order of the universe and will move steadily towards the

goal of full self-realisation and perfection. At the same time, he will be enriching the world with
values and making it a fit abode for men, who are both free and good. He will be taking his

modest share in accomplishing the Divine purpose. The Qur’an calls upon man to co-operate

with other men in the pursuit of the good. “Help one another in birr and taqwa,” says the Qur’an

(5:2).

Evolution proceeded at an extremely slow pace in the past ages, and, often, a million years

passed before a higher quality emerged in the animal world. With the emergence of a free
conscious self, the prospect is much brighter. When free men, under the guidance of God, are

participating in the world process and are deliberately furthering it, the pace of evolution is sure
to be accelerated. By following the right path, which the Qur’an has shown us clearly, we can

develop all our latent potentialities and March forward to the ultimate goal of perfection.

As man owns a self, he has a natural affinity with God, the Absolute Self. This affinity confers on
him the right and lays on him the duty of working in harmony with the will and purpose of God.
By working in this way man not only realises himself but also gives an impetus to the progress
of human society.

The way in which the Absolute Self manifests its attributes in the universe evokes feelings of

awe, reverence and admiration in man. As man naturally imitates what he admires, he strives to
develop himself and be as like God as is possible for a finite being to be. God serves as a

model and also as an objective standard with which man can compare himself and judge his

progress in self-realisation. Man needs God as a coworker and as an ideal.

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Difference between Deen and Religion:

As already explained in the Introduction, the Qur’anic term for religion is “deen.” Deen however,
is not merely a synonym for religion. Deen is a broader and deeper concept than religion as it is

commonly understood. Religion usually means a set of dogmas, an elaborate ritual and a host
of trivial practices. Ordinary activities of life are hedged in by a number of rules and taboos.

Simple acts such as eating and marrying are surrounded by a complex ceremonial. Man’s

conduct in everyday life is regulated in the minutest detail. Deen, as presented in the Qur’an is

not a matter of ritual or ceremonial. It is concerned with the broad aim of life and the programme
of action by which that aim can be attained.

Deen gives full scope to man’s initiative and discretion. It is meant for a free and intelligent
person, a person who has the courage to think, judge and act for himself. Deen offers broad
principles which give guidance to man in the adventure of life and which enable him to attain the

goal of self-realisation and social welfare. These principles, however, are not meant to be

followed blindly. They are to be applied with intelligence and forethought. Iqbal, who has
grasped the essence of deen, remarks that it enunciates “basic principles of a universal import
directing the evolution of human society on a spiritual basis.”

Hard and fast rules, therefore, have no place in deen. Deen has fully served its purpose if it has
delineated the ideal of life in bold lines, has explicated the principles governing its pursuit and
has inspired in man zeal and devotion for the ideal. The deen of Islam does not lay on man a

heavy burden of rules and regulations. It merely gives him guidance where he needs it and

provides him with permanent values. Man should seek the aid of deen in obtaining inspiration
and vision; he should look elsewhere if he is interested only in the performance of ritual and

ceremonial. Looked at from this angle, deen is not an opiate, as the Marxians contend, but a

stimulant and a spur to action.

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Deen does not induce in us contentment with things as they are; it spurs us on the efforts
directed to the establishment of a better order of society. On the other hand, religion inculcates

a passive resignation and complete submission to authority, however oppressive and unjust it
may be. At best, it counsels us to have recourse to passive resistance. Deen calls upon us to

fight against injustice and oppression and to actively promote the cause of justice.

Another characteristic of deen distinguishes it from religion in its general sense. Deen is

forward-looking: the ideal it embodies beckons to man from the future. Like a beacon it guides
his steps towards a glorious destiny. Deen does not want man to keep gazing, awestruck, at
some golden age in the remote and dim past: man’s duty is not to retrace his steps but to

advance in the direction of futurity. Deen is prospective, not retrospective. It is a vis a front not a

vis a tergo. That is why deen is a source of hope and attaches supreme importance to hope; so
much so that to relinquish hope is reckoned as kufr (the Qur’an, 39:53; 12:87).

Finally, the Qur’an insists upon explicit conviction, which it calls eiman. A number of verses in

the Qur’an make it clear that compulsion has no place in the sphere of deen. Deen must be
accepted freely and voluntarily by man. A religion which is forcibly imposed on an individual has
no value for him or for the world at large. Man has the right to exercise free choice in the matter
of deen. “There is no compulsion in the matter of deen.” Asserts the Qur’an (2:256). If this
command is accepted and obeyed in good faith, it will certainly put an end to all fanaticism and
religious disputes. Understood rightly, this injunction is the charter of freedom of thought and
expression even to those who do not believe in it. Deen, therefore, leaves the power to choose

and act in man’s hands. It is through his personal initiative, strength of character, courage,

fortitude, determination and ceaseless efforts that man can shape his destiny and can win for
himself a future which must necessarily belong to him if he accepts and follows the Divine
revelation in all sincerity.

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Islam:

The Qur’anic concept of deen has been elucidated in the foregoing section. Obviously, Islam

fulfils all the requirements of deen. Islam, as Iqbal puts it, “is neither dogma, nor priesthood, nor

ritual.”(8) It is much more than any of these or all of these. It is the vivid sense of God’s directive
force and unflinching working of His laws. It is absolute eiman in God’s wisdom and His
purpose. It is hearty participation in the upward progressive trend and movement of life and the

world viewed as the expression of God’s creative force. Islam stands for life-fulfilment and
rejects life-denial as unworthy of man. It commands us to face facts and not to shrink from them
and take refuge in fantasy, and requires us to control and harness natural forces for achieving

our ends. Asceticism, quietism and monasticism are all repugnant to Islam. Islam lays stress on

social life and on its value for man, and does not regard the body as an evil and as an
impediment to “spiritual” progress. It wants man to respect the rights of the body as well as the

rights of the self. For this reason, Islam does not approve of self-abnegation and self-
mortification. There is nothing mysterious in it and it has no place for mysticism. It aims at the

establishment of a social order based on permanent values in which all its members act as free
agents striving for a higher and noble cause of making man’s abode on this earth more
beautiful, and making him fit for further evolutionary stages of life.

Islam, as a living force, will continue to play a vital role in the moral uplift and social, cultural and
political unification of mankind. It will continue to make valuable contributions to the knowledge
and culture of mankind. Above all, it will continue to enrich the “spiritual”(9) life of man and thus

strengthen and elevate his self or his personality.

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Distinctive Aspects of Islam

Islam – a Universal Religion. Islam presents itself as a universal religion with the remarkable
and unique features mentioned in the Holy Qur’an as follows:

Its God is the Lord, Who is ‘the Sustainer of all the worlds’, and ‘the Lord of mankind’. (1:2,
114:2)

 Its Message, the Holy Qur’an, is ‘a Message for all the worlds’. (81:28)
 Its prophet is the ‘Messenger for the whole humanity’. (7:159)

All other religions had always presented their God, their Messenger and their Message to be
only applicable to their specific regions or tribes. It is only the religion of Islam, which has
claimed to be applicable to the whole mankind.

Islam advocates the Truth of all the Prophets and their BooksThe Holy Qur’an says that all the
prophets were true, because they were sent by the same God to different races and people:

 And there is no people to whom a Warner has not been sent (35 : 25).

The Holy Qur’an reaffirms the original truth of other revealed Books and the Muslims are

admonished to believe in all other prophets in the same manner as they believe in their own
Prophet. This is not the case with other religions, who believe in the truth of their own prophets

only.

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Islam – an Eternal Religion

Islam claims to be an eternal religion. This unique claim is based on the reason and logic that its

Message is complete and perfect, and also guaranteed to be preserved in its original form. The

Almighty God Himself claims in the Holy Qur’an:

This day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favour upon you and have
chosen for you Islam as religion (5:4)

Safeguarding of the Holy Qur’an

The Almighty God Who has sent down the Holy Qur’an has Himself promised to safeguard the

verity of its contents:

“Verily We have sent down this book and verily We shall safeguard it”(15:10)

In view of this Divine guarantee, the text of the Holy Qur’an has not suffered even the slightest

change, whereas, the other books have been much altered. This fact has also been confirmed

by a large number of non-Muslim scholars.

The Almighty God has foretold that He has provided another important measure of safeguarding

the real essence of the Holy Qur’an. He appointed Reformers (Mujaddideen) in the beginning of
each century, and sent the Promised Messiah in the latter days, to safeguard the true spirit of
the Holy Qur’an.

Islam Combines all Truth in a New Perspective

Islam combines the best features of the earlier teachings with the everlasting and

comprehensive teachings of its own. The Almighty God says in the Holy Qur’an:

 Herein are lasting commandments. (92:2)

 This indeed is what is taught in the earlier scriptures; the scriptures of Abraham and

Moses

(87:19-20)

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Greater Insight into God’s Attributes:

Islam emphasises the Unity and Universality of God. It teaches that God is the ultimate cause of

all creation. He is the All-Knowing and living God. None of His attributes has been suspended

and, therefore, He still communicates with mankind as He has always done.

Islam holds that there is no contradiction between God’s words and His actions, and provides
far greater insight into the various attributes of God, compared to the other religions.

Complete Code of Conduct and a Perfect Model

Islam is distinct from other Faiths in providing a comprehensive code of social and moral

behaviour.

Also, to facilitate the observance of this code, the Almighty provided a perfect Model in the
person of the Holy Prophet of Islam may peace and blessings of Allah be upon him. He passed
through numerous stages of human experience, and set noble examples for mankind.

Revival in the Latter Days

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community was founded in 1889 by Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, may

peace be on him. He claimed under Divine guidance to be the Promised Reformer – Promised
Messiah & Mahdi, whose advent was foretold by the Holy Prophet of Islam may peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him and many other faiths. The fact that his community stands for
the revival of Islam is another important distinction of Islam.

Ahmadiyyat is a sect of Islam and not a new religion. Ahmadiyyat is a movement, entirely within
the fold of Islam, meant to revive its true spirit and philosophy, to cleanse Islam of all

superstitious and unnecessary beliefs and customs which had crept in over the past fourteen

centuries, and finally, to preach the religion of Islam to non-Muslims with the enthusiasm and
zeal of the early Muslims. Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad’s followers call themselves Ahmadi
Muslims, only to differentiate themselves from members of other Islamic sects, and strictly

follow the orthodox religion of Islam. As far as the fundamental beliefs or acts of worship are

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concerned, the Ahmadi Muslims have neither taken anything out nor added anything new to the
religion of Islam. The Ahmadi Muslims make their declaration of faith by reciting the same

Kalima which was recited by the Holy Prophet Muhammad, may peace and blessings be upon
him, himself; they say their Prayers and Fast in the same manner as the Holy Prophet of Islam

may peace and blessings be upon him, did; and their Qiblah, their Ka’aba, their Azan and their
Holy Qur’an are all exactly the same as that of the other Muslims.

Islamic Beliefs & its Impact on Individual:

To understand what religion is and what is its role in the life of men, we should first of all know

its definition.

Religion may briefly be defined as under:

 Religion (din) is an all-round movement in the light of faith in Allah and a sense of
responsibility for the formation of thought and belief, for the promotion of high principles

of human morality for the establishment of good relations among members of the society
and the elimination of every sort of undue discrimination.

 Keeping in view this definition, our need for religion and religious teachings is absolutely

clear. To be a little more elaborate, it may be said that we require religion for the
following reasons:

1. Sanction for the Principles of Morality:

Religion provides a sanction for the principles of morality like justice, honesty, righteousness,

brotherhood, equality, virtuousness, tolerance, sacrifice, help to the needy and other kindred

virtues. These are the virtues without which, not only our life will lose its order and normalcy but
it is very likely to be turned into a chaos.

Of course, it is possible to acquire these moral and social qualities without the aid of religion.
But certainly in the absence of firm religious belief, these values appear to lose their meaning

and become a series of mere unbinding recommendations, because in such a case they do not

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amount to more than a piece of advice from a close friend in respect of which we are at full
liberty to accept or reject.

These qualities are rather based on an internal feeling and faith and are naturally beyond the

scope of ordinary law.

It is only faith in the existence of an Eternal Being, who knows man equally from within and
without and who has full control over him, that cultivates these virtues within man and impels

him to automatic righteousness and adherence to duty, and if need be, to make sacrifices for
the sake of others.

The well-known philosopher-cum-historian, Will Durant says in his book, 'Pleasures of

Philosophy' that, without the backing of religion, morality is nothing more than arithmomancy, as
without it, the sense of obligation disappears.

2. Power to Endure Adversities of Life:

Religion provides power for facing adversities and serves as a bulwark against undesirable

reactions of despair and hopelessness.

A religious man, with firm belief in Allah, and of His munificence, does not find himself in utter
desperation even in the worst moments of his life, because he knows well hat e is under the
protection of a Being who is Almighty. With faith in the fact that every problem can be solved

and every deadlock can be resolved with His help, he can overcome every disappointment and
hopelessness.

For this very reason, it very seldom happens that a truly religious man suffers from the acute
reactions of desperation like suicide, nervous breakdown or psychic ailments which are

products of frustration and defeatism.

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The Holy Qur’an says:

"Surely those who are close to Allah, have no fear nor shall they grieve." (Surah Younus, 10:62)

Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq (A) says: "A true believer can never commit suicide."

Thus, religious faith is, on the one hand, a motivating force, and on the other, it is a factor which

enables man to face hardships with courage and saves him from the ill effects of failure and

disappointment.

Following the downfall of the Nazis, says Bertrand Russell says there existed a danger of
intellectual and ideological revolt in Germany, but no doubt, religion has been one of the biggest

factors in that country's return to stability.

According to Dr. Durant, behavior of a man who is not blessed with reliance on religion suffers
from special epicurean confusion, and the life which has not the comforting support of religion,
is an unbearable burden.

3. Encounter with Ideological Vacuum

Man cannot live in an ideological vacuum for long and as such his tendency towards a wrong

ideology and false values becomes definite. His intellectual life is not filled with sound beliefs
and healthy teachings. A superstitious and even destructive ideas may find way into his spiritual
firmament and may for ever pollute his brain.

Instances of man's tendency towards idolatry, man worship, diverse superstitions and credulity

regarding the influence of irrational things over destiny, can be witnessed even in the lives of
world intellectuals. All this originates from spiritual vacuum. It is religion which can fill the

ideological and intellectual vacuum with sound teachings and can save one from a tendency

towards absurdities and irrationalities.

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Hence, true understanding of religion can play an important role in combating superstitions,
though it is true that even religion itself, if not understood correctly, may promote superstitions.

4. An Aid to the Progress of Science and Knowledge

Religion with its firm and sound teachings can be an effective factor in scientific progress,
because its foundation has been laid on the solid bed-rock of "freedom of will" and on the fact
that everybody is accountable for his own deeds.

The Holy Qur’an says :

"Everyone is entangled in the outcome of his deeds." (Surah al-Muddat-thir 74:38)

Faith in religion teaches that limitless knowledge is the source of this cosmos, which is like a

very grand book penned by an erudite scholar. Every page of it, nay every line and every word
of it, contains a glaring truth which stimulates us to further study and contemplation.

This attitude towards the cosmos undoubtedly stimulates persistent thinking over the

mechanism of creation and consequently, helps in the advancement of science and knowledge.

In contrast, if we hold that this universe is the product of sheer mechanical factors having no

intellect, there remains no plausible reason why we should make strenuous efforts to discover
its secrets. In principle, a universe which is the outcome of the working of an unconscious
machinery, can neither be well-designed nor mysterious.

Apart from giving a deadly blow to the advancement of science and knowledge, such

conception of cosmos negates the very fact that man's instinct is basically rooted in religion.
Albert Einstein was very true when he pointed out why great thinkers and discoverers are all

interested in religion.

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He said that it was hard to find anyone among the great thinking brains of the world who might
not have a sort of religious feeling peculiar to him. That feeling was different from the religion of

the man in the street.

It has the form of a delightful wonder at the marvelously accurate system of the universe, which
from time to time, unveils secrets in comparison with which all organized human thinking and
research are rather weak and stale. This feeling illuminates the path of the life and efforts of a

scientist and as he gains success and honor, it keeps him free from the deadweight of
selfishness and pride.

What a belief in the system of the universe and what a fascinating desire it was, he adds, that

enabled Kepler and Newton to suffer for years in isolation and in complete silence in order to
simplify and explain the laws of gravitation and planetary motion! No doubt, it is this very
religious feeling that enabled the self-sacrificing and self-effacing men through long centuries, in

spite of their apparent defeats and failures, to rise on their feet again and make fresh efforts.

(The world as I see)

The contemporary scientist, Abernethy, says that science for its own perfection should regard
faith in God as one of its accepted principles. Thus a religious man, following the true teachings

of religion, can more than anybody else, carry out research and discover the secrets of nature.

5: Fight against Discrimination

Religion strongly opposes every discrimination based on color, race or class, because it regards

all human beings as God's creatures and every country as God's country. According to it, all

enjoy God's love and kindness equally and as such, all are equal.

According to the teachings of Islam, no man can be superior to another man on the basis of his

color, race, descent, language or class.

Islam recognizes only piety and knowledge as the touch-stones of superiority .Allah says:

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"Man, we have created you from a male and a female, and we have divided you into nations
and tribes, so that you may get to know one another. Surely the most honorable of you in the

sight of Allah is he who is most pious."(Surah al- Hujurat, 49 :13)

Thus the role of religion in a world that has not yet been able even to solve the color problem,
the question of class apart, is quite clear.

Anyhow, it cannot be denied that every kind of religious thought or belief cannot produce the de-

sired results.

Like every other intellectual movement, religion also requires correct guidance. Otherwise it

assumes the form of superstition, monasticism, escape from positive life and pseudo-agnostic
negative tendencies, the examples of which can even now be seen in the West, where people
have become fed up with a mechanical life. It is only in such an atmosphere that for want of

correct knowledge, religion is regarded as an obstructive factor.

7: Roots of Religious Sense

Man has been familiar with religion for such a long time that it covers the entire recorded history
of human life and goes back into the depths of pre-historic times.

The Holy Qur’an has described religion as man's innate nature and Allah's established order. It
says:

 Islam is in harmony with nature which Allah has designed for man. ( Surah al -Rum,30 :

30)

Research carried out by sociologists and historians shows that places of worship, either in their

simple or elaborate and complex form, have always had an influence on human life, and religion

in its various shapes has been interwoven with its history.

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Dr. Durant, after a comparatively detailed discussion of atheism of certain people writes that
despite all that he has mentioned, these are exceptional cases, and the old notion that "religion"

is a phenomenon that generally extends to all human beings, is true. The question of religion in
the view of a philosopher is one of the basic questions of history and psychology.

He adds that, from time immemorial, religion has always gone hand in hand with human history.
The idea of piety can never be removed from human heart. (History of Civilization vol .1, pp. 88-

89)

From a psychological point of view, this time honored relationship between man and religion

proves that religious feeling is one of the basic human instincts natural elements of the human

soul.

It is obvious, that at a time, when the level of human thinking was low and the sciences had not

made any remarkable progress, this internal feeling was in an incredible way mixed with

superstition, but gradually with the progress of sciences on the one hand ,and persistent efforts
and teachings of the prophets on the other, it was purified of adulterations and it regained its
purity and originality.

8. Anti-Religious Waves During the Past Centuries:

In these circumstances it looks a little surprising that during the past centuries, especially from
16th Century onward, a violent anti-religious wave has hit the Western countries and many of

the liberal minded Europeans have dissociated themselves from the Church. Those who wanted

to remain loyal to religion turned to some Eastern religions or to a sort of Gnosticism minus

religion, while a large number of people were attracted by materialism and the like.

But an inquiry into the roots of this subject indicates that in the special circumstances prevailing

Europe, this phenomenon was not unexpected.

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Factors leading to anti-religious movements and tendency to materialism in Europe should be

looked for in the perspective of the policy which the Church pursued with regard to the

Renaissance and progress of natural sciences in various fields.

When the Church in the middle ages, especially during the 13th to 15th centuries started a
campaign against science which continued even to the 16th and l7th centuries and attempted to
crush scientific movements through Inquisition, issued a papal decree to condemn science

dragged people like Galileo to persecution and forced them to deny the motion of the earth. It is
obvious what the reaction of the scientists to such teachings could be.

They, being at the cross roads of sciences and religion (of course religion as it was understood

at that time and in that environment), naturally went for science, the firm basis of which they had
personally observed and tested.

Mistake in analogy and incorrect comparison of other religions to the special position of the

Churches in the middle ages induced certain scientists to start a campaign against all religions
and to reject them formally. They went to the extent of innovating a doctrine known as discord
between religion and science'.

But the study of scientific movement in Islam, which started from the very first century and bore

fruit in the second and third centuries of the Hegira era, shows that in Muslim society the case

was quite different. This movement soon gave birth to the scientists like Hasan lbn Haitham, the
well-known Muslim Physicist, Jabir lbn Hayyan. whom the Europeans call Father of Chemistry,
and tens of others like them.

Their books exercised considerable influence over the Scientists like Roger Bacon, Johann

Kepler and Leonardo da Vinci. It is interesting that all this scientific progress took place in the
middle ages and coincided with the Church's violent opposition to the Renaissance and the
standard-bearers of the new scientific movement.

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All historians in the East and the West, who have dealt with Islamic culture, are unanimously of
the view that it gave rise to a wide-spread scientific movement whose influence over the

Renaissance and the scientific movement of Europe was remarkable.

Thus the factors which induced the liberal-minded in the West to dissociate themselves from
religion, did not exist in the case of Islam. On the contrary, there were factors which worked in
the opposite direction.

In short Islamic movement had a special connection with World scientific movements, and for
this very reason was the fountain-head of the vast development of sciences and knowledge.

However it cannot be denied that disputes and dissensions among a section of Muslim people
which in intensity from the fifth century (Hijra) onward, short-sightedness, non-realization of true
teachings of Islam, apathy to progress and indifference to the spirit of the time, resulted in the

backwardness of many Muslim countries.

Another factor which complicated the problem was that Islam in the real sense was not
introduced to the younger generation. Thus the constructive role of Islam in various fields

gradually diminished. Now the position is that many young men think that Islam has always
been in this present dismal state.

Anyhow, it is certain that with the revival of Islamic teachings and their correct introduction,
especially to the younger generation, it is still possible to revive the spirit of early Islamic

movement.

10: Religion and Philosophical Schools of Thought

All forms of religion censure every kind of materialism, whether it be in its simple shape or in the

garb of dialectic materialism, which forms the basis of Marxism and Communism, because

materialism maintains that this, universe is merely a set of undesigned and aimless happenings.

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Religion in censuring materialism, relies on a number of principles which are absolutely logical,
because :

 The interpretation of the order of the universe advanced by materialistic schools is

unscientific, for science in the course of its research, talks of well calculated and precise
systems, which cannot be interpreted by accidental and chance happenings.
 Science acknowledges that the maker of this machine of the universe is the greatest

physicist and chemist, most expert physician and the best anthropologist and
cosmologist, because while performing his job, he visualized all scientific laws. Naturally
he could not do so without having complete knowledge of them. It goes without saying

that natural factors and natural developments can have no such knowledge at all.

 Materialism has accepted the doctrine of compulsion as one of its basic principles. It
holds that every human action and every movement is the result of a sequence of

compulsory causes. On, this basis, according to the materialistic point of view, all the
efforts of man are like the movements of the wheels of a machine. It is obvious that the

acceptance of this view goes against the idea of every social, moral or human
responsibility.
 In contrast, religion accepts the principle of obligation and responsibility and thus lays

the foundation of its teachings on the freedom of human will.

 It cannot be contradicted that the acceptance of the principle of compulsion gives a hard
blow to dynamism and the sense of duty and responsibility. It also directly contributes to
the expansion of crimes and aggressions, because the offenders can plead that they are

not responsible for the crimes committed by them, for they were forced by the

compulsion of environment, time and the way they were brought up. But there is no
possibility of such evil effects if the principle of free will is accepted.

 With the acceptance of the domination of matter over all affairs of human life and the
restriction of value only to the material values, the materialists have practically ousted
moral values. They hold, that only material interests prevail over all social and

international interests. The effect of this way of thinking is obvious for without adherence

to such principles as philanthropy, tolerance, sacrifice, sincerity and love; no problems at

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world level can be solved. Belief in exclusive domination of matter obviously not
compatible with these principles.

Religion and Individual Freedom:

Some people think that religion restricts individual freedom and disallows the fulfillment of some
desires, whereas, in fact, the aim of religious teaching is not at all to put an end to logical
freedom. Its aim is only to stop wastage of human energies and assets and to prevent their flow

into improper and worthless channels.

For example, if religion forbids the use of intoxicants, gambling and improper indulgence in sex,

does so for the safety of the body and soul of the individual and for the maintenance of social
order.

This moral control is in keeping with the real spirit of freedom, for freedom means only that man
should be able to take full advantage of the assets of existence to help in the evolution of the

individual and the society. It does not at all mean squandering God-given energies and
indulging in immoderation and libertinism.

Religion supports every kind of freedom that carries man forward towards evolution in various

fields. Only this is what freedom, in the real sense, means. Anything else is libertinism.

That is why religion allows man to use all good things in life, to wear any reasonable dress, to

relish any good food and to take part in any healthy pastime. In short, it has allowed the use of
all comforts and conveniences of life, and does not ask anyone to give up any such things. The

Holy Qur’an says: "Say: Who has forbidden the beautiful things of Allah which He has produced

for His servants and the pure food?"

Moreover, our religion calls upon us never to forget the exigencies and requirements of time and

to keep ourselves well-informed about the latest developments in medicine, technology and
industry.

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The leader of Islam, Imam Sadiq (A) has said: "He who knows his time and its requirements,
shall not be taken unaware by the dark events of life."

Our religion tells us that out of the new ideas, customs and usages we should choose what is

useful and worthy and should discard what is improper and wrong. We must not follow others
blindly and must not adopt anything that is not compatible with human dignity and the spirit of
independent thinking.

The Holy Qur’an says, "Give glad tidings to my servants who listen to what is said and follow the
best thereof. They are those whom Allah has guided and those who have good sense."

 Sanction for the Principles of Morality

 Power to Endure Adversities of Life
 Encounter with Ideological Vacuum

 An Aid to the Progress of Science and Knowledge

 Fight against Discrimination

 Roots of Religious Sense
 Anti-Religious Waves During the Past Centuries
 Religion and Philosophical Schools of Thought

 Religion and Individual Freedom

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The five fundamental teachings of Islam we have discussed so far the Kalima, Namaz, Zakat,
Fasting and Hajj are known as the �Five Pillars of the Faith�. A well-known Tradition of the

holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) tells us that, �The foundation of Islam rests on these five
things:

 The affirmation of Oneness of God

 The establishment of Salah (Namaz/Prayer)

 The payment of Zakat

 The observance of FASTING(Roza) in the month of Ramzan
 The performance of Hajj by those who can afford to make the pilgrimage.

When these five items are spoken of as the �Pillars of Islam� it means that these are the
fundamental duties of the faith. If carried out properly these duties are capable of producing in
us the ability to fulfill our other religious obligations as well. Here we have dwelt only on their

importance and the intrinsic spiritual virtue that underlies them. Detailed rules and principles

governing them can be learnt from reliable books on Islamic Jurisprudence or directly from a
Muslim theologian.

Islam means Submission and obedience (to Allah), Humility, submissiveness and conformance

(to the Laws of Allah), Safety, security, immunity or freedom from evil, Peace. Islam is a way of
life whereby one takes upon oneself what Allah Has ordained and His Messenger practically
demonstrated and conveyed to the mankind. It entails total submission and obedience to Allah
that leads one to peace, and safety, security, immunity and freedom from evils and afflictions of

any kind form within or without.

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The framework of the Muslim life: faith, prayer, concern for the needy, self-purification, and the
pilgrimage to Makkah for those who are able.

1) FAITH

There is no god worthy of worship except God and Muhammad is His messenger. This
declaration of faith is called the Shahada, a simple formula which all the faithful pronounce. In
Arabic, the first part is la ilaha illa Llah – ‘there is no god except God’; ilaha (god) can refer to

anything which we may be tempted to put in place of God – wealth, power, and the like. Then
comes illa Llah: ‘except God’, the source of all Creation. The second part of the Shahada is

Muhammadun rasulu’Llah: ‘Muhammad is the messenger of God.’ A message of guidance has

come through a man like ourselves.

2) PRAYER

Salat is the name for the obligatory prayers which are performed five times a day, and are a

direct link between the worshipper and God. There is no hierarchical authority in Islam, and no
priests, so the prayers are led by a learned person who knows the Learn Quran, chosen by

congregation. These 5 prayers contain verses from the Quran, and are in Arabic, the language
of Revelation, but personal supplication can be offered in one’s own language. Because shalat

is transliterated from arabic word, so it has multiple english spellings such as salat, salah,

sholat, sholah or shalah.Some peoples also called shalat as namaz

Prayers are said at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset and nightfall, and thus determine the

rhythm of the entire day. Although it is preferable to worship together in a mosque, a Muslim

may pray almost anywhere, such as in fields, offices, factories and universities. Visitors to the

Muslim world are struck by the centrality of prayers in daily life.

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A translation of the Call to Prayer is:

 God is most great. God is most great.

 God is most great. God is most great.

 I testify that there is no god except God.

 I testify that there is no god except God.
 I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.

 I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.

 Come to prayer! Come to prayer!
 Come to success (in this life and the Hereafter)!

 Come to success!

 God is most great. God is most great.

 There is no god except God.

3) ZAKAAT

One of the most important principles of Islam is that all things belong to God, and that wealth is
therefore held by human beings in trust. The word zakaat means both ‘purification’ and ‘growth’.
Our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need, and, like the

pruning of plants, this cutting back balances and encourages new growth.

Each Muslim calculates his or her own zakaat individually. For most purposes this involves the
payment each year of two and a half percent of one’s capital. Zakaat keeps the money flowing
within a society, Cairo. A pious person may also give as much as he or she pleases as sadaqa,
and does so preferably in secret. Although this word can be translated as ‘voluntary charity’ it

has a wider meaning. The Prophet said ‘even meeting your brother with a cheerful face is

charity.’

The Prophet said: ‘Charity is a necessity for every Muslim. ‘ He was asked: ‘What if a person

has nothing?’ The Prophet replied: ‘He should work with his own hands for his benefit and then
give something out of such earnings in charity.’ The Companions asked: ‘What if he is not able

to work?’ The Prophet said: ‘He should help poor and needy persons.’ The Companions further

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asked ‘What if he cannot do even that?’ The Prophet said ‘He should urge others to do good.’
The Companions said ‘What if he lacks that also?’ The Prophet said ‘He should check himself

from doing evil. That is also charity.’

4) THE FAST

Every year in the month of Ramadan, all Muslims fast from first light until sundown, abstaining
from food, drink, and sexual relations. Those who are sick, elderly, or on a journey, and women

who are pregnant or nursing are permitted to break the fast and make up an equal number of
days later in the year. If they are physically unable to do this, they must feed a needy person for

every day missed. Children begin to fast (and to observe the prayer) from puberty, although

many start earlier.

Although the fast is most beneficial to the health, it is regarded principally as a method of self

purification. By cutting oneself off from worldly comforts, even for a short time, a fasting person

gains true sympathy with those who go hungry as well as growth in one’s spiritual life.

5) PILGRIMAGE (HAJJ)

The annual pilgrimage to Makkah – the Hajj – is an obligation only for those who are physically,

financially able to perform it. Nevertheless, about 2 million people go to Makkah each year from

every corner of globe providing a unique opportunity for those of different nations to meet one
another. Although Makkah is always filled with visitors, the annual Hajj begins in the twelfth

month of Islamic year (which is lunar, not solar, so that Hajj and Ramadan fall sometimes in

summer, sometimes in winter). Pilgrims wear special clothes: simple garments which strip away

distinctions of class and culture, so that all stand equal before God.

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Islamic Beliefs & its Impact Society:

Islam is not just a religion, it is a complete way of life and it has set down certain rules for us to
live our life by. However, we must understand that to experience the blessings brought to

society by Islam we must first have the true Islamic law. Unfortunately, there is not a single
country in which the complete Islamic law is implemented. Most peoples idea of Islamic law is

based on countries that don't even have the Islamic law which is very ironic (e.g. Saudi Arabia,

Iran etc.) The Muslim world is not united as it should be, but it is split into divisions. I believe that

these are the main causes for the Islamic world to lag behind in.

If we look into history we can see that when the Muslim world was united and the Islamic law

was established correctly, the Islamic world was much more advanced than all other nations. It
was the law and unity which made the Muslims so successful. At the same time Christian
Europe was in the 'Dark Ages'. When Europe abandoned the church, it started to develop. On

the other hand, today when the Islamic world has divided and stopped implementing Islam, it is

lagging behind so the exact opposite has happened in contrast to Europe. Without Christianity
Europe developed, without Islam, the Islamic world stopped developing.

During the Islamic Golden Age, people and leaders were strong in faith but now many 'Muslim'

countries have corrupt leaders. Some of the countries in the Islamic world don't give a good
impression. Although countries in the west are not actually as good as they seem. I have been
living in western Europe for all of my life and I don't consider the society morally good or upright.

But many western countries have established their own law and are united unlike the Islamic

world (e.g. European Union). The Islamic law is a crucial element of Islam.

The Islamic law needs to be implemented FULLY. If parts of the Islamic law are implemented it

will not work. This is the situation in many of the Muslim countries; Saudi Arabia for example

only implements parts of the Islamic law along with other laws. Think of it like this: If you take a

human body and attach an antelopes leg to it, the human body will not function properly. In the
same way, if you try to implement Islam with other bits and pieces attached to it, the Islamic law

will not function properly. An Islamic country cannot function with democracy or any other form

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of law besides the Islamic law. This is because democracy etc. are man-made laws and in Islam
it is prohibited to implement any kind of man-made law as Allah is the law maker and we

implement his laws only. After we have implemented Allah's law, then other laws such as speed
limits can be added to fit the modern world and time.

Islam's teachings also benefit society, for example Islam teaches kindness to parents and
neighbours, charity, caring for orphans and elderly, no alcohol or drugs, justice, modesty,

equality, seeking knowledge, women's rights etc.

Unity is key in Islamic belief and without it there is not much peace and cooperation.

"Indeed, those who have divided their religion and become sects - you, [O Muhammad], are not
[associated] with them in anything. Their affair is only [left] to Allah ; then He will inform them
about what they used to do". (6:159)

Until the Muslims unite, implement Islamic law and strengthen their beliefs, only then will the

Islamic world start to advance.

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The Fundamental of Islam:

Tawheed: (Oneness of God) –

The most fundamental aspect of all beliefs revolves around the total acceptance of the Absolute

and Perfect Creator. Belief in the Originator of all causes and effects with no effect on Him and
that He is One, Everliving, Beneficent and Merciful. He has neither a colleague nor a partner.

He begets not, nor is He begotten, and there is none like Him. The Almighty God is Unique and

is Absolute in the Absolute sense. No entity in His Universe can ever comprehend His true state

and none should even bother to try for it will lead to futility and insanity. Yet there is no doubt in
any sane mind that His existence precedes all and His presence is Absolutely ubiquitous

(everpresent). For anyone to say that God does not exist is a liar and a fool because such a

person can NEVER disprove His existence, whether scientifically or philosophically, or for that
matter in any method known. Because He is Absolute and none is like Him, no one in the

relative world can ever physically define Him, and thus all idol worshippers and those who
ascribe a shape or a body to Him are wrong. Ascribing a shape to the One who is beyond our

limited perceptions would be tantamount to lying and giving a false appearance and a false
representation. In addition, to believe that one can see God in the physical sense of sitting on a

throne like some mythical being is certainly an untrue statement and should never be accepted.

The Almighty Creator brings to existence everything with utmost Perfection and nothing in His
Universe is imperfect. Thus to state that the Creator has created imperfect things is certainly a
false statement. He is the One and Only and is Absolutely independent of anything and

everything that exists. Glorified be His names, the Most High!

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'Adl - (Justice) - Essentially part of Tawheed:

Belief that God is Just. He will reward or punish any person according to his deeds and thus the

notion of predestination (where all decisions are God's and not any one else's) in one's deeds

does not exist. It is absolutely forbidden in Islam to believe that the Almighty, Merciful Allah
planned our destiny and that the good and the bad are just His Will and there is no choice for us
between them (God forbid!). Those who ascribe to such lies do so because they want to blame

their own evils on Allah and claim the good for themselves! Although the attribute of Allah's
Justice is not a separate entity of Allah for certainly the Almighty God can never be
compartmentalized nor defined in any relative terms, it is nonetheless absolutely compulsory to

believe and fully understand the importance of this attribute in Islam so as not to allow the evil

suggestions of Iblees (curse of Allah be upon him and his progeny) and his companions from
leading us astray.

Nubuwwat - (Prophethood) –

Belief in the Prophets (PBUT) of God who excel all other persons for whom they are sent for. All
prophets of Allah are perfect and sinless (ma'soom). Prophet Muhammad Mustafa (PBUH&HF)
is the last of the prophets sent by God and the sealer of prophets for NO more are to come,

EVER! The total number of prophets (PBUT) that were sent by God to mankind is 124,000 and
every nation on earth was given guidance through them. In fact, all major religions today on
earth can be traced to have these divinely guided teachers as their original propagators of the
Truth of Allah.

The best of His messengers all came from the same tree i.e. family lineage and many of them

are mentioned in the Holy Qur'an which describes who they were and what their mission on

earth was. It is important to note that no prophet on earth ever negated or rejected any of the

other divinely ordained prophets and thus their message was always the same and one in

purpose. Each established the law of the One and Only God and showed the way of life for
humans to observe. From the very first creation of mankind, there was always a prophet on

earth which was Prophet Adam (PBUH). This guidance from the Merciful Allah to establish His

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complete laws continued to the last Prophet Muhammad (PBUH&HF) who exemplified the
letters of the law in his most perfect behavior. He completed and perfected the one and only

True religion, Islam. With the revelation of the last Holy Book, the Qur'an, which is the most
protected and perfect book of God with us, he established as part of his mission, every

concievable and practical law for mankind to follow in order to attain spiritual perfection. Great
prophets such as Nuh (Noah), Ibrahim (Abraham), Ismail (Ishmael), Ishaaq (Isaac), Yaqoob

(Jacob), Yusuf (Joseph), Dawood (David), Sulaiman (Solomon), Musa (Moses), Yahya (John),

and Isa (Jesus), - (Peace be upon them all) - all came from the one blessed lineage of Prophet

Adam (PBUH) and ended with the last Messenger, Muhammad (PBUH&HF). It is also important
to note that anyone who ascribes imperfections or mistakes to these divinely guided

personalities is ascribing it directly to Allah who is certainly free from such. Acceptance of such

ideas is also rejection of the message of Allah entirely. Thus with prophethood, a believer has to
accept in their complete message without any reservations of possible errors or mistakes.

Imamat - (Guidance) –

Belief in the divinely appointed leadership after the death of the Holy Prophet (PBUH&HF) to
protect and guide mankind with the revealed Truth, the Holy Qur'an and the true practices of the
Holy Prophet himself. The roles of these leaders is an integral part in the protection of all the
Messengers and their divine Messages. The Almighty Allah appointed through the Holy Prophet
himself, twelve Guides (Imams) to protect mankind from misrepresenting and misinterpreting
the Truth. Belief in this is most important in Islam and no doubts about their positions should be

allowed. They are indeed sinless (ma'soom) and perfect in the highest sense of the word. The

Imams have direct knowledge from God, and their verdict is the verdict of God. After the Holy
Prophet, only they can interpret and guide mankind in every aspect of life and death and all
believers must acquire guidance from them or else they will certainly be lost. They do NOT bring

any new laws nor do they ever innovate their own laws. They always exempliy and elucidate the
practical (Sunnah) and the written (the Holy Qur'an). It is also important to note that they

NEVER disagree with each other in their manners and duties nor in their representations of the

Divine Laws. They are from the best and the most blessed and purified lineage of the last Holy

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Prophet Muhammad (PBUT) and their names are as follows: (1) Imam Ali ibn Abu Talib, the
cousin and son-in-law of the Holy Prophet who called him his only brother in this world and in

the next, (2) Imam Hasan son of Ali, (3) Imam Husain son of Ali, (4) Imam Ali son of Husain, (5)
Imam Muhammad son of Ali, (6) Imam Ja'far son of Muhammad, (7) Imam Musa son of Ja'far,

(8) Imam Ali son of Musa, (9) Imam Muhammad son of Ali, (10) Imam Ali son of Muhammad,
(11) Imam Hasan son of Ali, and the last and living Imam Muhammad son of Hasan, the

establisher of the Truth till the end of this world (PBUT). There is no successor to the Twelfth

Holy Imam Muhammad ibnul Hassan (PBUH) and he is LIVING today but is in occultation and

appears only to those who are most in need and to those who are most virtuous and pious. By
the Command of Allah, he will reappear to all when he will establish true justice on earth and will

rule mankind compassionately with utmost perfection as is the Will of the Almighty Allah. He will

abolish the evil establishments on earth and mankind will live under true guidance as should
have been many centuries ago!

Qiyaamat - (Resurrection) - Belief in the Day of Judgement when all human beings shall be

raised from the dead and all their good and bad deeds shall be ultimately judged and
recompensed accordingly. This belief is most essential WITH the belief in the One True God.
The Day of Judgement will prove to all in this Universe that the Almighty Allah is the Creator of

all from nothing and is the Absolute Master. His divine presence shall be most apparent on this
important Day for all to witness. It is a judgement Dayfor His creatures to know themselves and
their relationship to the Creator Allah. Just as pursuit for justice is inseperable in any society on
earth, so is the Ultimate Day of Justice inseparable for mankind.

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Islamic Worships: Spiritual

The definition of worship:

Worship, which is explained as "humility, obedience, deification and submission" in dictionaries,

connotes a person's love, adoration and submission to Allah and encompasses as actions he or
she exhibits in order to win the pleasure of Allah.

In Islamic resources, the term "ubudiyya" meaning obedience and servitude to Allah is used
alongside worship. This term implies the kind of consciousness involved in servitude whereby a

person spends every moment of their life in a state of respect and obedience to Allah.

Accordingly, while in worship certain behaviors are at the forefront, in "ubudiyya" moral and
spiritual essences are forerunning components. Thus, along with the religious duties incumbent
upon man as set out by religion, every act person partakes in in order to please Allah is

identified as worship and rewarded. While the science of Fikh (Islamic jurisprudence) stresses

the rules of application, Sufis stress the inner qualities, spirit and essence of worship. They see
every good state and act, which helps cleanse the heart, mature the soul and brings man closer
to Allah, as a form of worship.

Individually speaking, acts or worship are acts which represent the obligated person's respect
for his or her creator and their submission before the Almighty - acts which are desired by Allah

and his messenger. What is important here is to remember that it only Allah and his Messenger
who have the authority to indicate which acts will be considered worship, how they should be
performed -- their form and requirements. Servants cannot choose forms of worship according
to their own preferences and likes, nor can they implement physical and requiremental changes

in the existent forms of worship. Because as we have stated above, Allah the Almighty has

determined the only way in which a servant can present their respect and servitude to Allah and

the means by which they can do this.

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The Belief-Worship Relationship:

The real purpose of Islam is to cleanse the inner and outer being of a person. Islam does not

concern it's self solely with the heart or the appearance. On the contrary, it reconstructs man as

whole, inclusive of his inner and outer being, under the guidance of the divine. Surely faith
begins in the heart: however, after completely illuminating the heart, it does not remain hidden
there and begins to envelop our world of thought, pour forth from our mouths and spread to all

of our faculties. A mind and soul that has formed a consistency between its internal and external
world and for what is existent in his inner world to reflect onto its outer world are the most
important principles in mental and spiritual wellness.

Accordingly, the manifestation of faith in the heart is approval and in the mind is knowledge.
When this knowledge passes on to the tongue, it is called acknowledgement, when manifest in
the faculties, becomes a deed. So a believer must place faith in his heart, announce it with his

tongue, that light of faith will embrace his world of thought and become apparent in all of his

actions. This manifestation should be so pervasive that it will seize his entire social life and
morality, beginning with his worship. This is mature and complete faith.

In a well known hadith of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) the three elements of Islam being realized

in a person are listed as faith, Islam and benevolence. The principals of faith determine how a
believer will think, what they will believe in and how this belief will enlighten their lives (these we
had explained in detail in previous sections). Basic forms of worship, the methodology of how a
believer will perform servitude towards his creator, how he will express his submission is

explained through the word "Islam" in this hadith. It is here that Prophet Muhammad listed
prayer, fasting, pilgrimage and alms-giving following the Kalima-i Tawheed or shahada (bearing

witness to the oneness of Allah) will describing Islam. Our Prophet expressed that the best way

to realize the principals of faith through the use of the term "Ihsan" (benevolence). And this is a

complete submission and respect that embraces a Muslim's entire life (this matter is more of a

matter covered by the science of morality and tasawwuf.)

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The Wisdom Behind Worship:

Islam a comprehensive system which embraces the whole of life. It does not remain indifferent

to to any human interests or domain. Its biggest goal is to attain a balance based on mutual

interaction between all of these different fields. Worship holds a very important and
irreplaceable role in attaining this balance. When we examine the variety and modes of
realization of these forms of worship, we see that they play a role in protecting the well being of

the individual and the soul as well as playing a role in attaining social peace. In this respect,
worldly actions that are aligned with divine orders carry sacred and moral qualities while
religious worship provides material gains.

It is essential is that during worship, we fulfill our servitude to Allah in a complete state of
submission and whole heartedly. This is referred to as ‘Ta'abbub.' No matter how much we
ponder, we will never fully understand why prayer times are not more frequent or less, the

reason for number of rakahs (standings) in prayers, why fasting is prescribed in the month of

Ramadan and similar topics. A true and pure servitude requires that one becomes a pure
servant to Allah and thus the complete understanding to the wisdom and reasons of worship are
closed to mankind. When we understand that worship are symbolic acts which regulate our
relations with the transcendent world, we see more clearly that role of the mind is to follow the
principles that have been narrated to us (verses from the Qur'an and hadith.) When taking the
worship and ubudiyya, or worshipping and servitude to Allah, as something more than a matter
of the heart and evaluating it a matter of the mind, will damage the sub-mind magnificence and

sacredness of religion. Door that closed to mind and logic in the matters of worship and

assurance, open up completely on matter dealing with maintaining relations with people, so as
to find a path in its application according to reason and wisdom for its reasoning.

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Worship related jurisdiction can certainly contain some benefits and matters that the mind can
attain. However, it should not be forgotten that this is not the real benefit derived from worship.

Acts or worship and purposes in and of themselves. For example, it is established that fasting
possesses a series of personal, social, health and moral benefits, however, the reason why it

has been ordained upon is not due to these benefits. The first and leading reason is that it is an
expression of the acceptance of Allah's decree and servitude towards him. The benefits listed

are the positive side effects of fasting. It is for this reason that fasting can't be discarded if its

benefits are gained through alternate means. Even though acts of worship may appear to be

simple in form, they the greatest among the orders of the Almighty creator and their wisdom
extends beyond the material world, each one allowing for a connection with the creator in a

different form and dimension. In order for this to happen, as evident in the case of daily prayers,

one may be required to memorize and recite certain verses, certain modes of behavior, a series
of symbolic acts, as required by pilgrimage will be utilized in order the from the physical

dimension of the acts. It may not always be mentally discernable why these type of acts are

considered worship. Because worship, to a certain extent, represents they psychical and
symbolic components of religion.

The essence of all forms of worship is to remember Allah while their purpose is to take us to the

presence of Allah. Worship is a vessel which allows for you to remember Allah. All of the
conditions, methods and rules of worship is directed at placing the remembrance of Allah into
the consciences. When this is attained, the awareness that his present everywhere, in areas
outside of prayer, becomes imbedded in us. Even though forms of worship may initially appear

to be actions which remain between Allah and His servant, which symbolize the servant's

respect, obedience and homage to his Creator, it has a function which works to better personal
education, human relations and social structures. When we examine acts of worship

individually, we see that they all possess effects which different sides of one's existence,
healing the weaknesses we carry in different domains of our lives and develops our character
holistically. Foremost, each one of them works to strengthen human will-power and increase

one's control over themselves and their possessions. And this is a mandatory requirement for

the human being developed during its period of existence on earth.

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The Authority to Determine Forms of Worship

Even though the human intellect can grasp the importance and requirement for worshipping the

Almighty creator, he cannot discern how and in what form to do this. (The best example to this

is the Hanif, who were monotheists that lived in the Arab prior to Islam. The accepted the
existence of an transcendent creator, but didn't know how to fulfill their servitude to Him.)

Even though the kinds of acts which are requested to be performed during worship may fall into

second plan as compared to the essence of worship, and whose wisdom may be partially
apparent to us, they are of a nature that cannot fully be grasped by the intellect. It is for this

reason that the scholars of Islam are in agreement that the conditions and forms of prayer must

take place according to what has been informed by Allah and his Messenger. Thus it is
essential that worship must be completed only the fashion indicated by Allah and his
Messenger. Accordingly, worship that falls outside of what is ordained in the Qur'an or

explained through the Messenger of Allah are considered "bid'ah" (innovation) and are

denounced. In the respect, innovations are "The conception of any act that is not found in the
Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad as worship or an addition or reduction to existing forms of
worship."

Beginning with prayer, the Qur'an frequently reminds and order the basic forms of worship such
as alms-giving, pilgrimage and fasting. The conditions and rulings on the acts of worship, which
form the basis of Islam, have been made clear through Prophet Muhammad's application and
explanations. Prophet Muhammad has shown his followers the methods of prayer and

pilgrimage in detail when saying, "Pray as I do," and "Learn the rules of pilgrimage from me,"
passing on an religious life based on application and learning to the generations to follow.

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The form and meaning Relationship in Worship

Every form of worship which is fulfilled as a religious obligation has a form and frame that has

been determined by Allah. A believer must express his loyalty to his Creator within this frame.

This form is generally symbolic and inseparable part of worship. The form of worship is
generally directly effective in living and experiencing its meaning. Fulfilling an act of worship
means more than a symbolic act, it connotes taking part in method of creation - a super-human

and universal method in a virtual fashion. The form of worship creates a whole together with its
meaning and essence and when performed bearing this in mind, provides the effects and
results that are desired.

As indicated by Islamic scholar Imam Ghazali, who has conducted important psychological
analysis on worship, the purpose of worship is to take the conscience further than the daily and
ordinary lives and elevate it to another level with the help of the organs, thus exchanging the

attributes of the heart for better ones. Accordingly, the real purpose behind placing one's

forehead on the ground during prostration is not the joining of the forehead with the ground, but
increasing the attribute of humility in the heart through this act. Worship that is does not serve
this purpose, and is not conducted with a unity between form and meaning will be fruitless,
deficient and defective. It cannot be expected that worship will be accepted by Allah. Thus, the
verse "So woe to the worshippers Who are neglectful of their prayers," from Surah Al-Maun: (4-
5) addresses this very topic.

According to Ghazali again, the true meaning of Alms giving lies in its facilitation of decreasing

the love of possessions in man, who is born with this inclination, and directing his love and
loyalty to one who is worthy of it: Allah the Almighty. Also, casting anything which casts a

shadow on the love of Allah from his heart in order to truly experience the oneness of Allah,

freeing one's self of miserliness and fulfilling grattitude to Allah for the blessings he has

bestowed upon one. The real meaning of fasting is taking a break from certain physical desires

in addition to purging one's conscience from worldly affairs and everything which takes one

away from Allah so that one can attain the highest point spiritual intensification. The act of
pilgrimage is a temporary priesthood, because its essence and meaning require that one

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dedicate themselves solely to Allah and distance one's self from all contradicting acts and
behaviors. It is a kind of preparation for death or journey to the hereafter through experiencing

the stages one will undergo following death.

The Language of Worship:

An important part of the requirements of acceptability for worship are the acts and formats
determined by Allah and his Messenger. It is for this reason that religious rulings on worship do

not change with time and conditions and are not open to interpretation. Rules on certain verses
from the Holy Qur'an being read in certain stages of daily prayer and in in Arabic remaining true

to the original text, the number of rakahs, kneelings and prostrations, the ban on eating, drinking

and engaging in sexual relations during fasting, following the ihram during pilgrimage, waqfa
and tawaf are all such rules.

Because understanding, consent and personal choice are essential in embracing religion and

fulfilling its obligations, Arabic wording is not deemed mandatory in the declaration of the
oneness of Allah, remembrance of Allah, supplication and declaring intention. And because the
comprehension of the congregation is essential during Friday and eid prayers, it has been made
permissible that with the exception of prayers and remembrances, which have been shaped by

the sunnah of Prophet Muhammad, such as the reading of the Holy Qur'an and invoking
blessings on the Messenger of Allah, advice, council and remembrance of Allah take place in a
language other than Arabic. However, the call for prayer and the ikamah - which signals the
imam's preparedness for the prayer - have been ruled to remain in the language of Arabic as

they represent the presence of Muslims in that particular region and are perceived as the
universal motto of Muslims.

Because the Qur'an was revealed in order to be understood and fulfilled, and because by nature

it is mercy and cure for societies, there is a special importance in the deciphering the meaning

of the Qur'an from its reading. For this reason, the reading of the meaning or translation of the
Qur'an so as to understand its content is considered an act of worship and reading the Qur'an in

Arabic outside of prayer has not been made mandatory. However, the reading of the Qur'an in

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Arabic, even if one does not understand its meaning, is deemed as an act of worship in and of
it's self, as it is considered a vehicle for gaining the pleasure of Allah.

Just as the Qur'an states, "...So recite what is easy [for you] of the Qur'an." (Surah Al-

Muzammil: 20), we know through hadith that prayers without the reading of the Qur'an and
Surah Al-Fatiha, are not valid and deficient. Because the examples of the Sunnah and Islamic
traditions are in agreement with this, all Islamic schools of thought are in agreement that reading

a part of the Qur'an (Kira'a) during prayer is considered obligatory for its validity.

As a basic rule, prayer can only be performed through reading the Qur'an in Arabic. Because a

translation or meaning may not replace the original text, they cannot be used during prayer. If a

person does not know the Surah Al-Fatiha or a few verses from the Qur'an, than the
requirement of reading the Qur'an is lifted for him or her temporarily as this is considered an
excuse; however, he or she must learn what is lacking without any delay.

Forms of worship

The five main responsibilities of Muslims which are the main expressions of their servitude to

Allah are called the five pillars of Islam. The first one of these is the "Kalima ‘ tawheed" (bearing
witness to the oneness of Allah) is the pronunciation of belief and carries a central role among

the remaining four. The other four pillars are like the reflection of this declaration on to our daily

lives. The declaration of belief is the witnessing and approving that "There is no God but Allah
and Muhammad is his servant and messenger." This is an absolute requirement of being a
Muslim.

In Islam, the shahada, does not take on a ceremonial form. Instead the shahada encompasses

a Muslim's life as a principal that continuously reminds of the oneness of Allah and the
almightiness. Because the shadada is the summary of the believer and an expression of their
identity. The shahada is uttered into the ears of new-born babies and a person on their death

bed should utter the shahada in as much as they can, and those surrounding the person should
repeat the shahada to him or her until his or her last breath. The Shahada is repeated on the

muaddhins - those who call for the five daily prayers - five times every day. Being a Muslims

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requires that one remains loyal to the fundamentals of Islam, the pillars of faith (these pillars
have been explained extensively in previous articles) that are born from the shahada.

Acts of worship are divided into three in terms of being physical and material:

 Physical acts of worship: Prayer, fasting and reading the Qur'an are physical forms of
worship. Unless the obliged performs these physically and in person, their purpose will
not be fulfilled.

 Material acts of worship: Alms-giving, sacrificing of an animal during eid, and charity are
among material acts of worship. Using a proxy to fulfill them, whether there is an excuse

or not, is permitted. The wisdom in their being mandatory can be fulfilled in full, even

when a third party is used.

 Both material and physical acts of worship: Pilgrimage is one of these. Unless there is a
absolute need, a representative will not be permitted to complete this act. For the

method of pilgrimage requires that the believer is obliged.

The Degrees of Worship:

The most important principles where worship is concerned is that it is done solely for the
purpose of Allah. The essence of tawheed - oneness of Allah - is formed by worshipping Allah

without associating any partners with him and expecting a return from no one other than Allah

for your worship. Acts of worship are generally formed by certain modes of behavior and these
figures, some of which have symbolic meaning, form the establishing element of worship. Along
with these the essence of worship is the intention of the person and their sincerity in conducting
their worship in a fashion that is free from any kind of ostentatiousness. This method, referred to

as "Ikhlas" - loosely translated as sincerity - is essential in the acceptance of worship. Prophet

Muhammad has reminded that acts of worship that don't contain pure intention are meaningless

activities.

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For Sufis worship and servitude are irreplaceable vehicles to win the pleasure of Allah, become
closer to Him and be in His presence. When a person is able to put everything aside and be in

the presence of Allah, with an awareness that they are in fact with Him, then they will have
performed their worship in an appropriate manner.

Consistency is essential in the execution of worship. Allah has asked the man be a servant to
Allah until his death. (Surah Al-Hijr, 98-99). Prophet Muhammad has advised his followers a

balanced religious life and reminded that the most beneficial of deeds are ones which are
consistent in addition to warning some of his companions who attempted to go to extremes in
their worship.

Because Islam encourages acts that are conducted with love, espousal and passion, ease has
been considered centrifugal. Religious rulings are such that an average person is taken into
consideration and are applicable by all. However, while rulings are softened for those who are

weak or have excuses, they are encouraged to be increased and intensified for the strong and

skilled. Thus, the religion of Islam is able to appeal to all segments in a given society and
remain universal.

The Results of Performing acts of Worship

Rulings on worship don't stop of maintaining relations between servant and Allah, they also

directly affect the relationship between the individual and his or her immediate surroundings as
well as society at large. Even prayer and fasting, which appear to have strong individual
emphasis, have external positive results such as distancing one's self from bad deeds, social
unification, peace and tranquility and helping the needy. These attributes become more evident

in acts of worship such as alms-giving, pilgrimage, sacrifice and acts of atonement.

Because the responsibility of worship is a indebtedness of the servant, principally, there cannot
be pressure in order for it to be performed. Education and resources in order to perform them

should be provided. It is obvious that since intention and sincerity are essential in worship,
applying pressure would lead a person to hypocrisy and such an act of worship will not

accepted in the sight of Allah. For a believer, the biggest incentive in worship, is the value

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placed on worship in the discourse of Allah the Almighty. The Qur'an states that those who
commit good deeds will be rewarded while those who don't abide by divine orders will be met

with a grim punishment, with the positive results of worship such as prayer and alms-giving
being highlighted, whose abandonment will result in worldly and post-life disaster. However

there is no mention of a specific worldly punishment.

The most evident result of the fulfillment of worship towards one's spiritual and otherworldly life

is the lifting of such a responsibility placed upon them. And the level of reward a person will gain
from their worship is a matter between Allah and the servant, based on the qualifications of their
duty as well as their sincerity.

As stated in the Qur'an, man has been equipped with the ability for both obedience and
rebellion; he has been called upon simply to worship his Creator, abandoning all of his selfish
desires and false gods. It is very meaningful for man to not follow the path of rebellion, which is

a possible option, and instead follow Allah with his own will and partake in supplication. In

actuality, such behavior is compatible with the order of the universe and man's own nature. In a
way, the worship of Allah, along with being a religious obligation, is an effective vehicle in
developing and maturing the strengths of humanity.

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Islamic Worship Moral: Self Development

Morality and Ethics:

The word “morality” comes from the Latin word moralitas meaning “manner, character, and
proper behavior”. Morality generally refers to a code of conduct, that an individual, group or
society hold as authoritative, in distinguishing right from wrong. Such an ideal code of conduct is

often espoused in preference to other alternatives.

Islam as a comprehensive way of life encompasses a complete moral system that is an

important aspect of its world-view. We live in an age where good and evil are often looked at as

relative concepts. Islam however, holds that moral positions are not relative, and instead,
defines a universal standard by which actions may be deemed moral or immoral.

Islam’s moral system is striking in that it not only defines morality, but also guides the human
race in how to achieve it, at both an individual as well as a collective level.

Basic Principles in Islamic Morality

The Islamic moral system stems from its primary creed of belief in One God as the Creator and

Sustainer of the Universe. Islam considers the human race to be a part of God’s creation, and
as His subjects.

From an Islamic perspective, the purpose of human life is to worship God, by leading this
worldly life in harmony with the Divine Will, and thereby achieve peace in this world, and

everlasting success in the life of the hereafter. Muslims look to the Glorious Qur’an and the
Traditions of the Prophet as their moral guides.

The Glorious Qur’an says:

“It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is righteousness- to
believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend

of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer,

for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular

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charity; to fulfil the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or
suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the

Allah-fearing.” [Al-Qur’an 2:177]

This verse underscores the Islamic belief that righteousness and piety is based, before all else
on a true and sincere faith. The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation with God,
who sees all, at all times and everywhere. He knows the secrets of the hearts and the intentions

behind all actions. Therefore, Islam enjoins moral behavior in all circumstances; God is aware of
each one when no one else is. It may be possible to deceive the world, but it’s not possible to
deceive the Creator.

The love and continuous awareness of God and the Day of Judgment enables man to be moral
in conduct and sincere in intentions, with devotion and dedication.

The Glorious Qur’an also says:

Say: the things that my Lord hath indeed forbidden are: shameful deeds, whether open or
secret; sins and trespasses against truth or reason; assigning of partners to Allah, for which He

hath given no authority; and saying things about Allah of which ye have no knowledge. [Al-
Qur’an 7:33]

It is interesting that the Qur’an refers to “sins and trespasses against truth or reason”. It is an
indication of God’s blessing to every human being, of an innate moral sense. Such a moral

sense, when uncorrupted by family or society, is what leads people to commendable acts of

virtue. Islam aims to enhance and amplify the moral sense in every human being and adorn the

individual’s character with the noblest of virtues.

The Islamic moral principles therefore, appeal naturally to the human intellect, while elevating

the pursuit of morality to the level of worship. This is because Islam holds every action that is

done with the goal of attaining of God’s pleasure to be worship.

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Morality and the individual:

The guiding principle for the behavior of a Muslim is what the Qur’an refers to as Al `Amal

Assalih or virtuous deeds. This term covers all deeds, not just the outward acts of worship.

Some of the most primary character traits expected of a Muslim are piety, humility and a
profound sense of accountability to God. A Muslim is expected to be humble before God and
with other people. Islam also enjoins upon every Muslim to exercise control of their passions

and desires.

Islam warns against vanity and excessive attachment to the ephemeral pleasures of this world.

While it is easy to allow the material world to fill our hearts, Islam calls upon human beings to
keep God in their hearts and to use the material world in moderation and in accordance with
God’s guidance. The Glorious Qur’an says:

“The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, but only he (will prosper) that brings to

Allah a sound heart” [Al-Quran: 26:88-89]

Charity is one of the most commendable acts in Islam. In fact, Zakah, the annual charity that is
obligatory on every Muslim who has accrued wealth above a certain level, is one of the pillars of

Islam.

Gratitude in prosperity, patience in adversity, and the courage to uphold the truth, even when

inconvenient to oneself, are just some of the qualities that every Muslim is encouraged to
cultivate.

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Morality and Society:

For an individual as well as a society, morality is one of the fundamental sources of strength,

just as immorality is one of the main causes of decline. While respecting the rights of the

individual within a broad Islamic framework, Islam is also concerned with the moral health of the
society.

Thus, everything that leads to the welfare of the individual and the society is morally good in

Islam, and whatever is harmful is morally bad.

Given its importance to a healthy and just society, Islam supports morality and matters that lead

to the enhancement of morality, and stands in the way of corruption and matters that lead to the
spreading of corruption. The injunctions and prohibitions in Islam are to be seen in this light

Conclusion

Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim’s life, from greetings to international

relations. It is universal in its scope and in its applicability.

A Muslim is expected to not only be virtuous, but to also enjoin virtue. He/She must not only
refrain from evil and vice, but must also actively engage in asking people to eschew them. In
other words, they must not only be morally healthy, but must also contribute to the moral health
of society as a whole.

The Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he

said: “My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of God, whether in
private or in public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when
poor and when rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him

who refuses me; that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an

admonition; and that I should command what is right.”

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Social Impact:

Although as a religious faith, Islam is commonly believed to provide for the "equality" of all
believers, the Quran and the Hadith bith justify the second-class or third class treatment of non-

believers and infidels. thta is why there is considerable evidence that most Hindus experienced
considerable downward mobility as a consequene of the Islamic invasions. Only those social

groupings that actively collaborated with the alien rulers were able to maintain their wealth and

status (or in some cases, move up the ladder)

The general bias towards trade, and the trend towards higher taxes on the peasantry led to far

greater concentrations of wealth amongst the social elite. Not only did the distance between rich

and poor widen with the arrival of the Islamic invaders, Islamic rulers did not contribute in any
meaningful way to breaking down the caste system.

Hence, it would be wrong to exaggerate the "egalitarian" character of Islam versus the

"discriminatory and sedentary " character of caste-driven Hinduism. As some historians have
pointed out - those who earned their living by "unclean tasks" (such as corpse-handling,
tanning/leather work, or janitorial work) were often treated with disdain by both the Islamic and
Hindu elite. The majority of the Islamic conquerors and ruling dynasties refrained from close

social interaction and marriage with the local artisans and working castes just as much as did
Brahmins or Kshatriyas. It would also be wrong to argue that caste rigidity was uniformly
enforced in 'Hindu' India. Many of India's greatest ruling dynasties sprang from lower castes or

socially "inferior" mixed castes. The Nandas were shudras, the Mauryas hailed from a mixed

caste, and Harsha was a Vaishya. The Rajputs were of Central Asian stock and became
accepted as Kshatriya after they had established their power. And just like the Muslims, the

Kalingas of Orissa allowed anyone to join their armies and rise to the top by demonstrating their

skills in battle. Moreover the Vaishnava and Bhakti movements had already been popularizing
the notion that spiritual devotion superceded caste in terms of gaining salvation. Hence, Islam

did not offer anything that was substantially new or more radical to the majority of India's Hindus

and this is why the majority did not convert to Islam.

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This is particularly evident in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa where few
artisans or craftspeople converted to Islam. There is evidence of social mobility across caste

groupings in the Pratihara period in Rajasthan. Caste divisions were not significant in the early
Kalinga period in Orissa and the Chandella rulers of Madhaya Pradesh were reputed to have an

egalitarian attitude on matters of caste and may have been of lower caste origin themselves.
Some rulers had tribal origins (such as the Meena kings of Rajasthan and the erstwhile rulers of

Jabalpur before its defeat at the hands of the Mughals). Just as the impact of Islam varied

considerably, it would be wrong to generalize about pre-Islamic India. Caste rigidity and

Brahminical conservatism were not uniform or all-prevalent features of the sub-continent. Had
Islam offered a truly radical alternative to the Indian masses, a much greater proportion of the

Indian population would have converted.

As pointed out by Amartya Sen and others, the majority of conversions took place directly from

Buddhism to Islam or amongst certain mercantile communities and specific categories of skilled
artisans.

Growth of Clerical Obscurantism

Although conversions may not always have been forced, local histories from several districts in

the Hindi-speaking parts of the country (especially the gangetic plain) allude to considerable
pressure on local rulers and chieftans to convert. This is because the Islamic rulers wanted their
intermediaries with the Indian masses to also be Muslim so that their rule was less easily
challenged or thwarted.

Ibn Batuta also points to coercion in forcing people to attend the daily prayers. Indians who were

used to religions where they had considerable autonomy in terms of when and how often they

went to the temple - initially resisted the regimen of frequent daily prayers. Imams often had to

threaten and cane convertees into attending.

Another negative consequence of Islam was that because Islam was against idol worship, the
rich ancient Indian tradition of sculpture suffered a major setback. This also had certain

profound though less apparent consequences. At one level - praying to a stone deity may seem

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very irrational, but in practice it was certainly no worse than praying to an invisible entity. At
least the stone deity that was sculpted with human features embodied the fantasies and wish-

fulfillment desires of the people. Daily and forced obeisance to an invisible god with the power to
punish with eternal damnation was potentially far more spirit deadening and mind-numbing.

Islamization thus led to a steady loss of independent thinking and religious dissent. Unlike the
polycosmological practises that prevailed in India wherein all manner of heterodox and

conservative traditions competed, and allowed atheism and goddess worship to coexist with
Brahminical orthodoxy, Quranic Islam more often demanded complete submission to its
precepts and allowed much less room for heretic beliefs. For instance, students of Indian

philosophy were familiar with several atheistic traditions which included the Nyaya-Vaisheshika,

the Sankhya, the Mimamsaka, the Yoga, and several Jain and Buddhist currents. State support
of such atheist and other currents contributed quite substantially to the expansion of literacy

beyond the elite castes and also helped in the expansion of scientific knowledge and in further
development mathematical and epistemological analysis.

While obscurantist ideas emasculated followers of both faiths, the power of the Islamic clergy
was considerably greater in enforcing social conservatism. This trend became notable during
the reign of Shah Jahan and climaxed during the reign of Aurangzeb.

By the time Aurangzeb took over, much of the state's social budget had come to be
expropriated by the conservative clergy. The only scholars to be promoted were Islamic

scholars who became prisoners to the unworldliness that is ingrained in any religion that makes
absolute devotion to an unknown and indescribable entity its paramount aim. Towards the end

of his life, Aurangzeb regretted his turn towards Islamic conservatism and exclusivity, but by

then the conservative clergy had developed a momentum of its own.

Being a religion of the book, Islam was more easily hijacked by dogmatic currents than
Hinduism which lacked the formal and centralizing institutions that came with Islam. There was

no council of Ulemas with the power to issue fatwas (threatening religious edicts). There were

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no daily prayers. There wasn't even a single sacred book that could resolve religious disputes.
While some followed the Gita or the Upanishads, others followed the Ramayana which itself

came in multiple versions. Many of these texts were highly polemical, embodying intense
philosophical ambiguity and debate. Concepts like "dharma" were loosely defined and abstract

in their conception, enabling them to be adjusted to the changing needs of changing times. The
concept of "karma" furthered a sense of secular responsibility and some understanding of

causality and proportionality in a manner that had no comparable counterpart in Quranic Islam.

The Quran offered little secular ambiguity or possibility for new philosophical development.
Quranic interpreters could only spend their time quibbling over historic minutiae, obsessed with

statements of the 'prophet' and what judgement day might bring and who would enter heaven. It

was questions of the after-life that concerned them, and day-to-day reality had to be analyzed
only through a medieval Arabist lens. Although there were currents within Hinduism that also

emphasized detachment from real life - there was still space for more contemporary (and
geographically more relevant) worldly currents.

Prior to the arrival of Islam, some Hindu rulers supported emerging scientists and rational
scholars. Although the support for the sciences and education was never broad based and did
not penetrate deep into society it allowed India's secular and rational traditions to survive - even
if in a weakened and restricted form. But in some cases, there is evidence of quite vigorous
intellectual activity.

Some Hindu rulers like Raja Bhoj were particularly notable in that they were renowned

architects and engineers and were highly respected for their many building projects. Raja Bhoj
was also noted for his engineering innovations relating to town planning, civil construction and

engineering and mechanical inventions such as time-telling devices. Recently, treatises on

earthquakes and geological analysis have also been discovered suggesting that pre-Islamic

India was not as stagnant or moribund as some Isalmic historians have tried to imply.

The more liberal of the Islamic rulers like Akbar attempted to follow in these footsteps and keep

the Madrasahs (Islamic Schools) in line by compiling regulations that required them to also

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include secular subjects in their curriculum. Courses on ethics, mathematics, astronomy,

agriculture, medicine, logic and government were recommended in addition to religious studies.

The study of Sanskrit was prescribed including Vyakaran (Grammar) and Nyaya - (Rational
Philosophy). During Akbar's reign Hakim Shirazi (d. 1589) and his followers attempted to

combine the study of mathematics and science with Islam at seminaries founded by them.
Perhaps as a consequence of his father's open-mindedness, Emperor Jehangir was also

encouraged to pay attention to secular matters and took an active interest in botany and

zoology. But neither Akbar nor Jehangir were to have any significant impact on the outlook of

the Madrasahs. The actual practice of the Ulema - the clergy who ran the Madrasahs, remained
theocratic, and they resisted Akbar's modest attempts at secularizing the Islamic educational

system. This was not entirely out of character because as early as the 11th C. the Central Asian

scholar Al-Beruni had been jailed for his "heretic" beliefs, and for 'challenging the supremacy of
the knowledge contained in the Quran'.

In social matters also, there were distinctions that became apparent over time. Outside the

ambit of Brahminical or Kshatriya orthodoxy, the triumph of patriarchy was only partial in India.
Amongst some communities of artisans and the peasantry, there was a greater sense of realism
and tolerance in matters of personal relationships and human sexuality. Gods and goddesses

were propitiated based on local and even individual needs. Religion was more a matter of
individual or group choice than a rigid doctrine imposed from above. Regional, even local
variations and adaptations coexisted and survived.

But over time the conservative Islamic clergy attempted to limit or quash flexibility in such

matters. Using their Friday sermons and power to issue fatwas they were able to exercise
greater influence on the polity than were Hindu priests. With the rulers on their side, it was much
harder to challenge them. This may have also had an indirect impact on some rationalist and

autonomous schools within the broad Hindu umbrella who may have also came under some
pressure.

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Although the Sufi and Bhakti traditions challenged religious bigotry and intolerance, both
traditions came under the sway of mystic renunciation of the real world. Even as they eased the

pain of religious and social autocracy - they were unable to offer a realistic counterpoint to the
imposition of religious sectarianism and bookish rigor. A powerful humanist reform current also

appeared in the form of Sikhism which in its practice of social welfare measures for the poor and
disenfranchised exceeded any faith preceding it. But like the Sufi and Bhakti faiths, it too

incorporated elements of mystic withdrawal and saintly devotion to the 'almighty' as its high

ideals.

The retreat from India's long tryst with rationalism had already started in some parts of India with

the ascendancy of those who believed strongly in astrology and ascribed to it a dominant role in

shaping human destiny. But in other parts of India, scientifc and engineering research was not
entirely dead. Not only did Islam aid and abet the retreat from scientifc rationalism, it further

deepened it.

This was in stark contrast to what was happening in Europe in that same period. By the 18th
century Christian religious orthodoxy was facing powerful movements for social reform and was
under attack from both internal and external humanist and rationalist currents. Rather than the
rational currents being subsumed by religion, they were trying to raise their head to rise above
the ocean of myth, superstition and religious confusion that had imbued the masses of the
medieval world.

In India the trend was in the wrong direction and this undoubtedly fed into the process of

cementing colonial rule. For instance, several recent economic hostorians have indicated that
until the 13th C, India led the world in terms of its GDP. Four centuries of Islamic rule allowed

China to gain parity with India, and later, Europe outpaced both China and India.

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While the British used all shades of religious obscurantism to divide and subjugate the Indian
masses, Islamic separatism became a particularly dangerous tool in the hands of the British.

The complicity of the Muslim League served as a catalyst for the unfortunate vivisection of the
sub-continent. Today, in Pakistan, Islam has become a vehicle for spreading venom and hatred

against India. This has led to a growing revulsion against Islam and unfortunate stereo-typing of
all Muslim nations and people in some sections of Indian society. Progressive forces in India

have been caught in a curious bind.

Earlier in the century, in the fight against colonial rule, the widest possible unity of the Indian
people was deemed essential. As a result, forces that were based on mystic renunciation or

religious obscurantism (or even religious chauvinism) were tolerated, even welcomed in the

freedom movement. Criticism of religion, even religious absolutism was avoided. The fear of
communal riots and religious separatism prevented many of the nation's most advanced

freedom fighters from combating religious conservatism head on.

After independence, similar fears (of fomenting needless divisions) often led to the quiet
censorship of essays containing a critique of Islam. However, because, Hinduism was viewed
as the faith of the 'dominant majority' there weren't the same fears of critically dissecting
Hinduism. It was possible for the many weaknesses and failures of Hindu obscurantism to be
exposed, but Islam, on the other hand was somewhat protected from critical analysis.

Today, this has led to a severe backlash. It has led to an exaggerated glorification of Hinduism -
and a lack of historical distance from the odious aspects of Islam's role in India. India thus faces

an enormous challenge. At the same time, it has left many Muslims with an overly sanitized
record of the Islamic and little respect for the much more intellectually virile Indian traditions.

The old solution of avoiding controversy or holding back from a frank and deeper assessment is

clearly unsustainable. Historians cannot refrain from telling the truth for too long. Yet, the truth

can also be told in ways that are enlightening, and without it being incendiary. If the record of
India's Islamic courts is presented in an unbiased and impartial way, and without stirring feelings

of retribution towards Muslims, it is likely that most ordinary Indians will react in a manner that

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is sanguine and circumspect. It may also create an opportunity for fighting anew all the forces of
obscurantism that hinder India's progress.

If India is to meet the challenges posed by technology dominated globalization, it cannot afford

to continue stumbling under the shadow of any type of religious obscurantism. The same
applies to Pakistan and Bangladesh. In all three nations, there is tremendous poverty and
oppression. While India, having embraced a secular path, offers somewhat more hope than

either of its neighbors, a secular and cooperative federation of the Indian sub-continent offers
the greatest hope of progress for the vast majority of the sub-continent's people.

Between the nations of the sub-continent there exist the natural resources and the scientific and

technological prowess to raise the average standard of living to modest but very respectable
levels, and to do it in an environmentally sustainable fashion. But today, by and large, only India
has elements of the requisite scientific and technological foundation in place. However, due to

Pakistan's proxy wars it is unable to tap the available energy resources and other natural

resources and develop in a balanced way. Pakistan and Bangladesh on the other hand have
rich energy reserves but lack the scientific and technological know-how, or industrial base to
develop or use them. It is a poignant stalemate.

The forces of Islamic jehad have won a partial victory through partition and in keeping India
bleeding. But it has undoubtedly been a very pyrrhic victory in which all except a very narrow
elite have been big losers. Islam at one point served to unite the medieval world into one huge
trading bloc. It is ironic that today, it is the forces of Islamic Jehad that prevent even bilateral

trade from taking place between India and Pakistan. Rather than unite disparate social systems,
Islam is being used to divide a people with a long and common culture and history.

In many ways, the key to the future is in the hands of the region's ordinary Muslims because

only they can successfully challenge the power of the conservative and now militarized clergy.

India's Muslims have a special role to play because they have the best chance of winning over
the hearts and minds of the people of Pakistan and Bangladesh and exhorting them to work

towards a cooperative and mutually beneficial federation with India.

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Study of Seerah of Prophet Mohammad (PBAH) as Role

Model for:-

Muhammad's Personal Life:

Muhammad (PBUH) was born in 570 AD to a noble family of Makkah, and was a descendant of

the Prophet Abraham. Orphaned at six, Muhammad (PBUH) was a thoughtful youth who

worked as a shepherd and helped his uncle with the trade caravans. As a teenager he rejected

the immoral customs of his people, who had become steeped in idolatry, and joined a chivalrous
order, earning the nickname 'The Trustworthy'. At age 25 he found employment with a wealthy

widow of 40 named Khadijah, managing her business. Impressed by his honesty and character,

Khadijah proposed marriage and he accepted. Despite their age difference, they were happily
married for 25 years, and were blessed with six children. After Khadijah's death Muhammad

married several women for political and humanitarian reasons, as was expected of a man of his
position; all but one were widows and divorcees. He was a loving and considerate husband and

father, and his family was devoted to him despite his voluntary poverty, for he put into practice
his own advice, 'the best of you is the one who is best to his own family.'

Muhammad (PBUH), The Prophet:

Muhammad (PBUH) received his first revelation from God at 40, through the Angel Gabriel. He
continued to receive revelations for 23 years, on topics ranging from the Oneness of God and

His wondrous handiwork, to stories of earlier prophets, morality and ethics, and life after death.

These revelations became collectively known as the Qur'an, and are considered by Muslims to
be the literal word of God; the Prophet's own words were collected separately. Muhammad's call

to monotheism and social reform was heavily opposed by the Makkan elite; after enduring

thirteen years of intense persecution, he and his followers were invited to relocate to Madinah, a
town to the north that had been torn apart by generations of intertribal warfare. Muhammad

successfully settled their differences and forged a bond of brotherhood between the two warring

factions, as well as between the locals and the new emigrants. For Arab tribal society, this was

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an amazing accomplishment. The early Muslims learned to implement the golden rule under the
Prophet's tutelage: 'No one truly believes until he desires for his brother what he desires for

himself.'

Muhammad's legacy: The Madinan Model

For Muhammad, religion was not a matter of personal conviction alone but a complete way of
life, and Madinah flourished under his leadership. The Madinan model of government, based on

justice, respect for human dignity and God-consciousness, became the template to which
Muslims have looked for guidance and inspiration ever since. The Prophet drew up the world's

first constitution in which the rights of religious minorities were protected, and entered into

treaties and alliances with neighbouring tribes. He sent letters to the rulers of the Persians,
Egyptians, Abyssinians and Byzantines, announcing his message of pure monotheism and
inviting them to accept Islam. For the first time in history, women, children, orphans, foreigners

and slaves were granted extensive rights and protection. Many of the Prophet's concerns seem

surprisingly 'modern': he condemned racism and nationalism, saying 'there is no superiority of

an Arab over a non-Arab, or a white man over a black man, except in righteousness.' He
established laws protecting animals, trees and the environment. He encouraged free trade and
ethical investments, but secured workers' rights and forbade usury. He worked for peace, but
defined the parameters of the judicious use of force, when force was needed. He convinced
people to give up alcohol, drugs, prostitution and crime, and promoted healthy living. He
condemned domestic violence, encouraged his wives to speak their own mind, and granted

Muslim women many rights not dreamed of in Europe until centuries later, including the right to

own property, reject arranged marriages, and seek divorce because of incompatibility.

And the Prophet encouraged his followers to seek beneficial knowledge wherever it could be

found, with the result that Muslims never experienced a conflict between science and religion,

and led the world in many fields of learning for centuries afterwards. Although his enduring

legacy can be observed in everything from art to politics, Muhammad's greatest achievement by

far was to re-establish pure monotheism. As simple and straightforward to understand as the
nucleus at the centre of an atom, the concept of One God lies at the heart of Islamic culture.

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Muslims turn to their Creator for guidance, without the need for intermediaries, or the loss of
dignity that idolatry and superstition bring.

The Prophet accomplished all this through the strength of his character and personal example;

he inspired in his followers a love, devotion and sense of awe that was unparalleled. While other
men would have been corrupted by the absolute power that he wielded in his later years,
Muhammad remained humble, ever aware of the Source of his blessings. 'I am just God's

servant,' he said, and 'I have only been sent as a teacher.' Although he spent his days in serving
people and his nights in prayer, he preached religious moderation and balance; he forbade his
followers to adopt a monastic lifestyle and preferred that they establish strong families and

engage themselves in bettering the world around them, while remaining deeply conscious of

God.

In the brief space of one generation and during his own lifetime, the Prophet Muhammad*

successfully transformed the faith, mentality and culture of the people of Arabia; within 100

years his message had touched the hearts and lives of millions in Africa, Asia and parts of
Europe. The Prophet foretold that each succeeding generation would be worse than the one
before it, and true to his prediction, Muslims have not always understood or honoured his
example. But Muhammad's teachings, speeches and customs were carefully noted down by his
Companions, and compiled into books of authentic sayings which are available in translation.
Along with the Qur'an, they form the holistic foundation of a satisfying way of life for practising
Muslims, while for others, they provide a fascinating glimpse into the heart and mind of an

exceptional man and role model from whom much can be learned.

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Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W): Role Model For Individuals:

The Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was born on Rabiul Awwal 12 of the Hijrah calendar. His

birth, on a Monday, came 570 years after that of the Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him). The
Prophet was born in the city of Makkah to Abdullah, the son of Abdul Muttalib, the venerable

sheikh of the Quraish, the ruling clan of Makkah.

The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), called Al-Ameen (The Trustworthy) even by his enemies, was

the last of the prophets sent by Allah. There is no other prophet on whose life so much light has
been shed. Born after the age of myth, living in the full glare of history, his sayings and actions
were documented as no other prophet's were. Recorded in minute detail, their authenticity has

been questioned by no fair scholar.

The Prophet's life is a shining example for all to follow. He was the kindest of persons — a
sense of compassion that was directed at Muslims and non-Muslims alike. His care for those

around him and even for those who caused him harm provides shining examples of true nobility.

His love for orphans was deep, and the kindness that he exhibited to the needy, the humble and
the poor knew no bounds.

It is extremely difficult for the Muslims of today to imagine and much less to endure the

hardships that the Prophet and his companions underwent. In the ninth year of his mission, the
Prophet — having been persecuted and terrorized by his people in Makkah — headed for Taif,
home to the Banu Thaqif tribe. There he went to preach his message but was treated rudely by

the tribal elders, who told him to clear off and even sent street urchins after him to beat him and

pelt him with stones. He bled profusely causing his entire body to be covered with blood and his
sandals to become clogged to his feet.

He headed away from the town and took respite near a rock and made a heart-rending

invocation to God Almighty beseeching mercy for the people who had persecuted him a few

moments earlier.

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It is said that the heavens were moved by the Prophet's prayer and the Archangel Gabriel came
and said that God Almighty is aware of what has passed and that he has deputed an angel in

charge of the mountains. The angel in charge of the mountains then came forward and offered
to bring the mountains overlooking Taif to collide with each other to destroy the inhabitants.

However, being a mountain of mercy himself and the mercy of the worlds, the Prophet refused.
Note the conduct of our noble Prophet. Irritated by a little trouble or abuse from someone, we

spend years scheming and devising ways to take revenge. How far removed are the Muslims of

today from the Prophet who they consider their exemplar.

In spite of suffering so much at the hands of the Taif mob, the Prophet did not curse or seek

revenge, even when the opportunity arose. Instead, he pleaded for mercy.

When there was a stop in a Makkan woman who would repeatedly throw garbage on him as he
walked in the streets, the Prophet — being an icon of compassion — asked people about her

and even humbly visited her after hearing she had fallen ill.

Over 14 centuries have gone by since he, the Last of the Messengers, left us, but his message
— one that was earmarked by mercy for the entire creation — lives on. His examples live on to
lead us from darkness to light. His life was one of mercy, compassion, care, consideration,

kindness and tolerance for all. His sayings, known as Hadiths, bear testimony to this. One
particular theme found in his sayings relate to the rights of women. It is without a doubt that
Islam afforded women an honorable and respected position. However, it is sad to see people,
many Muslims included, ignorant of this.

On one occasion, he said, "Fear Allah in respect of women." He also said, "The best of you are

they who behave best to their wives." In another he said, "A Muslim must not hate his wife, and

if he be displeased with one bad quality in her, let him be pleased with one that is good." In one

more Hadith, he said, "The more civil and kind a Muslim is to his wife, the more perfect in faith

he is."

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It is no wonder then that the Prophet Muhammad's employer was none other than a woman,
Sayyidatuna Khadijah (may Allah be pleased with her). So impressed was she by his kindness,

compassion, manners and trustworthiness that they married, a model marriage that is often
cited by scholars as a perfect example for Muslims to follow. Unlike those jihadists who preach

hatred and dislike for non-Muslims and even to those Muslims who don't subscribe to their
views, the Prophet's own behavior stands contrary to the way they call to. Let them take heed to

the fact that it was the Prophet who accepted Safiyyah and Mariya in his home as his wives —

one being of Jewish and the second being of Christian heritage.

In an attitude that was revolutionary at that time, the Prophet taught his companions to remain in

their mothers' service, saying that Paradise lies beneath their feet.

Today, as we stumble through a confused and turbulent world, as we grope in darkness and as
we suffer from uncertainty and depression, we must look for — and grasp at — the teachings of

the Holy Prophet so that they will act as a cure for many of the social ills that have befallen our

world.

The world faces a host of seemingly insoluble problems. In the West, people speak of
depression and decay in society. In the East, industrial and technological progress has created

a vacuum in society. Many people are floundering in darkness. They cling to values that have
nothing to do with life. They join cults. For role models they look to unworthy individuals who are
moral vacuums.

For us the perfect role model is the Last Messenger of God. His life, his dealings with young and
old and both friend and foe are an inspiration to all of us.

Let us teach ourselves and our children about the life of the Holy Prophet and use it in our daily
lives so that we may improve our conduct and become better human beings. Let us be more
tolerant, more forgiving and show compassion to all our brothers and sisters in humanity,

irrespective of their race or religion.

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Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.W): Role Model For Diplomats

Throughout history in international relations, agreements have taken second place after wars.

The flow of history has been determined by wars and agreements.

Determining which purposes were basic to the agreements of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is
connected to knowing the spirit and basic principles dominant in his diplomacy. As founder and

leader of Islamic society, he had the goal of preparing a foundation for the application of divine

instructions in his own society and to take, by every possible means, the message he brought to
individuals and societies he came into contact with. His agreements should be evaluated from
this perspective before anything else.

He was not pursuing exploitation of another political unit by intervening in their internal affairs or
the establishment of hegemony over people by creating pacts through agreements. He knew
that the transmission of Islam would be more effective in an environment of peace and security

provided by agreements. Due to religion being a belief system before anything else, he could

only enter societies by means of the hearts of individuals. For this reason, he never used force
or declared war against those who did not prevent his call and invitation; he took as an essential
principle being a sultan of hearts, not bodies.

The command in the Holy Quran, “Let there be no compulsion in religion,” (Al-Baqara 256)
required this. Attempting to force people to adopt a belief or ideology or wanting to shape their
minds with pressure would not do anything but increase the number of hypocrites. In that case,

why did Islam make jihad mandatory? Jihad is for removing obstacles to the conveyance of the

divine message to people and to create a foundation for people to be able to know Islam with
common sense, far removed from pressure and anxiety, and to be able to make choices with

their own free will. On the other hand, jihad gives the opportunity for presenting the Islamic

religion as a functional, individual and practical system instead of just a theoretical message.

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Because peace is the most suitable foundation for calling people to Islam and for conveying its
noble values, the Prophet always took peace as a basis of his politics. War was secondary.

Peace being fundamental is tied to the judgment of Quranic verses: “God forbids you not , with
regard to those who fight you not for your Faith nor drive you out of your homes, from dealing

kindly and justly with them” (Al-Mumtahana 8); “But if the enemy incline towards peace, do thou
also incline towards peace, and trust in God. For He is the One that heareth and knoweth all

things” (Al-Anfal 61).

Also with these, Allah warns not to forego controlling the enemy by trusting agreements. The
Prophet’s application of some tactics against tribes that he had agreements with stems from this

cautious approach, not from having made the agreement with the goal of deceit and ill-intention.

During the early days of his prophecy, the Prophet began to call people to Islam, beginning with
those close to him. He made his call to all Meccans either individually or in groups. Meanwhile,

he took advantage of the status of Mecca as a trade and cultural center. Participating in the fairs

held in Mecca and its surroundings, he also invited those coming from outside of Mecca to
Islam. At this point his behavior deserves our attention. When the Quraish tribe persisted in their
stubbornness, in spite of all the efforts in Mecca to call them to Islam, he concentrated his
activities on those coming from outside of Mecca.

It seemed impossible for Prophet Muhammad to remain in Mecca and call people from outside
of Mecca to Islam in front of the Quraish’s eyes and to develop power against the Quraish who
were the leaders of the Arabian Peninsula. Under these conditions the best path was to make a

base outside of Mecca and to take root there and to become an organized power. The migration
to Abyssinia should be seen as an activity within the framework of the search for a central base.

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Migration to Abyssinia:

The Abyssinia migration comprises a very important focal point in the Prophet’s politics of

apostleship during the Meccan period. When we examine this migration event carefully, we

understand that we are face to face with a far-sighted founder of a state. Those who look at the
event superficially and those who do not interpret the data in the sources carefully think that this
migration was only made to escape the torture of the Meccans. If that had been the case, there

should have been weak and orphaned Muslims in the convoy. However, the opposite was the
case. In particular, the first migrants were members of prominent Quraish families and people
who would perform important functions in Islamic history in later years.

There being a small number of people in the first migration and the majority going later on
strengthens the probability that the first group were given the task of a vanguard group to
control whether or not it was safe. There is also a strong probability that the Prophet sent a

secret and private message to Negus, the Emperor of Abyssinia with the first convoy.

However much it is known that Abyssinia immigrants returned when they learned that the
Meccans had accepted Islam, it is not proof that the Abyssinia emigration was not for the
purposes of finding a base and to keep some distinguished Muslims safe from probable risks. It

might have been thought that when conditions changed in Mecca, the base in Abyssinia could
be abandoned and activities could be continued in Mecca. In addition, the Prophet’s intention to
make a new evaluation of the situation could have been a part of this return to Mecca.

Another proof that the emigration to Abyssinia carried important strategic calculations is the
strong reaction shown to it by the pagans. Sending their top diplomats who were in close

dialogue with Abyssinia with valuable gifts, they wanted the immigrants back. If those who went

there had been weak people escaping from oppression, there were many other weak Muslims in

their hands in Mecca for the Quraish to fulfill their sadistic pleasures of oppression. This concern

stemmed from their worry that Islam would take root in a place far from their control and develop
into a force against them. In other words, they must have understood the strategy of the

migration very well.

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The emigrants to Abyssinia stayed there until it became apparent that Medina could be a base
and a center for immigration. Some of them came to Medina in the first years of the migration,

and some remained in Abyssinia until year 7 of the Hijrah (migration) or, in other words, until the
Jewish problem in Medina was resolved and the Hudaybiyah peace was signed. Again, this was

not a place of escape from Abyssinian oppression and it shows that the Prophet wanted to keep
some of the Companions there until the situation in Mecca was stabilized. In this case we can

say that Abyssinia was first tried as a base and then kept as a precautionary center after the

Hijrah to use if needed.

Aqaba Oaths of Allegiance:

In Medina Arabs lived together with Jews. The two Arabic tribes of the city, the Avs and the
Hazrach, constantly fought with one another. In order to prevent these two tribes from joining
forces against them, the Jews constantly fanned the animosity between them and gained great

profits from the trade they made as a consequence. The Jews constantly told the Arabs that a

prophet was going to come to them who would destroy the pagans. Under the influence of the
Jews, the Medina Arabs were also waiting for a prophet. Going to Mecca to get support from the
Quraish against the Hazrech, Iyas Muaz met with the Prophet and became a Muslim. He was
the first Muslim from Medina. Those from Medina knew about the call to Islam from the first
days of the mission. In addition, the Prophet’s grandfather Hashim had married a woman from
the Nejjar clan of Medina named Selma bint Amr. She gave birth to Abdulmuttalib. For this
reason, the Prophet had relatives in Medina. He also had some friends and acquaintances in

Medina from the time he was busy with caravan trade. In other words, the people of Medina

knew Prophet Muhammad well. In the Buas battles between the Avs and Hazrach tribes they
gave each other heavy losses. They finally found the hostility between them to be meaningless.
Both sides had begun to think of uniting under a leader they could follow. This search for a

leader played a facilitating role to an important degree in the future foundation of the Medina
Government with the Prophet as head of state.

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While these conditions continued in Medina, a group from the Hazrech tribe going to Mecca for
the pilgrimage heard the Prophet’s call to Islam. As he did every year at the pilgrimage, Prophet

Muhammad invited all the tribes from the vicinity to Islam. When those from Medina listened to
the Prophet, they said, “This is the prophet the Jews have foretold. Let’s submit to him before

they do.” These people were six in number. When they returned to Medina, they explained
Islam to the people.

The next year twelve Muslims from Medina secretly met with the Prophet at a place called
Aqaba near Mecca. The Prophet received an oath from them in regard to not practicing
polytheism, committing fornication, killing their children, making slander and rebelling against

legally approved issues in Islam. He indicated that if they conformed to these, they would enter

heaven. Mus’ab b. Umayr’i was sent after them to spread Islam in Medina. Islam received so
much interest in Medina that in a short time there at least one person in every household

became Muslim, with the exception of a few houses.

Called the First Aqaba Oath, the above oath has the character of an agreement on Islam’s
creed and basic principles with the Muslims of Medina, which was determined to be a center for
Islam. With this oath, the Prophet registered the new religion’s ideology. In other words, this
oath had the character of a declaration putting forth the principles of the state that was being
planned. The seeds of the foundation of faith of an individual Islamic state were planted in the
hearts of these twelve people. The activities at this new center bore fruit in a short period of
time: in the pilgrimage season a year later the Prophet received an oath from seventy-three new

Muslims from Medina. These seventy-three people meeting secretly with the Prophet without

the knowledge of the pagans in the Medina convoy shows that the convoy was composed of
those who could keep secrets, and the selection of twelve prominent representatives during the
oath-making shows that representational oath was taken from those in Medina. Mus’ab b.

Umayr’s being at their head makes one think that the convoy did not come to Mecca simply for
the pilgrimage, but for an organized meeting.

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With this second agreement with local Muslims from the new Islamic base, a promise is taken
from them that they will protect Islam and Muslims against every kind of danger. It indicates that

they will have great responsibility for the Islamic state that is to be established, and it reminds
them that they have taken great risks upon themselves with this agreement.

Even though the Aqaba oaths do not have the nature of an agreement made by a state that has
gained an individual and official status with another state, matters like the terms used in the

oaths and representatives giving allegiance on behalf of groups they represent show that the
oath carries a character of an agreement and alliance. At that time in the Arabian Peninsula as
a requirement of social status, tribes comprised individual political units and an agreement could

only be made among tribes. Therefore, this oath was not just an Islamic initiation ceremony.

It is interesting in respect to the role the Aqaba oaths played in the institutionalization of Islam
that immediately after this event, Surat al-Hajj, verse 39 of the Quran was revealed giving

permission to Muslims for war. With this verse, the message was given to Muslims to complete

their other organization that would enable them to immediately take the pagans to account. As a
matter of fact, the Prophet had commanded the Muslims in Mecca to immigrate to Medina as
soon as the jihad verses were revealed. It can be said that preparations for the Muslims’ first
jihad, the Battle of Badr, began with this oath.

The importance of the migration in regard to tactic and strategy is a subject that needs to be
taken up on its own. This much can be said: the Islamic community, which had been bound
under the rule of the Quraish, who dominated the religious, cultural and economic aspects of the

Arabian Peninsula, found a solid base to stand on and obtained their freedom. We can
understand the strategic importance of the migration from the extremely strong reaction the

Meccan pagans gave.

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Medina Constitution:

After the Hijrah, the biggest problem the Prophet faced was establishing unity in the

cosmopolitan Medina society. It was necessary to put out of the way any potential danger from

within Medina while struggling with the Quraish. In order to open up flanks, the center should
not be problematical. Consolidating unity among Muslims by making the Ansar (residents of
Medina) and Muhajirun (immigrants to Medina) brothers to one another, the Prophet

documented brotherhood with a written text. It would only be possible to unite with Jews and
non-Muslim Arabs on common interests of people from Medina. As a result of negotiations, a
text emerged that put forth the rights and responsibilities of each group. This text is referred to

under the heading in classical sirah of “agreements made in Medina.” Compilers of the last

period accept this as the “first constitution in world and Islamic history.”

Uniting all the groups in Medina under his rule at their own will, the Prophet recorded one more

of important and successful turning points of politics. The statement at the top of the document,

“The Quraish and Yathrib (Medina) believers and those in allegiance to them constitute a
community separate from other people,” is very striking. When passages are classified under
topics, this document includes around fifty articles. It sets rules for many matters that are
included in modern constitutions like state integrity; structure; organs; who is responsible for the
administration, the judiciary, and legislation; belief and religious freedom; the sovereignty of law;
the concept of country; relations between individuals and administration; and rights and
responsibilities.

The rules of the Constitution that revolved around common interests of the citizens of Medina
can be summarized as follows: Except for religious wars, an attack made on one of the parties

will be mutually defended; economic responsibilities like paying ransom and compensation will

be met mutually; the ties of one party will be binding on the others; most importantly, no party

can cooperate with the Quraish for any reason.

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Thus, during the struggle against the Quraish and in the midst of the activities to spread Islam,
treachery and dissention from the non-Muslims in Medina were prevented; the roads to

friendship between the Quraish and parties in Medina were closed; and an opportunity was born
for non-Muslims in Medina, who were allies with Muslims in the new Islamic state and who lived

intimately with them, to get to know Islam first-hand and through living examples.

Alliance Agreements:

Establishing security and unity in Medina and getting acceptance of his sovereignty, Prophet
Muhammad began political relations with tribes outside of Medina. He made agreements with

surrounding tribes via detachments of troops or delegations he sent to them.

In the second year of the migration he made agreements with the following tribes between
Medina and Mecca: Banu Damra, a three days distance from Medina, and their branch, Banu

Gifar; several weeks later with the Banu Juhayna living in Buvat; and four months later the Banu

Mudlich living in Zulushayra. At the end of the same year an agreement was made with the
Ashlam Tribe. Similar expressions are used in all these agreements: they guarantee that the
parties will not attack each other, and that they will remain neutral or when one of the parties is
attacked, they will help each other.

With these agreements, the Prophet made agreement with these tribes before the Quraish did,

prevented opportunistic attacks from their neighbors, and secured his surroundings while
struggling with the Quraish. Beyond all these, with the agreements, the caravan route of the
Quraish was put under control and blockade since the above named tribes were all located on
the caravan route.

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Shortly after the migration, the tribes on the roads going north to the coast from Mecca had
become Muslim or allies of Muslims.

This economic war the Prophet waged against the Quraish was supported with another tactic.

He sent five-hundred pieces of gold to Mecca, which was suffering from famine because they
could not send caravans, and had it distributed to the poor, aimed at gaining the sympathy of
the people.

The Prophet announcing the Huzaa Tribe as an ally of the Muslims as a result of the
Hudaybiyah peace was another part of his policy to put the Quraish under blockade. This tribe

was close to Mecca. There is a letter of friendship of the Prophet’s showing the cooperation

between them. He would get secret information from members of this tribe regarding the
Quraish.

Hudaybiyah Peace:

While, on the one hand, exhausting his strength for struggle by putting the Quraish under
blockade, on the other hand, the Prophet was seeking an opportunity to sign a peace with them.

By means of this peace he would be able to realize some plans easily. As a matter of fact, the
Jews were about to be a big danger for Medina. The Haybar Jews were trying to ally with the

Fadak Jews by giving them Haybar’s dates. Without resolving the Jewish matter, Muslims could

be hit from behind by the Jews while at war with the Quraish or, while at war with the Jews, they
could be hit from behind by the Quraish. As a matter of fact, the treachery of the Banu Qurayza
Jews in the Battle of the Ditch had caused the Muslims some major difficulty. In addition, in case
of a peace to be made with the Quraish, power could be gained in regions like Bahrain, Amman

and Yemen, which were under the control of Iran who had been defeated by the Byzantines. It

would be easier to spread Islam in an environment of peace.

In the 6th year of the Hijrah the Prophet headed off with 1400 Companions for the purpose of

visiting the Kaaba. It can be thought that, by taking advantage of amnesty during this month
when war was forbidden, there was an aim to make a dialogue with the Quraish with this trip.

The Prophet had announced that he would make an agreement with the Quraish regardless of

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the conditions, and he informed the Quraish of this decision. Actually, the Quraish who had
become greatly weakened economically were in favor of this peace. After long negotiations the

agreement was signed.

Although at first glance some rules of the agreement may appear to be against the Muslims,
actually it was a great conquest. The farsightedness of the Prophet’s insistence upon signing
this agreement in spite of all the resistance from the Companions was understood later. As a

matter of fact, while returning to Medina after signing this agreement, Surat Al-Fath was
revealed and Allah announced that this peace was a clear victory.

Zuhri explains clearly why the Hudaybiyah peace was a conquest: “There could be no greater

conquest than this in Islam. Previously people (pagans and believers) would fight when they
came face to face. When peace was signed, war was left aside and people were sure of each
other. When they met face to face, they talked and debated. Some became Muslim when Islam

was explained to them. Within two years after this peace, the number of new Muslims was

greater than the previous number of Muslims.”

With this agreement, the Quraish accepted the Islamic state as a party and officially recognized
it. More than that, they showed their weakness by signing the peace and they indicated that

they were abandoning struggle. For this reason, the authority among the Arabs was completely
shaken and Muslims began to assume the authority. This event elevated Muslims in the eyes of
all Arabs. After this they began to enter Islam in large groups. Also during this period of peace,
the Prophet, sending letters of invitation to all rulers and administrators he could reach with the

means of that time, conveyed Islam’s message to very distant places. The Jewish presence in
Medina was eradicated at this time. Also the abrogation of this peace by the Quraish gave a

legitimate necessity for the Meccan conquest. Islam’s sovereignty was completed in Arabia with

this conquest.

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Muhammad SAW as Military Strategic:

Unlike the self-centered rulers and kings all over the world who embark on wars for expansionist
purposes, for the exploitation of human powers, and for the plunder of other people's wealth and

natural resources, Nabi Muhammad (saw) refused to resort to the sword and fighting unless it
was necessary and unavoidable. Instead, he advanced carrying the torch of the Holy Book and

the divine laws and would get involved in war only to remove the stumbling blocks - the thorns in

the way of salvation - to hinder oppression and tyranny, and to hoist the flag of justice and truth.

The battles of Nabi Muhammad (saw) against the infidels were, needless to say, meant to

remove those brutal selfish pagans from the scene who for the sake of their own satanic

passions and desires inflicted all kinds of oppression against God's pure creatures and
prevented the promulgation of Islamic precepts and beliefs. He only fought to bring about
conditions of justice and equity under which human beings could materialize the ideology of

world peace and mutual understanding.

Can such a war be considered illegitimate and unjust? It goes without saying that such struggles
are necessary and that no Prophet could avoid combating those who intend to bring ruin on
human societies and cause corruption and social decay. No doubt any wise, humanitarian

person accepts such combat and admires it because there is no other way to achieve the
sacred ends of the Prophets.

Jesus Christ, peace be upon him, had a short prophetic life and lived under conditions that did
not permit war, so he did not attempt any wars. Otherwise, he too would have destroyed the
weeds and troublemakers of human society.

Some people propaganda purposely misinterprets the holy wars of the Nabi Muhammad (saw)
and ascribes large numbers of casualties to them to weaken the morale of Islamic nations, to
hinder the ever-increasing expansion and prevalence of Islam, and to make the murder of

millions of innocent people by the masters of churches and in the crusades appear trivial and

negligible to the people of the world.

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Here we will first point out the motives of Nabi Muhammad (saw) in the wars he undertook, and
then we will briefly cite the casualties of all the wars at the time of Nabi Muhammad (saw), so

the truth may be made clear. In this way, readers can realize the philosophy of Islamic wars for
themselves and can also see that the casualties of these holy wars were trivial in comparison

with those of other wars.

Battle of Badr (First battle of Islam):

For 13 years after the advent of the prophetic mission of Nabi Muhammad (saw), he and his
followers were tormented and tortured by the infidel Quraish in Makkah. Finally, Nabi

Muhammad (saw) left Makkah and migrated to Medina. Yet the infidel Makkans did not stop

tormenting the Muslims who had remained in Makkah and also did not let them leave Makkah
and migrate somewhere else.

At the same time, the Makkan enemies of Islam had decided to put Medina under a -severe

economic siege. They had forbidden all caravans from carrying provisions and foodstuffs to
Medina. This siege lasted such a long time that the people of Medina were faced with many
troubles and hardships and had to go as far as the coasts of the Red Sea to buy foodstuff.

Abu Jahl, too, wrote an extremely harsh and rude letter Nabi Muhammad (saw) and in that letter

warned him to expect the attack of the Quraish.

It was on this occasion that Allah (SWT) said, 'Permission (to fight) is given to those upon whom

war is made because they are oppressed, and most surely Allah is well able to assist them;

those who have been expelled from their homes without a just cause except that they say: Our

Lord is Allah. And had there not been Allah's repelling some people by others, certainly there

would have been pulled down cloisters and churches and synagogues and mosques in which
Allah's name is much remembered; and surely Allah will help him who helps His cause; most
surely Allah is Strong, Mighty.' (Noble Qur'an, 22:39-40).

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Battle of Badr (First battle of Islam)In the second year of the Hijra, Nabi Muhammad (saw) arose
to guard Islam, to defend the basic rights of the Muslims, and to frustrate the satanic

conspiracies of the Quraish. In the battle of Badr, they confronted the Quraish troops. Though
the number of Muslim combatants (313) was one-third that of the infidel forces (1000), the

Muslims defeated the infidels by their power of faith and by Allah's (SWT) help.

Nabi Muhammad (saw) and the two boys:

One of the many qualities of the Nabi Muhammad (saw) was wisdom. An example of this was
when the Muslims were preparing to fight Mushrikeen (polytheists) in the battle of Badr. Nabi

Muhammad (saw) wanted to know the number of soldiers in the Makkan army so the Muslims

could plan their strategy accordingly. He (saw) sent a group of Muslims to find it out before the
battle started.

At the water wells in Badr, they found two boys and brought them to Nabi Muhammad (saw).

When these boys saw Prophet Muhammad's glowing face and how merciful he was with them,
they were not afraid and tried to help, but they did not know the exact numbers of the soldiers.

Nabi Muhammad (saw) asked them, How many camels do they slaughter everyday? Boys
replied, One day, nine and another day, ten.

From their answer, Nabi Muhammad (saw) estimated between 900 and 1000 soldiers. He (saw)
worked out a plan for the battlefield and the Muslims followed it in their fight. They were

victorious with the help of Allah (SWT), even though they were only 313 in number which was

one-third that of the size of the Makkan army (1000)! Because of their faith, the Muslims raised

the flag of Islam high in their first battle against Mushrikeen (polytheists).

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Battle of Uhud (Second battle of Islam)

Since a considerable number of the infidel troops had been killed in the battle of Badr, the next

year, the third year after the Hijra, the Quraish prepared for war to take revenge for their defeat

in the Badr war. The hatred of Nabi Muhammad (saw), Imam Ali (as) and Hamza ibn Abd Al-
Muttalib was a fire that consumed Hind bint Utbah, the wife of Abu Sufyan. They proceeded to
Medina. They faced the army of Islam in a place called Uhud. Since a number of the Muslims in

the war did not fully obey the instructions of Nabi Muhammad (saw), the Muslims did not
become victorious in the battle of Uhud as in the battle of Badr.

Patience is better than Retaliation

When the battle of Uhud had concluded, Nabi Muhammad (saw) dispatched Harith ibn Samt to
search for the body of his uncle, Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib, amongst the dead. When Harith

ibn Samt witnessed that Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib's liver had been taken out and his body

mutilated by cutting off the ears, nose and other parts of the body, he could not bring himself to
inform Nabi Muhammad (saw) of this unpleasant occurrence.

As a result, Nabi Muhammad (saw) himself arrived amongst the dead, but when his eyes fell
upon the mutilated body of his uncle, he (saw) was immensely disturbed. As he wept, he said:

"By Allah! Nothing has disturbed me more than this. If Allah (SWT) grants me dominance over

the Quraish, I shall mutilate seventy of their individuals."

At that moment, angel Gabriel (Jabra'il) descended with the following verse: "And if you take

your turn, then retaliate with the like of that with which you were afflicted; but if you are patient, it

will certainly be best for those who are patient." (Noble Qur'an, 16:126)

Whereupon Nabi Muhammad (saw) said: "I shall exhibit patience over this calamity."

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The person who killed Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib was Wahshi - the slave of Jubair - who, upon
the orders of Hind bint Utbah, the wife of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb. Her father, Utbah, had been

killed in the battle of Badr, had torn open Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib's stomach, pulled out his
liver and presented it to Hind bint Utbah.

Ahzab (battle of the Trench) or Jung-E-Khandaq (Ghazwah al-Khandaq)

Taking the liver she bit into it, but by Divine decree was unable eat it. Arriving at Hamza ibn Abd

Al-Muttalib's body, she went on to mutilate it and then rewarded Wahshi by gifting him her
necklace, bracelet and earrings.

Ahzab (battle of the Trench) or Jung-E-Khandaq (Ghazwah al-Khandaq)

In the fifth year of the Hijra, a Jewish tribe called Bani Nazir went to Makkah and incited the

Quraish against Islam and the Muslims. The Quraish took advantage of the opportunity,
gathered a huge army from different anti-Islamic groups, and started toward Medina.

Salman al-Farsi suggested that a trench should be dug around the city for protection as he has

seen in Persia. So, to guard Medina, the headquarters of Islam, from enemy attack the Muslims
dug trench / moats all around the city and lined up in front of the enemy army, whose number

amounted to 10,000. Imam Ali, peace be upon him, overcame and defeated their commander,

Amr ibn Abd Wudd and finally the war ended to the advantage and victory of the Muslims.

Battle of Khaybar

Large numbers of Jews lived in the Khaybar forts and had military and economic relations with
the infidels. Since the security of the Muslims was constantly threatened by those anti­Islamic
Jews, in 7 AH the Muslims started towards Khaybar, which was the headquarters of the enemy,

surrounded the fort, and, Imam Ali, peace be upon him, killed Marhab, the chief of the fort.

Victorious Muslims, made the Jews submit to the Islamic government.

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Battle of Mu'tah

In 8 AH, Nabi Muhammad (saw) sent Harith ibn Umar with a letter to the king of Basra, but his

messenger was killed in a place called Mu'tah. At the command of Nabi Muhammad (saw), the

army of Islam marched towards the enemy, and in Mu'tah they confronted the army of Marqal,
the king of Rome. His army comprised 100,000 Roman and non-Roman fighters. A war broke
out between the two armies in which Zayd ibn Harith, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, and Abdullah ibn

Rawahah, the three famous commanders of the army of Islam, were martyred, and the Muslims
could not overcome the infidels, so they returned to Medina.

Conquest of Makkah occurred without battle or bloodshed in 630 CE

In the Hudaybiyah peace agreement, the Quraish had promised Nabi Muhammad (saw) not to
transgress against or oppress the Muslims and their confederates, but they violated the

agreement and helped the Bani Bakr tribe to destroy the Khaza'ah tribe, which was one of the

confederates of the Muslims. To hamper their aggression, Nabi Muhammad (saw) approached
Makkah in secrecy, entered it through an elaborate device, and conquered Makkah with his
strong army of approximately ten thousand soldiers which occurred without battle or bloodshed
in 630 CE, in the 8th year of the Hijrah (8 AH).

Conquest of Makkah occurred without battle or bloodshed in 630 CE Nabi Muhammad (saw)

destroys the idols

Nabi Muhammad (saw) destroyed the idols in the Kaaba as his grandfather Prophet Abraham

(as) had done before. As narrated by Imam Ali (as), "Nabi Muhammad (saw) and I went until we

arrived in the Kaaba. Nabi Muhammad (saw) asked me to sit down and he mounted on my

shoulders. When I wanted to get up, he noticed a weakness in me. He (saw) dismounted and he
himself sat down for me and asked me to mount on his shoulders. I mounted on his shoulders
and he got up. I imagined that if I wanted, I would reach the horizon of the heaven. I went up the

House and there was on it an idol of brass or copper. I began moving it right and left, from
behind and from before until I could pluck it out. Nabi Muhammad (saw) asked me to throw it

down and I did. It broke into pieces as pots break."

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When Allah (SWT) granted the great conquest over Makkah to His Nabi Muhammad (saw),
there were three hundred idols or more hung on the walls of the Kaaba which the tribes of

Quraish worshipped away from Allah (SWT).

The master of those idols was Hubal which was the god of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb. It was made of
copper and tied with iron pegs on the wall of the Kaaba. Imam Ali (as) got upon Prophet
Muhammad's (saw) shoulders, plucked this idol out, and threw it to the ground while Nabi

Muhammad (saw) was reciting this verse [And say: The truth has come and the falsehood has
vanished; surely falsehood is a vanishing (thing). (Noble Qur'an 17:81)] Then, Imam Ali (as)
threw down the rest of idols and thus the Kaaba was purified of those filths hung on the walls

and taken as gods by Quraish.

Forgiving the Enemies after the Conquest of Makkah

After conquering Makkah, Nabi Muhammad (saw) treated people so kindly that they all were

surprised. No one could believe that a victor could treat the defeated party in this way.

People of Makkah had gathered in the Sacred Mosque to see the leader of Muslims and Islam

come out of Kaaba and judge those who committed all kinds of persecution against him for
thirteen years. However, after breaking the idols, Nabi Muhammad (saw) came out of Kaaba

addressing the people of Makkah as such,

"O people! You were bad kinsmen and neighbors for me. You expelled me from my hometown

and fought against me in an unmanly way. You did not spare any attempt to persecute me, my

friends and my companions. You killed my uncle, Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib. You fought

against Allah's Messenger so I have the right to avenge myself on you. Based on this right, your

men must be killed, your wives and children must be taken captive, your property must be
seized by the conquerors, and your houses must be demolished. But I leave the judgment to
you. What do you think?"

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Suhayl ibn Amr, prominent Quraish representing his people, said, "We speak good and think
good. You are an honorable brother and an honorable nephew who has power over us."

These words impressed the tenderhearted Nabi Muhammad (saw) in such a way that his eyes

were filled with tears. People of Makkah started weeping. Then Nabi Muhammad (saw) said, "I
do the same thing as my brother Joseph did. There is no sin upon you today. May Allah (SWT)
forgive you; He is the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful."

After Conquest of Makkah, general amnesty for all the peopleThis great tolerance and
forgiveness brought about the submission of the people of Makkah to Islam. In this triumphant

battle, Nabi Muhammad (saw) ordered the Muslims not to fight for any reason other than

defense and against the violations of the infidels.

After Conquest of Makkah, general amnesty for all the people

When the Nabi Muhammad (saw) conquered Makkah, he (saw) announced a general amnesty

for all the people - except a few individuals, who were to be killed whenever found; amongst
these were Abdullah ibn Zab'ari, who used to satirize Nabi Muhammad (saw), Wahshi, who had

killed his uncle Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib in the battle of Uhud [When Wahshi recounted the
episode of the killing of his uncle, Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib, the Nabi Muhammad (saw) wept

profusely but then pardoned him and said: (Disappear from my sight)], Ikramah Ibn Abi Jahl,

Safwan Ibn Umayyah and Habbar Ibn al-Aswad - all of whom he eventually pardoned after they
were brought before him (saw).

As for Habbar Ibn al-Aswad, he was the person who frightened Zainab - the Prophet

Muhammad's (saw) daughter, who had been sent towards Madinah by her husband, Abu al-

Abbas Ibn Rabee - on the way to Madinah as a result of which she suffered a miscarriage.
Subsequent to this act of his, the Nabi Muhammad (saw) had declared it permissible to shed his
blood.

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After the conquest of Makkah he approached the Nabi Muhammad (saw), expressed regret over
his misdeed and, seeking forgiveness, said: "O' Prophet of Allah! We were of the polytheists,

however Allah (SWT), by means of you, guided us aright and delivered us from perdition, so
disregard my ignorance and that which you have heard about me, and pardon me!"

Nabi Muhammad (saw) said: "I pardon you. Allah (SWT) has exhibited kindness towards you in
that He has guided you into Islam; with the acceptance of Islam, bygones become bygones."

Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Taif

Forgiving the Enemies after the Conquest of MakkahThe Havazin tribe had gathered an army

against Islam. Nabi Muhammad (saw) was informed of their satanic intentions and mobilized
12,000 Muslim soldiers to confront them. The two opposing armies fought each other in the
valley of Hunayn, and finally the Islamic army defeated the army of the infidels and subdued

them.

After this victorious war, Nabi Muhammad (saw) attempted to fight the Saghif tribe, who had
conspired with the Havazin against Islam, but after having besieged it for a while; he dispensed

with its conquest and returned to Makkah.

Some other less severe wars also took place between the army of Nabi Muhammad (saw) and

the infidels, and also several journeys for the propagation of Islam were made during these
blessed times.

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Hazrat Muhammad as Educator:

Prophet Muhammad (saw) and Education One of the distinctive features of Islam is its great
emphasis on learning and seeking knowledge. Noble Qur'an and the Islamic Tradition (Sunnah)

invite Muslims to seek and acquire knowledge and wisdom and to hold men of knowledge in
high esteem. Prophet Muhammad (saw) ordered Muslims to be active in their search for

learning, crossing oceans and continents if necessary. "Seek knowledge even in China" he said.

The first few verses of Noble Qur'an that were revealed to our Prophet Muhammad (saw)

mention the importance of reading, pen, and teaching for human beings. Hence, it is a beautiful
prayer for every Muslim to ask always: "O my Lord! Increase me in knowledge." (Noble Qur'an,

20:114)

The only limit set to the acquisition of knowledge in Islam is that Muslims should seek useful
knowledge. Our great Prophet Muhammad (saw) is reported as having said: "My Lord, save me

from the useless knowledge." Any knowledge helping man in performing his God assigned role

in this world is useful, other than that is considered useless knowledge. Example of useless
knowledge: Abul Hikam (Father of Wisdom) was the title of Amr ibn Hesam, one of the bitterest
enemies of Prophet Muhammad (saw). Prophet Muhammad (saw) nicknamed him Abu Jahl

(Father of Ignorance) because of his uncompromising attitude towards Islam.

From the above example we can see, how much our Prophet Muhammad (saw) disliked
ignorant and at the same time we can learn from the following example, how much our Prophet

Muhammad (saw) liked to learn.

The mosque of Medinah (Masjid-E-Nabawi) was not only a place of worship. The believers

assembled here to learn. When Prophet Muhammad (saw) was present they heard his words of

wisdom, his elucidation on the verses of Noble Qur'an and benefited from his counsel. And

when he was not present, other faithful companions taught what they had heard from Prophet

Muhammad (saw).

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Once our Prophet Muhammad (saw) entered the Mosque before the prayer time. He found two
groups in the Mosque. One group was busy with its own act of worship; some were reading

Noble Qur'an while the others were supplicating. The other group was in a corner busy learning.
They learnt how to read and write and discussed the teachings of Islam and their application to

their daily lives. Looking at both, Prophet Muhammad (saw) said: "They are both engaged in
useful pursuits. But I am a teacher. I shall join the group assembled to learn." So he (saw) sat

with the group of students.

Prophet Muhammad (saw) said: The virtue of knowledge is more beloved with Allah (SWT) than
the virtue of worship.

Incorrect Piety (Taqwa) or Fearing Allah (SWT) [Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (saw)]

Incorrect Piety (Taqwa) or Fearing Allah (SWT)Special Taqwa is acquired by refraining from

prohibited and dubious things, whereas general Taqwa is acquired out of fear of punishment

and the fire of Hell.

Taqwa can be compared to walking through a narrow path with thorny bushes on both sides

and a person passing through it tries his level best to save his clothes from being torn. The
thorns are the sins and the clothes are one's Eeman (Belief and Faith).

One of the human values confirmed by Islam is devotion, which is communion with Allah (SWT).
Of course, in Islam every act performed for Allah (SWT) is devotion. Having a job and a trade to

support oneself and one's family and to serve society is in itself a form of devotion. But

devotion, in its special sense, is private communion with Allah (SWT) in prayer, hymns,

remaining awake for vital acts at nights etc., all of which are part of religion and can not be

omitted. Sometimes, you see individuals or society being drawn only to one aspect of devotion
and performing the recommended acts of prayer, ablution etc, all of which, done in excess, will
ruin society.

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Sometimes this way of devotion becomes fashionable in an Islamic society, and once one gets
used to it, it is difficult to observe moderation. Such a person cannot say to himself that Allah

(SWT) has created him a human being, not an angel and as a human being he should develop
every aspect of himself harmoniously.

It was once reported to Prophet Muhammad (saw) that a number of his companions had sunk in
devotion. Prophet Muhammad (saw) felt uneasy, came to the mosque and shouted it out loud:

"O People, what has happened to some groups who have appeared among my people. Even I
as your Prophet do not show devotion in this way to keep awake all night. I rest part of the night
and attend to my family. I do not observe fast every day. Those who are following their new way

have deviated from my tradition." Thus, when Prophet Muhammad (saw) notices that an Islamic

value is about to eliminate other Islamic values, he combats this trend severely.

Another version:

Once, during the era of Prophet Muhammad (saw), three ladies approached him to complain
about their husbands. The first lady complained: "My husband has stopped eating meat." "My
husband has abandoned the use of perfume," the second one protested. The third lady
complained that her husband did not have intimate relations with her. (By behaving in this

manner, the husbands had desired to practice piety and abstinence).

This disturbed Prophet Muhammad (saw) so much that as he came out of his house, he did not
even put on his cloak properly and thus, it dragged along the ground behind him. Climbing the
pulpit before a gathering of the people, he praised Allah (SWT), and said: "Why is it that some of
my companions do not eat meat, they do not apply perfume and they do not have intimate

relations with their wives? O' Muslims! Do know that I too eat meat, make use of perfume and

am intimate with my wives. This is my tradition and one who distances himself from my tradition

is not from me."

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In this manner, Prophet Muhammad (saw) destroyed the foundations of incorrect piety and
condemned its advocates.

Incorrect deduction from Noble Qur'an due to lack of proper knowledge

Incorrect deduction from Noble Qur'an due to lack of proper knowledgeThere exists no creature
except that Allah (SWT) has apportioned a livelihood for it, and no soul departs from the world
before it has consumed the last morsel that had been ordained for it. One should strive to

procure lawful sustenance and, in the event of delay and stoppages in this path, desist from
attempting to obtain it by unlawful means - the best approach being that of patience and self-

control.

During the time of Prophet Muhammad (saw), when the verse: "And whoever is careful of (his
duty to) Allah, He will make for him an outlet, and give him sustenance from whence he thinks

not." Noble Qur'an (65:2-3) was revealed, a group from amongst the Muslims abandoned their

professions, adopted seclusion and engaged themselves in worship, saying: "Allah (SWT)
Himself provides the sustenance and shall never permit the religious ones to become distressed
and destitute; hence why do we need to toil in order to procure our sustenance."

When Prophet Muhammad (saw) was informed of this, he (saw) summoned them and objecting

at this attitude of theirs, asked: "Why have you abandoned your professions?" They replied:

"Allah (SWT) has undertaken to provide us our sustenance." When Prophet Muhammad (saw)
heard this, he (saw) explained: "It is not as you think. Allah (saw) does not answer the prayers
of a person who, despite possessing the ability to work and exert himself, fails to do so. You
must continue to engage yourselves in your respective professions."

The more science and technology advances, the greater is the need for the observance and
practice of the teachings and instructions of divine prophets in human societies. This is because
science and technology provide only machines and instruments and by no means prevent their

misuse by human beings.

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The terrible rise in murder, other felonies, corruption, suicide and so forth clearly points to this
very fact. If morality, which is a significant part of the teachings of divine prophets, does not

prevail and govern in human societies, surely not only will advanced science and technology fail
to ensure human peace and prosperity, but they will add to our problems and miseries. For the

exploiters and colonialists utilize advanced technology and sciences for their own satanic
purposes. They murder or make homeless millions of human beings as they have always done

and trample upon the rights of the weak and the defenseless.

As a matter of fact, the only factor that can halter man's restive soul and control his stormy
instincts and passions and thus utilize science and technology for human prosperity and pacific

life is true morality, which originates in faith in Allah (SWT).

The moral teachings and precepts of the divine prophets and their moral behaviour are the best
means of leading man to his ideal life. It goes without saying that both in personal and in social

life the observance of moral principles is required of all. However, for those who must lead

societies and guide the people, this requirement is much greater, because, first, the one who is
the instructor of society must himself be a model of supreme moral behaviour and excellent
human characteristics, so he will be able to wipe moral decay out of people's hearts and minds.
Obviously if he himself is lacking in morality, he will fail to lead the people onto the path of
humanity and virtue.

Second, the responsibility of leading human societies is so great and crucial that no one can
successfully perform it unless he has perfect morals. For this reason, Allah (SWT) selected his

prophets from among those who possessed exalted spirits, great tolerance, extraordinary
patience, and other excellent moral characteristics. It was with this weapon of morality that

divine prophets overturned the debased societies that were plunged in corruption and led the

ignorant people who had gone astray onto the path of virtue and salvation.

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In Noble Qur'an, Allah (SWT) has addressed Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw): "Thus it is
due to mercy from Allah that you deal with them gently, and had you been rough, hard hearted,

they would certainly have dispersed from around you." (3:159)

The sublime celestial morals of Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) brought about the waves of
the revolution of Islam first in Arabian society and afterwards all over the world. In the light of
this all-embracing spiritual and intellectual resurrection, dispersion turned into unity, unchaste

into chastity and virtue, idleness into hard work and industry, selfishness to altruism, and Arab
arrogance to modesty and affection. Men and women were thus trained to become models of
good moral behaviour and have altruistic manners forever. The morals of Hadhrat Muhammad

Mustafa (saw) were so sublime and praiseworthy that Allah (SWT) has regarded them as great.

'And truly you (Muhammad) possess great morals' (Noble Qur'an, 68:4)

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) has said, "I have been sent only for the purpose of

perfecting good morals".

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) has said, "The best of you are those who have the
best morals".
 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) has said, "You cannot treat people by means of your
wealth; hence, you should treat them by means of your moral conduct".
 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) has said, "The most (important) things that cause
people to reach Heaven are divine piety and a good temper".
 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) among the people

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) among the peopleHadhrat Muhammad Mustafa

(saw) possessed the magnificent status of prophecy and divine leadership, but his
manners in dealing with the people and his way of life were so simple and gentle that
when he was among the people and a newcomer wanted to know about him, he had to

ask, 'Which one of you is the Prophet'?

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He had no love for luxuries or the illusions of this mortal world. He was never enchanted by any
worldly things, and he invariably looked upon this world's life as a passing one.

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) spoke in short, meaningful sentences and was never

seen or heard to interrupt anybody's speech.

He never spoke with a morose face, nor did he ever apply rough, awkward words instead he
always spoke with a smiling face. Unlike grants and despotic rulers, Hadhrat Muhammad

Mustafa (saw) never looked at those who were addressing him with half-closed eyes. Whenever
he met anyone he said, 'Salamun Alaikum'.

Although Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was the Messenger of Allah (SWT) and had been
appointed by Allah (SWT) to guide the people, yet he was not ashamed of doing his work with
his own hands. Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) assisted the members of his family in

household work and performed the jobs of other persons with great pleasure. Hadhrat

Muhammad Mustafa (saw) mended his clothes and shoes. He also took part in the construction
of Masjid-E-Nabawi in Medinah along with his companions (Sahabah).

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) did not care to sit down in the seat of honour in
gatherings, and on entering any place would sit down in the first empty seat available.

He did not let anybody stand up before him and treated others most respectfully. Of course, the
virtuous people were most revered by him.

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was justly angered when he observed a violation of

Allah's (SWT) commands and of Islam and was most pleased at the good deeds. Both

his pleasure and displeasure were only for Allah (SWT).

Owing to his great modesty, he normally preferred riding a mule while moving around, using a

saddle made of date-palm fiber. Sometimes he also rode his she-camel. If he was riding and
somebody wished to accompany him on foot, he would ask him either to mount behind, and if

the man declined out of respect, he would ask him to go ahead and await him at the fixed place,
because he did not like the sight of people following him on foot, while he himself was mounted.

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 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) and sacrifice of the Lamb

On group journeys, Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) would work like the others and would
never let anybody work instead of him. Just as Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw), and his
companions landed from their rides, and laid the loads down, it was decided that they would
sacrifice a lamb for dinner.

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) and Tying the CamelOne of the companions

volunteered: "I will sacrifice the lamb."

Another companion said: "I will skin it."

Third companion said: "I will cook it."

Fourth one: "I will ..."

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw): "I will gather the wood from the desert."

The group: "O Messenger of Allah (SWT), it is not becoming of you to discomfort yourself as

such. You rest. We will be honored to do all this on our own."

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw): "I know that you are eager to do it all, but Allah
(SWT) isn't pleased with the slave who distinguishes between himself and his
companions, and considers himself better than others."

 Then Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) went to the desert, and gathered some
firewood, and brought it to the group.

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) and Tying the Camel

The caravan had been traveling for few hours now. Signs of fatigue were obvious on their faces.

They arrived at a point and stopped. Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) who was also in the

caravan, stopped the camel, and landed. Prior to anything, they were in search of water to

prepare for prayer.

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 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) also started searching for water. But soon, returned

to his camel, without saying anything to anyone. The companions (Sahabah) were

surprised that Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) had ordered stopping here, and now
perhaps he would like to move again? Eyes and ears were awaiting his order. But the
surprise of the group increased as they saw him approach his camel, and tied its knees,

and returned back in search of water.

Noises were raised from every corner: "O Messenger of Allah (SWT), Why didn't you order us to

do this for you, and instead you put yourself in discomfort? We would have proudly done that

service for you."

 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) responded: "Never seek others' help in your affairs,

don't lean on others, even if it is a small piece of Miswak (the wood used for brushing

teeth)."
 Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) and Iftar (Fast Breaking)Hadhrat Muhammad
Mustafa (saw) and Iftar (Fast Breaking)
 Anas ibn Malik was one of the companions (Sahabah) who had served Hadhrat

Muhammad Mustafa (saw) for many years. He therefore knew Prophet Muhammad's
(saw) habits very well.
 When Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) observed a fast, he usually broke it with milk
and dates, and in the small hours of the night, he would take simple food for his sahar.

One day, Anas ibn Malik knew that Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was fasting; so he

arranged for his iftar (fast breaking). He kept the milk and dates ready. At the time of iftar

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) did not appear, for the breaking of the fast. Anas ibn Malik

thought that Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) might have accepted an invitation and broken

his fast elsewhere. So Anas ibn Malik ate the food himself and retired.

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When Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) entered the house with another companion, Anas ibn
Malik inquired from the companion whether Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) had already

eaten. Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) had been dealing with some urgent work and was
delayed, and he had not eaten.

Anas ibn Malik felt so ashamed. There was nothing left he could offer to Hadhrat Muhammad
Mustafa (saw), if he asked for food. Still he waited expectantly, ready to explain the situation to

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw). Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) immediately sensed
that Anas ibn Malik was hesitant, so he behaved as if he were not hungry at all and went without
supper with a cheerful face. The next day he also fasted.

Anas ibn Malik used to say: "The Messenger of Allah (SWT) never mentioned this incident
during his lifetime to anyone."

He invariably stood by his words and pledges. He paid affectionate visits to his relatives and

friends but would never take their side unduly. Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) would never
permit anybody to backbite others and said, 'I want to meet people with a loving heart.'

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) modesty was peerless. He was extremely patient, tolerant,
and forgiving.

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) immensely loved the ritual prayers, but on occasions when
people demanded to talk to him about something, he would say his ritual prayers briefly and

instead, pay attention to the demands and needs of the people. He would spare no efforts to

fulfill the people's needs.

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) treated everyone with great respect and considered nobility
and honour to be owing to faith, piety, and good behaviour. He was not interested in wealth or

status, nor did he revere anybody for his riches or position.

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His behaviour towards slaves was amazingly affectionate, and he would do his best to remove
the troubles and sufferings of the slaves and the poor.

A companion of his, who spent full ten years with him, has said: "Throughout my stay with him I

never heard an indecent word from his lips and never found him rude to anyone. Hadhrat
Muhammad Mustafa (saw) spoke very politely. Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was kind to
everyone."

Prophet Muhammad's (saw) Tolerance and Forgiveness

Prophet Muhammad's (saw) Tolerance and ForgivenessHadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw)

never attempted to retaliate against the insults and disrespect of anybody, and forgave people's
mistakes or their misconduct. His reaction to the torment and disregard of the ignorant people
was forgiveness and tolerance.

In spite of all the tortures and torments that the Quraish had inflicted upon Hadhrat Muhammad

Mustafa (saw), on conquering Makkah, he forgave them and set them free.

In the battle of Uhud, a man named Wahshi killed Hamza ibn Abd Al-Muttalib, the beloved uncle
of Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw). However, he forgave his sin. Also, he forgave the many

torments and troubles that Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and his wife, Hind bint Utbah, had caused for

him and he did not take revenge. However, for all his tolerance and mercifulness, he did not
take pity on those who violated Allah's (SWT) threshold and sacred precepts and would punish

the violator in accordance with divine rules. In affecting Allah's (SWT) orders, he would take no

notice of anybody's intercession.

When Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was informed that Fatima Mukhzumiyah had
committed theft, he punished her according to the laws of Islam concerning theft and did not

regard the intercession of Asamata ibn Zayd in this respect, saying, 'The ruin and downfall of

the preceding peoples was due to the fact that they did not enforce the laws of punishment in
the case of the aristocrats and the people of status. I swear by the One in Whose hands is my

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life that even if Fatima al-Zahra (his daughter) had committed such a sin, I would cut off her
hand.'

Prophet Muhammad's (saw) cleanliness and orderliness

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was fond of scent and spent more on buying perfumes than
on food. His pleasant smell filled the air of any place he passed, so that whosoever passed
there knew that Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) had passed that way.

His dress was always clean, though simple. Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was very

mindful of cleanliness. He used to brush his teeth frequently and washed his blessed hands

both before and after meals. Whenever Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was about to leave
his house, he would look into a mirror or into water; he always left home with a clean, pleasant
appearance.

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was a pious and sincere worshipper of Allah (SWT)

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was a pious and sincere worshipper of Allah (SWT)Hadhrat

Muhammad Mustafa (saw) had great love for ritual prayers so that during the night he would get
up several times, brush his teeth, and then offer the most devoted prayers. He would stand

worshipping Allah (SWT) and talking sincerely to the Almighty Creator for so long that as a

result of so much standing in prayer, his legs were swollen.

Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) took lessons from watching the sky, the moon, the sun, and
every other thing in nature, and these phenomena attracted him to their Creator more than to

themselves.

He was so devout and pious that not even for a single moment was he enchanted by any luxury

or pleasure of this mortal world. In short, Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) was a perfect

model of all excellent virtues and sublime human qualities.

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We have just presented a pale reflection of his celestial, resplendent portrait so that all over the
world Muslims who regard themselves as the followers of Islam can make his morals and

conduct their own model of behaviour and learn divine morality and correct programs for life
from him.

As Noble Qur'an says, 'Certainly you have in the Messenger of Allah an excellent exemplar for
him who hopes in Allah and the latter day and remembers Allah much.' (33:21)

May Allah's greetings be upon him who was the selected superior and the best of pious human
beings and the greetings of the angels upon the faithful.

We too greet him most cordially and sincerely. May he accept our respectful greetings as well
as the greetings of you, our sisters and brothers in Islam. May Almighty Allah (SWT) help all of
us to follow exactly the blessed footsteps of Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw), whose path is

sure to lead us into eternal salvation and paradise.

Prophet Muhammad's (saw) life was a practical demonstration of Noble Qur'an. His life and his
character are exemplary for the Muslims. Even Non-Muslims have acknowledged the strength

of his beautiful character. Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw) spread the light of Islam to far
flung areas in a short span of 23 years. But do not forget, it was based on a strong foundation of

character, which he had built over 40 years prior to spreading the message of Islam.

Today, we Muslims will have to think whether we have built our characters on the same pattern

as was the character of our Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw). Unfortunately, our characters

are not reflective of Hadhrat Muhammad Mustafa (saw). As a result, Islam is disgraced and

subdued in the entire world. This is all because we Muslims failed to follow our dear Hadhrat

Muhammad Mustafa (saw) and failed to build our characters. May Almighty Allah (SWT) help us
all to strengthen our characters and become the beacons of Islam.

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Muhammad as Peace Maker:

We have so far taken a glance at the earlier part of the blessed life of Prophet of Islam,
Muhammad (saw). Now we must talk about some of the most momentous phases of his life. By

the age of 40 he was still living among an extremely backward people who were devoid of any
traces of civilization and humanity. These hard conditions severely tormented his pure soul.

Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) observed nothing in that society but the darkness of

ignorance. He would go to the Kaaba, but instead of witnessing the worship of God, he

witnessed, idolatry. He would then leave the Kaaba and go among the people. But there, too, he
was troubled by what he saw. He was pained by the ugly customs and false thoughts of his

people. The pitiable condition of the poor and the destitute caused him great anguish. The

deplorable situation of women, who were treated worse than animals, as well as the prevalence
of gambling, wine drinking and murder tortured his blessed heart.

When he dealt with people as a merchant, their immoral behaviour gave so severe an emotional

shock to him that he had to go to a lonely place where he would not be tormented by people's
inhuman behaviour. For these reasons and to find peace of mind, he would go to cave of Hira
(Ghare Hira), in the al-Noor mountain near the city of Makkah and there think deeply about the

amazing phenomena of nature and the vestiges of God's All-Embracing Compassion. Initially he
used to remain in the cave of Hira for a day or two and sometimes even 10 nights or more but
the next few years saw him spending a whole month in that cave, praying to Allah (SWT) and
contemplating guidance for the deviated people.

In short, Prophet of Islam, Muhammad's (saw) forty year life period before the appointment was
associated with chastity and honesty, trustworthiness and rightness, doing good with the poor

and the lower, hatred towards the immoralities within the society along with its custom of idol

worshiping. His high moralities and generosity in his behaviors gained the praise of all, to the
extent that Allah (SWT) praised him in the Noble Qur'an for his high moralities. Prophet of Islam,

Muhammad (saw) was nicknamed as "Al-Amin, the trustworthy" from the beginning of his youth,

thus people trusted him to watch over their properties.

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Mostly everyone was against his mission as the Prophet, but no one doubted in his

trustworthiness and thus he continued to secure their properties. Despite the enmity that existed

toward him in the city, no one doubted his honesty.

Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) always named Allah (SWT) before eating, and never ate
meat that was not properly slaughtered. Like other prophets, he spent part of his youth as a

shepherd. Being a shepherd had great impact on the prophets. It allowed them to separate
themselves from the bad deeds of the society; it taught them to endure the difficulties, and it

increased their faith in Allah (SWT) as they saw the power of Allah (SWT) and the order.

Descent of the first revelation (Wahy) on Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw)

Descent of the first revelation (Wahy) on Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw)By the time
Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) reached the age of 40, he was ready for his divine mission.

Finally the day dawned which was to change the history of the world. On 27th of Rajab, in
610CE, Archangel Gabriel [one of the four superior angels who was ordered by Allah (SWT) to

convey revelation to prophets] descended to him, while he sat in cave of Hira (Ghare Hira), in
the al-Noor mountain near the city of Makkah, Gabriel, the Angel of Revelation, said, 'Recite!'

He said in surprise, 'what shall I recite?' Again the divine voice very clearly and openly called

out, 'Recite, O Muhammad!'

And a third time angel Gabriel (Jabra'il) repeated, 'Recite in the Name of Your Lord Who

created. He created the human being from a clot. Recite and your Lord is Most Honourable,

Who taught (to write) with the pen, taught the human being what he knew not' (96:1-5).

With these verses, angel Gabriel (Jabra'il) announced to Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw)

that Almighty Allah (SWT) had formally chosen (al-Mab'ath) him to be His last and final

Messenger to humankind. When Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) was appointed, he had
become responsible for a great mission (Risalat and Nabuwat). Prophet of Islam, Muhammad

(saw) felt dignity of Almighty Allah (SWT) more than before. An indescribable excitement and

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eagerness overcame Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw), for he had come into contact with a
supreme supernatural world. His high spirit had now found a sacred support and an eternal

refuge. He saw in himself the power of prophecy. No longer was any worry or agitation to be
found in his blessed being. There was now just peace and confidence within him.

The appointment of Muhammad (saw), the Prophet of Islam and his selection as the Messenger
of Allah (SWT) can be considered the most significant event in the history of Islam. Descent of

the Noble Qur'an began at this time.

Clarification: Messenger of Allah (SWT), he was at his very birth but the prophethood was

declared only after forty years. The Noble Qur'an was already there treasured in the blessed

heart of Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) at his birth but the divine decree for its
revelation/proclamation to the people came 40 years later. As we already know from Noble
Qur'an (19:30), Prophet Jesus/Isa (pbuh) brought the book with himself and he was a prophet at

his birth. Now if we accept Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) as the prophet only after 40

years then, Prophet Jesus/Isa (pbuh) emerges as a greater Prophet than our Prophet. But this
is certainly not the case.

Some great events happened at the time of Prophet of Islam, Muhammad's (saw) appointment.

For instance, a groan was heard. Imam Ali (as) says about that: "I heard Satan's groan when
the first revelation was descended. I asked Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw): "What was
that?" He answered: "it was Satan, who got disappointed by not being obeyed." He also said:
"You hear what I hear and see what ever I see; except you are not a prophet."

As mentioned before, Imam Ali (as) accompanied Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) in

different cases such as his seclusion periods. This narration, written in Nahj al-Balaghah,

implies that he was with Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) when revelation was descended

for the first time. It is inferred through the history that he was the only person with Prophet of

Islam, Muhammad (saw) at that time. Nobody else has claimed to be with Him then.

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Prophet of Islam, Muhammad's (saw) Method of Propagating Islam

Prophet of Islam, Muhammad's (saw) Method of Propagating IslamWhen Prophet of Islam,

Muhammad (saw) began descending cave of Hira (Ghare Hira), in the al-Noor mountain to go

home, he found that he was in a different mood; in a strange mood; in fact in another world; in a
divine atmosphere. He was not a prophet before going to the mountain, but now he was related
to the Source of Creation, had communicated with the Divine Origin, with the Divine Authority.

He was now witnessing what Bahira, the Christian monk, and others had predicted about him;
and he well knew that a momentous task had been laid upon his shoulders. He was deeply
absorbed by the task. If he had any worries, it was not because he was unsure of his

prophethood. Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) had heard the tidings from such learned

people as Bahira, and he had witnessed angel Gabriel (Jabra'il) bringing the good news, 'You
are Allah's Messenger'. These were enough to assure him of his divine mission and

prophethood.

In addition, Allah (SWT) has always, through clear proofs and compelling confirmations assured
any prophet He has selected for guiding mankind of his prophethood, so he would endeavour to
rectify, purify, and educate human beings with the strongest determination.

Therefore, it becomes clear that it is most baseless and wrong to say that Prophet of Islam,
Muhammad (saw) did not know that he had become a prophet until his wife Khadijah bint
Khuwaylid talked to him and assured him of his prophecy.

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid waiting for Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw)

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid waiting for Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw)What happened on the

day of the beginning of the Prophet's prophetic mission caused him to return home later than
usual. Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, who had never observed her affectionate husband to be late,
was worried. Suddenly she saw him enter the house but with quite a new expression and in a

new mood. Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) was now excited and moved. Khadijah bint
Khuwaylid asked him, 'Why are you so late today?'

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Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) explained the whole event to her. Khadijah bint Khuwaylid

had long been expecting such a blessed day, for she had heard her servant, Mysara, quote

from the Christian monk they had met on their journey to Damascus that he, Muhammad (saw),
is the Prophet of Allah (SWT) to the people.

The Jewish and Christian priests had formerly given her the good tidings that Muhammad (saw)

was to be a prophet and that he had a supreme status. So she got up and after making the
necessary inquiries, contacted Warqa ibn Nawfal, who was a learned Christian person, and told

him about the event. Warqa ibn Nawfal said, 'I swear by God that the same great angel Gabriel

(Jabra'il) who descended to Prophet Musa / Moses (pbuh), has descended unto him, and no
doubt he is the prophet of these people, of this Ummah'.

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid then returned home and after brief consideration, accepted the

prophecy of Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw), thus attaining the honour of taking the lead in
adopting the supreme faith of Islam among all the women of the world.

Imam Ali (as), the first male who came to believe in the prophet's faith

At a time when a severe famine had broken out in Arabia, Abu Talib ibn Abd Al-Muttalib's

financial condition was difficult; indeed unbearable. To reduce his uncle's financial problems,
Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) took his son, Imam Ali (as), to his own house and took care

of him and raised him like an affectionate father. Imam Ali (as) had great talent and peerless

intelligence. He obeyed Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) most sincerely. He soon became

quite aware of the Prophet Muhammad's truthfulness, and, so when he was but ten years old,

he accepted the Prophet Muhammad's faith with perfect awareness, thus becoming the first
male to adopt Islam and to believe in the divine faith of Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw).

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Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw): Three years of propagation in practice

Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw): Three years of propagation in practiceFor three whole

years after the actualization of the prophetic mission of Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw), he

propagated his faith in secret because the corrupt environment of Arabia, which had been
polluted with idolatry and paganism for centuries, was by no means ready for the open
propagation of Islam, which is perfect monotheism and opposed to any kind of polytheism.

In the beginning, Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) was faced with extremely difficult
problems and obstacles that seemed to prevent him from achieving his divine goal - the

propagation of Islam. Thus Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) praised the One God before the

eyes of the idolaters who worshipped numerous gods and whose worshipping assumed the
form of whistling and clapping. Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) performed the ritual prayers,
which included spiritual discourse and praise of Almighty Allah (SWT), Who has no partner nor

any peer. Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw), accompanied by Imam Ali (as) and Khadijah bint

Khuwaylid, went to the crowded places like the Masjid al-Haram and Mana and performed the
congregational ritual prayers before the eyes of the enemies of Islam and thus, through his
practice, fought polytheistic faiths.

Atif, a merchant of that time, has said, 'I had gone to Abbas, the son of Abd al-Muttalib, on
business, when suddenly I observed that a man entered the Masjid al-Haram, looked up at the
sky and the sun and stood praying in front of the Kaaba. A little later, a woman and a boy came
in and accompanied him in his prayer. I asked Abbas ibn Abd Al-Muttalib about that religion of

which I had not yet heard! Abbas ibn Abd Al-Muttalib said, "This man is Muhammad, the son of
Abdullah. He believes that his God is the Creator of heaven and earth and that God has

assigned him to guide people. For the time being his faith has no believer other than these three

people. This woman you see is Khadijah, the daughter of Khuwaylid, and this boy is Ali, the son

of Abu Talib ibn Abd Al-Muttalib, who have accepted his faith."'

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Thus started the beginning of a divine mission, which was destined not only to cleanse the
Arabian Peninsula of the filth of polytheism but whose radiance would eventually dispel

darkness from all over the world.

"Certainly Allah conferred a benefit upon the believers when He raised among them a
Messenger from among themselves, reciting to them His communications and purifying them,
and teaching them the Book and the wisdom, although before that they were surely in manifest

error." (Noble Qur'an, 3:164)

Indeed! Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) was appointed to recite the divine verses to the

people, to teach them the Book and wisdom, and to rescue them from being mislead like their

ancestors. However, not all people responded to his invitation equally.

In this way Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (saw) went on with his divine task until gradually the

number of Muslims increased and, contrary to the ill-wishes of the opponents of Islam, this faith

prevailed. When the atmosphere became suitable for the open propagation of Islam, Prophet of
Islam, Muhammad (saw) was divinely ordered to act accordingly.

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Human Rights & Status of Woman in

Islam
Human Rights:

Since Allah is the Absolute and the Sole Master of men and the universe, He is the Sovereign

Lord, the Sustainer and Nourisher, the Merciful, Whose mercy enshrines all beings; and since

He has given each man human dignity and honor, it follows that, united in Him and through Him,
and apart from their other human attributes, men are substantially the same and no tangible and

actual distinction can be made among them, on account of their accidental differences such as

nationality, color or race. Every human being is thereby related to all others and all become one
community of brotherhood in their honorable and pleasant servitude to the most compassionate
Lord of the Universe. In such a heavenly atmosphere the Islamic confession of the oneness of

God stands dominant and central, and necessarily entails the concept of the oneness of
humanity and the brotherhood of mankind.

Although an Islamic state may be set up in any part of the earth, Islam does not seek to restrict
human rights or privileges to the geographical limits of its own state. Islam has laid down some
universal fundamental rights for humanity as a whole, which are to be observed and respected
under all circumstances whether such a person is resident within the territory of the Islamic state

or outside it, whether he is at peace or at war. The Holy Quran from the English translation of

the "Kanzul Iman" very clearly states:

"O believers, stand up firmly by the Commandments of Allah, bearing witness with justice and

let not the enmity of any people incite you that you should not do justice. Do justice that is
nearer to piety and fear Allah, undoubtedly, Allah is aware of your doings." (5:8)

Human blood is sacred in any case and cannot be spilled without justification. And if anyone
violates this sanctity of human blood by killing a soul without justification, the Holy Quran from

the English translation of the "Kanzul Iman" equates it to the killing of entire mankind.

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"...whosoever killed a soul not to retaliate for a soul, nor for creating disorder in the land, then
it is as if he had killed all mankind. And whoso gave life to one soul, then it is as if he had given

life to all mankind..."(5:32)

It is not permissible to oppress women, children, old people, the sick or the wounded. Women's
honor and chastity are to be respected under all circumstances. The hungry person must be
fed, the naked clothed and the wounded or diseased treated medically irrespective of whether

they belong to the Islamic community or are from among its enemies.

When we speak of human rights in Islam we really mean that these rights have been granted by

God; they have not been granted by any king or by any legislative assembly. The rights granted

by the kings or the legislative assemblies, can also be withdrawn in the same manner in which
they are conferred. The same is the case with the rights accepted and recognized by the
dictators. They can confer them when they please and withdraw them when they wish; and they

can openly violate them when they like. But since in Islam human rights have been conferred by

God, no legislative assembly in the world or any government on earth has the right or authority
to make any amendment or change in the rights conferred by God. No one has the right to
abrogate them or withdraw them. Nor are they basic human rights which are conferred on paper
for the sake of show and exhibition and denied in actual life when the show is over. Nor are they
like philosophical concepts which have no sanctions behind them.

The charter and the proclamations and the resolutions of the United Nations cannot be
compared with the rights sanctioned by God; because the former are not applicable on anybody

while the latter are applicable on every believer. They are a part and parcel of the Islamic Faith.
Every Muslim or administrator who claims himself to be Muslim, will have to accept, recognize

and enforce them. If they fail to enforce them, and start denying the rights that have been

guaranteed by God or make amendments and changes in them, or practically violate them while

paying lip service to them, the verdict of the Holy Quran from the English translation of the

"Kanzul Iman" for such government is clear and unequivocal:

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"Undoubtedly, We have sent down Taurah, wherein is the guidance and light. According to it
the Jews were ordered by Our obedient prophets and men of learning and jurists for it was

desired from them to preserve the Book of Allah and they were witnesses to it, then fear not
people, but fear Me and do not accept mean price for Our Signs. And whoso judges not

according to what Allah has sent down, they are the persons who are infidels."(5:44)

Human Rights In An Islamic State:

The Security Of Life And Property:

In the address which the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon HIM) delivered on the occasion of the

Farewell Hajj, he said:

"Your lives and properties are forbidden to one another till you meet your Lord on the Day of
Resurrection." The Prophet (Peace be upon HIM) has also said about the dhimmis (the non-

Muslim citizens of the Muslim state): "One who kills a man under covenant (i.e., dhimmi) will not

even smell the fragrance of Paradise."

The Protection Of Honor:

The Holy Quran from the English translation of the "Kanzul Iman" lays down:

"O believers! let not the men scoff at the men, perchance they may be better than those who
scoff, and nor the women at other women, perchance that they may be better than those

women who scoff, and do not taunt one another and nor call one another by nicknames. What a

bad name is, to be called a disobedient after being a Muslim, and those who repent not, they

are the unjust. O believers! avoid most suspicions, verily some suspicion is a sin and do not

look out for faults and do not backbite one another. Would any of you like to eat the flesh of his
dead brother? You would abominate it.

And fear Allah, Verily Allah is Oft Returning, Merciful." (49:11-12) Sanctity And Security Of
Private Life:

The Holy Quran from the English translation of the "Kanzul Iman" has laid down the injunction:

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"O believers! enter not houses other than you own, until you take permission and salute the
residents thereof. This is better for you, haply you may be heedful." (24:27)

The Security Of Personal Freedom:

Islam has laid down the principle that no citizen can be imprisoned unless his guilt has been
proven in an open court. To arrest a man only on the basis of suspicion and to throw him into a
prison without proper court proceedings and without providing him a reasonable opportunity to

produce his defense is not permissible in Islam.

The Right To Protest Against Tyranny:

Among the rights that Islam has conferred on human beings is the right to protest against
government's tyranny. Referring to it the Holy Quran from the English translation of the "Kanzul

Iman" says:

"Allah likes not the utterance of evil words except one who is being oppressed. And Allah is

Hearing, Knowing." (4:148)

In Islam, as has been argued earlier, all power and authority belong to Allah, and with man there
is only delegated power which becomes a trust; everyone who becomes a recipient of such a
power has to stand in awful reverence before his people toward whom and for whose sake he
will be called upon to use these powers. This was acknowledged by Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A.) who

said in his very first address:

"Cooperate with me when I am right but correct me when I commit error;obey me so long as I
follow the commandments of Allah and His Prophet (S.A.W.); but turn away from me when I
deviate."

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Freedom Of Expression:

Islam gives the right of freedom of thought and expression to all citizens of the Islamic state on

the condition that it should be used for the propagation of virtue and truth and not for spreading

evil and wickedness. The Islamic concept of freedom of expression is much superior to the
concept prevalent in the West. Under no circumstances would Islam allow evil and wickedness
to be propagated. It also does not give anybody the right to use abusive or offensive language

in the name of criticism. It was the practice of the Muslims to inquire from the Holy Prophet
(Peace be upon HIM) whether on a certain matter a divine injunction had been revealed to him.
If he said that he had received no divine injunction, the Muslims freely expressed their opinion

on the matter.

Freedom Of Association:

Islam has also given people the right to freedom of association and formation of parties or

organizations. This right is also subject to certain general rules.

Freedom Of Conscience And Conviction:

Islam has laid down the injunction in the Holy Quran from the English translation of the "Kanzul

Iman":

"There is no compulsion in religion; no doubt the virtuous path has become clearly distinct

from the erring; then whoso does not accept devil and believes in Allah, he grasped a very firm
knot which is never to open and Allah Hears and Knows." (2:256)

On the contrary, totalitarian societies totally deprive the individuals of their freedom. Indeed, this
undue exaltation of the state authority curiously enough postulates a sort of servitude, of

slavishness on the part of man. At one time slavery meant total control of man over man - now

that type of slavery has been legally abolished but in its place totalitarian societies impose a
similar sort of control over individuals.

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Protection Of Religious Sentiments:

Along with the freedom of conviction and freedom of conscience, Islam has given the right to the

individual that his religious sentiments will be given due respect and nothing will be said or done

which may encroach upon his right.

Protection From Arbitrary Imprisonment:

Islam also recognizes the right of the individual not to be arrested or imprisoned for the offenses
of others. The Holy Quran from the English translation of the "Kanzul Iman" has laid down this

principle clearly:

"And no soul bearer of burden will bear the burden of another. And if anyone heavily loaded
calls any other to share its load, not anyone will bear anything from its burden, even though he

may be a near relation..." (35:18)

The Right To Basic Necessities of Life:

Islam has recognized the right of the needy people for help and assistance to be provided to
them. In the Holy Quran from the English translation of the "Kanzul Iman", it states:

"And in their wealth there was the right of the beggars and the unfortunate." (51:19)

Equality Before Law:

Islam gives its citizens the right to absolute and complete equality in the eyes of the law.

Rulers Not Above The Law:

A woman belonging to a high and noble family was arrested in connection with theft. The case
was brought to the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon HIM), And it was recommended that she might

be spared the punishment of theft. The Holy Prophet (Peace be upon HIM) replied:

"The nations that lived before you were destroyed by Allah because they punished the
common man for their offenses and let their dignitaries go unpunished for their crimes; I swear

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by Him Who holds my life in His hand that even if Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, had
committed this crime,I would have amputated her hand."

The Right To Participate In The Affairs Of State:

It states in the Holy Quran from the English translation of the "Kanzul Iman":

"And those who obeyed the command of their Lord and established prayer and their affairs

are decided by mutual consultation and they spend something out of Our provision in Our way."
(42:38)

The "Shura" or the legislative assembly has no other meaning except that the executive head of

the government and the members of the assembly should be elected by free and independent
choice of the people. Lastly, it is to be made clear that Islam tries to achieve the above

mentioned human rights and many others not only by providing certain legal safeguards but
mainly by inviting mankind to transcend the lower level of animal life to be able to go beyond the

mere ties fostered by the kinship of blood, racial superiority, linguistic arrogance, and economic
privileges. It invites mankind to move on to a plane of existence where, by reason of his inner

excellence, man can realize the ideal of the brotherhood of man.

The Holy Quran quotes come from the English translation of the "Kanzul Iman". This is, by far,

the best English translation of the Holy Quran. The faults of the article above are entirely my
own. All correct information gathered and written in the article above are entirely attributed to

Allah. For He, in His Mercy and Kindness, shows this slave of His, the Right Path. A thousands

blessings and Salams go to my hero, Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon HIM) As-Salatu Wa-

Assalamu Alaikah Ya Rasulullah

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Status of Woman in Islam:

Introduction:

The status of women in society is neither a new issue nor is it a fully settled one. The position of
Islam on this issue has been among the subjects presented to the Western reader with the least
objectivity.

The Qur'an and the Hadeeth, properly and unbiasedly understood, provide the basic source of
authentication for any position or view which is attributed to Islam.

Historical Perspective:

Women in Ancient Civilization:

Describing the status of the Indian woman, Encyclopedia Britannica states:

In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day and night must women be held by their

protectors in a state of dependence says Manu. The rule of inheritance was agnatic, that is

descent traced through males to the exclusion of females.

In Hindu scriptures, the description of a good wife is as follows: "a woman whose mind, speech
and body are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this world, and, in the next, the same
abode with her husband."

In Athens, women were not better off than either the Indian or the Roman women.

"Athenian women were always minors, subject to some male - to their father, to their brother, or
to some of their male kin.

Her consent in marriage was not generally thought to be necessary and "she was obliged to

submit to the wishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and her lord, even
though he were stranger to her."

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A Roman wife was described by an historian as: "a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of
doing or acting anything according to her own individual taste, a person continually under the

tutelage and guardianship of her husband."

In the Encyclopedia Britannica, we find a summary of the legal status of women in the Roman
civilization:

In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times completely dependent. If married she and

her property passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife was the purchased property of
her husband, and like a slave acquired only for his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil

or public office . could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be

adopted, or make will or contract. Among the Scandinavian races women were:

under perpetual tutelage, whether married or unmarried. As late as the Code of Christian V, at

the end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a woman married without the consent of her

tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct of her goods during her life.

According to the English Common Law:

...all real property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her

husband. He was entitled to the rent from the land and to any profit which might be made from

operating the estate during the joint life of the spouses. As time passed, the English courts
devised means to forbid a husband's transferring real property without the consent of his wife,

but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. As to a

wife's personal property, the husband's power was complete. He had the right to spend it as he

saw fit.

Only by the late nineteenth Century did the situation start to improve. "By a series of acts

starting with the Married women's Property Act in 1870, amended in 1882 and 1887, married

women achieved the right to own property and to enter contracts on a par with spinsters,
widows, and divorcees." As late as the Nineteenth Century an authority in ancient law, Sir Henry

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Maine, wrote: "No society which preserves any tincture of Christian institutions is likely to
restore to married women the personal liberty conferred on them by the Middle Roman Law."

In his essay The Subjection of Women, John Stuart Mill wrote:

We are continually told that civilization and Christianity have restored to the woman her just
rights. Meanwhile the wife is the actual bondservant of her husband; no less so, as far as the
legal obligation goes, than slaves commonly so called.

Before moving on to the Qur'anic decrees concerning the status of woman, a few Biblical

decrees may shed more light on the subject, thus providing a better basis for an impartial

evaluation. In the Mosaic Law, the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, the
Encyclopedia Biblica states: "To betroth a wife to oneself meant simply to acquire possession of
her by payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is a girl for whom the purchase money

has been paid." From the legal point of view, the consent of the girl was not necessary for the

validation of her marriage. "The girl's consent is unnecessary and the need for it is nowhere
suggested in the Law."

As to the right of divorce, we read in the Encyclopedia Biblica: "The woman being man's
property, his right to divorce her follows as a matter of course." The right to divorce was held

only by man. "In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of the husband only .... "

The position of the Christian Church until recent centuries seems to have been influenced by

both the Mosaic Law and by the streams of thought that were dominant in its contemporary

cultures. In their book, Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote:

Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian heritage is free of such slighting judgments. It
would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more degrading references to the female sex

than the early Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the famous historian, speaks of (these fierce

incentives which form so conspicuous and so grotesque a portion of the writing of the Fathers . .
. woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be

ashamed at the very thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance on

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account of the curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for
it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most

potent instrument of the devil). One of the most scathing of these attacks on woman is that of
Tertullian: Do you know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours

lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil's gateway: you are the
unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are the first deserters of the divine law; you are she who

persuades him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's

image, man. On account of your desert - that is death - even the Sop of God had to die). Not

only did the church affirm the inferior status of woman, it deprived her of legal rights she had
previously enjoyed.

Woman in Islam

In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world, the divine revelation echoed in the wide

desert of Arabia with a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity: "O Mankind, keep your

duty to your Lord who created you from a single soul and from it created its mate (of same kind)
and from them twain has spread a multitude of men and women" (Qur'an 4: 1).

A scholar who pondered about this verse states: "It is believed that there is no text, old or new,

that deals with the humanity of the woman from all aspects with such amazing brevity,
eloquence, depth, and originality as this divine decree."

Stressing this noble and natural conception, them Qur'an states:

He (God) it is who did create you from a single soul and therefrom did create his mate, that he

might dwell with her (in love)...(Qur'an 7:189)

The Creator of heavens and earth: He has made for you pairs from among yourselves ...Qur'an

42:1 1

And Allah has given you mates of your own nature, and has given you from your mates, children

and grandchildren, and has made provision of good things for you. Is it then in vanity that they
believe and in the grace of God that they disbelieve? Qur'an 16:72

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The rest of this paper outlines the position of Islam regarding the status of woman in society
from its various aspects - spiritually, socially, economically and politically.

1. The Spiritual Aspect

The Qur'an provides clear-cut evidence that woman iscompletely equated with man in the sight
of God interms of her rights and responsibilities. The Qur'an states:

"Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds" (Qur'an 74:38). It also states:

So their Lord accepted their prayers, (saying): I will not suffer to be lost the work of any of you
whether male or female. You proceed one from another ...(Qur'an 3: 195).

Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has faith, verily to him will We give a new

life that is good and pure, and We will bestow on such their reward according to the their
actions. (Qur'an 16:97, see also 4:124).

Woman according to the Qur'an is not blamed for Adam's first mistake. Both were jointly wrong

in their disobedience to God, both repented, and both were forgiven. (Qur'an 2:36, 7:20 - 24). In
one verse in fact (20:121), Adam specifically, was blamed.

In terms of religious obligations, such as the Daily Prayers, Fasting, Poor-due, and Pilgrimage,
woman is no different from man. In some cases indeed, woman has certain advantages over
man. For example, the woman is exempted from the daily prayers and from fasting during her
menstrual periods and forty days after childbirth. She is also exempted from fasting during her

pregnancy and when she is nursing her baby if there is any threat to her health or her baby's. If
the missed fasting is obligatory (during the month of Ramadan), she can make up for the
missed days whenever she can. She does not have to make up for the prayers missed for any

of the above reasons. Although women can and did go into the mosque during the days of the

prophet and thereafter attendance et the Friday congregational prayers is optional for them
while it is mandatory for men (on Friday).

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This is clearly a tender touch of the Islamic teachings for they are considerate of the fact that a
woman may be nursing her baby or caring for him, and thus may be unable to go out to the

mosque at the time of the prayers. They also take into account the physiological and
psychological changes associated with her natural female functions.

2. The Social Aspect:

a) As a child and an adolescent

Despite the social acceptance of female infanticide among some Arabian tribes, the Qur'an
forbade this custom, and considered it a crime like any other murder.

"And when the female (infant) buried alive - is questioned, for what crime she was killed."
(Qur'an 81:8-9).

Criticizing the attitudes of such parents who reject their female children, the Qur'an states:

When news is brought to one of them, of (the Birth of) a female (child), his face darkens and he

is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people because of the bad

news he has had! Shall he retain her on (sufferance) and contempt, or bury her in the dust? Ah!
What an evil (choice) they decide on? (Qur'an 16: 58-59).

Far from saving the girl's life so that she may later suffer injustice and inequality, Islam requires
kind and just treatment for her. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad (P.) in this regard are

the following:

Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not insult her, and does not
favor his son over her, God will enter him into Paradise. (Ibn Hanbal, No. 1957).

Whosoever supports two daughters till they mature, he and I will come in the day of judgment as

this (and he pointed with his two fingers held together).

A similar Hadeeth deals in like manner with one who supports two sisters. (Ibn-Hanbal, No.

2104).

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The right of females to seek knowledge is not different from that of males. Prophet Muhammad
(P.) said:

"Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim". (AlBayhaqi). Muslim as used here

including both males and females.

b) As a wife:

The Qur'an clearly indicates that marriage is sharing between the two halves of the society, and
that its objectives, beside perpetuating human life, are emotional well-being and spiritual

harmony. Its bases are love and mercy.

Among the most impressive verses in the Qur'an about marriage is the following.

"And among His signs is this: That He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find
rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed
are signs for people who reflect." (Qur'an 30:2 1).

According to Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.

Ibn Abbas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (P.), and she

reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God
gave her the choice . . . (between accepting the marriage or invalidating it). (Ibn Hanbal No.
2469). In another version, the girl said: "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let
women know that parents have no right (to force a husband on them)" (Ibn Maja, No. 1873).

Besides all other provisions for her protection at the time of marriage, it was specifically decreed
that woman has the full right to her Mahr, a marriage gift, which is presented to her by her

husband and is included in the nuptial contract, and that such ownership does not transfer to

her father or husband. The concept of Mahr in Islam is neither an actual or symbolic price for
the woman, as was the case in certain cultures, but rather it is a gift symbolizing love and
affection.

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The rules for married life in Islam are clear and in harmony with upright human nature. In
consideration of the physiological and psychological make-up of man and woman, both have

equal rights and claims on one another, except for one responsibility, that of leadership. This is
a matter which is natural in any collective life and which is consistent with the nature of man.

The Qur'an thus states:

"And they (women) have rights similar to those (of men) over them, and men are a degree

above them." (Qur'an 2:228).

Such degree is Quiwama (maintenance and protection). This refers to that natural difference

between the sexes which entitles the weaker sex to protection. It implies no superiority or
advantage before the law. Yet, man's role of leadership in relation to his family does not mean
the husband's dictatorship over his wife. Islam emphasizes the importance of taking counsel

and mutual agreement in family decisions. The Qur'an gives us an example:

"...If they (husband wife) desire to wean the child by mutual consent and (after) consultation,
there is no blame on them..." (Qur'an 2: 233).

Over and above her basic rights as a wife comes the right which is emphasized by the Qur'an

and is strongly recommended by the Prophet (P); kind treatment and companionship.

The Qur'an states:

"...But consort with them in kindness, for if you hate them it may happen that you hate a thing

wherein God has placed much good." (Qur'an 4: l9).

Prophet Muhammad. (P) said:

The best of you is the best to his family and I am the best among you to my family.

The most perfect believers are the best in conduct and best of you are those who are best to

their wives. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 7396)

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Behold, many women came to Muhammad's wives complaining against their husbands
(because they beat them) - - those (husbands) are not the best of you.

As the woman's right to decide about her marriage is recognized, so also her right to seek an

end for an unsuccessful marriage is recognized. To provide for the stability of the family,
however, and in order to protect it from hasty decisions under temporary emotional stress,
certain steps and waiting periods should be observed by men and women seeking divorce.

Considering the relatively more emotional nature of women, a good reason for asking for
divorce should be brought before the judge. Like the man, however, the woman can divorce her
husband with out resorting to the court, if the nuptial contract allows that.

More specifically, some aspects of Islamic Law concerning marriage and divorce are interesting
and are worthy of separate treatment.

When the continuation of the marriage relationship is impossible for any reason, men are still

taught to seek a gracious end for it.

The Qur'an states about such cases:

When you divorce women, and they reach their prescribed term, then retain them in kindness

and retain them not for injury so that you transgress (the limits). (Qur'an 2:231). (See also

Qur'an 2:229 and 33:49).

C) As a Mother:

Islam considered kindness to parents next to the worship of God.

"And we have enjoined upon man (to be good) to his parents: His mother bears him in

weakness upon weakness..." (Qur'an 31:14) (See also Qur'an 46:15, 29:8).

Moreover, the Qur'an has a special recommendation for the good treatment of mothers:

"Your Lord has decreed that you worship none save Him, and that you be kind to your parents. .

." (Qur'an 17:23).

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A man came to Prophet Muhammad (P) asking:

O Messenger of God, who among the people is the most worthy of my good company? The

Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The man said then who else: The Prophet (P) said, Your mother.

The man asked, Then who else? Only then did the Prophet (P) say, Your father. (Al-Bukhari and
Muslim).

A famous saying of The Prophet is "Paradise is at the feet of mothers." (In Al'Nisa'I, Ibn Majah,

Ahmad).

"It is the generous (in character) who is good to women, and it is the wicked who insults them."

The Economic Aspect

Islam decreed a right of which woman was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as late
as this century), the right of independent ownership. According to Islamic Law, woman's right to
her money, real estate, or other properties is fully acknowledged. This right undergoes no

change whether she is single or married. She retains her full rights to buy, sell, mortgage or

lease any or all her properties. It is nowhere suggested in the Law that a woman is a minor
simply because she is a female. It is also noteworthy that such right applies to her properties

before marriage as well as to whatever she acquires thereafter.

With regard to the woman's right to seek employment it should be stated first that Islam regards

her role in society as a mother and a wife as the most sacred and essential one. Neither maids
nor baby-sitters can possibly take the mother's place as the educator of an upright, complex

free, and carefully-reared children. Such a noble and vital role, which largely shapes the future

of nations, cannot be regarded as "idleness".

However, there is no decree in Islam which forbids woman from seeking employment whenever

there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature and in which society needs
her most. Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially for children), and

medicine. Moreover, there is no restriction on benefiting from woman's exceptional talent in any
field. Even for the position of a judge, where there may be a tendency to doubt the woman's

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fitness for the post due to her more emotional nature, we find early Muslim scholars such as
Abu-Hanifa and Al-Tabary holding there is nothing wrong with it. In addition, Islam restored to

woman the right of inheritance, after she herself was an object of inheritance in some cultures.
Her share is completely hers and no one can make any claim on it, including her father and her

husband.

"Unto men (of the family) belongs a share of that which Parents and near kindred leave, and

unto women a share of that which parents and near kindred leave, whether it be a little or much
- a determinate share." ((Qur'an 4:7).

Her share in most cases is one-half the man's share, with no implication that she is worth half a

man! It would seem grossly inconsistent after the overwhelming evidence of woman's equitable
treatment in Islam, which was discussed in the preceding pages, to make such an inference.
This variation in inheritance rights is only consistent with the variations in financial

responsibilities of man and woman according to the Islamic Law. Man in Islam is fully

responsible for the maintenance of his wife, his children, and in some cases of his needy
relatives, especially the females. This responsibility is neither waived nor reduced because of
his wife's wealth or because of her access to any personal income gained from work, rent, profit,
or any other legal means.

Woman, on the other hand, is far more secure financially and is far less burdened with any
claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband
and she even keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such

properties or out of her income after marriage. She is entitled to the "Mahr" which she takes
from her husband at the time of marriage. If she is divorced, she may get an alimony from her

ex-husband.

An examination of the inheritance law within the overall framework of the Islamic Law reveals

not only justice but also an abundance of compassion for woman.

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The Political Aspect

Any fair investigation of the teachings of Islam o~ into the history of the Islamic civilization will

surely find a clear evidence of woman's equality with man in what we call today "political rights".

This includes the right of election as well as the nomination to political offices. It also includes
woman's right to participate in public affairs. Both in the Qur'an and in Islamic history we find

examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even with the Prophet

(P) himself, (see Qur'an 58: 14 and 60: 10-12).

During the Caliphate of Omar Ibn al-Khattab, a woman argued with him in the mosque, proved

her point, and caused him to declare in the presence of people: "A woman is right and Omar is

wrong."

Although not mentioned in the Qur'an, one Hadeeth of the Prophet is interpreted to make

woman ineligible for the position of head of state. The Hadeeth referred to is roughly translated:

"A people will not prosper if they let a woman be their leader." This limitation, however, has
nothing to do with the dignity of woman or with her rights. It is rather, related to the natural
differences in the biological and psychological make-up of men and women.

According to Islam, the head of the state is no mere figurehead. He leads people in the prayers,
especially on Fridays and festivities; he is continuously engaged in the process of decision-
making pertaining to the security and well-being of his people. This demanding position, or any
similar one, such as the Commander of the Army, is generally inconsistent with the
physiological and psychological make-up of woman in general. It is a medical fact that during
their monthly periods and during their pregnancies, women undergo various physiological and

psychological changes. Such changes may occur during an emergency situation, thus affecting

her decision, without considering the excessive strain which is produced. Moreover, some

decisions require a maximum of rationality and a minimum of emotionality - a requirement which

does not coincide with the instinctive nature of women.

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Even in modern times, and in the most developed countries, it is rare to find a woman in the
position of a head of state acting as more than a figurehead, a woman commander of the armed

services, or even a proportionate number of women representatives in parliaments, or similar

bodies. One can not possibly ascribe this to backwardness of various nations or to any

constitutional limitation on woman's right to be in such a position as a head of state or as a

member of the parliament. It is more logical to explain the present situation in terms of the

natural and indisputable differences between man and woman, a difference which does not

imply any "supremacy" of one over the other. The difference implies rather the "complementary"

roles of both the sexes in life.

Conclusion:

Three facts are worth mentioning:

1. The history of Muslims is rich with women of great achievements in all walks of life from as

early as the seventh century (B.C.)

2. It is impossible for anyone to justify any mistreatment of woman by any decree of rule

embodied in the Islamic Law, nor could anyone dare to cancel, reduce, or distort the clear-cut
legal rights of women given in Islamic Law.

3. Throughout history, the reputation, chastity and maternal role of Muslim women were objects
of admiration by impartial observers.

It is also worthwhile to state that the status which women reached during the present era was

not achieved due to the kindness of men or due to natural progress. It was rather achieved

through a long struggle and sacrifice on woman's part and only when society needed her
contribution and work, more especial!; during the two world wars, and due to the escalation of

technological change.

In the case of Islam such compassionate and dignified status was decreed, not because it

reflects the environment of the seventh century, nor under the threat or pressure of women and
their organizations, but rather because of its intrinsic truthfulness.

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If this indicates anything, it would demonstrate the divine origin of the Qur'an and the
truthfulness of the message of Islam, which, unlike human philosophies and ideologies, was far

from proceeding from its human environment, a message which established such humane
principles as neither grew obsolete during the course of time and after these many centuries,

nor can become obsolete in the future. After all, this is the message of the All-Wise and all-
knowing God whose wisdom and knowledge are far beyond the ultimate in human thought and

progress.

Dignity of Men and Women:

The religion of Islam gave women an honorable status and true dignity. Before the advent of

Islam, women had no rights of any kind, or an independent identity in any form. The great
importance of the Muslim woman’s role – whether as wife, sister, or daughter, and the rights that
are due to her and the rights that are due from her – have been explained in the Glorious

Qur'an, and further details of this have been explained in the purified Sunnah.

With the advent of Islam came the verse from the Qur'an condemning those who practiced
female infanticide: “And when one among of them receives the glad tidings of a daughter, his
face turns black for the day, and he remains seething. Hiding from the people because of the

evil of the tidings; "Will he keep her with disgrace, or bury her beneath the earth?"; pay heed!
Very evil is the judgment they impose!” [Surah an-Nahl : 58/59]

The Holy Qur'an makes no distinction between man and woman as regards to the fundamental
human rights. Here we may specifically state that woman, like man, is the possessor of free
personality, and enjoys equality with man, in respect of:

Her spiritual and moral status:

The Qur'an says: “…Unto men the benefit of what they earn (of virtue) and unto women the

benefit of what they earn (of virtue)” [Surah al-Nisa : 32]

i.e. in matters of spiritual grace both, man and woman, enjoy equal status and are independent
of one another. A woman’s responsibility in faith is exactly the same as that of a man. Women

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are to pray, fast, give charity, perform the pilgrimage and perform other forms of Ibadah. A
woman is rewarded for this just like a man. A woman must believe in the Oneness of Almighty

Allah, the Books of Almighty Allah , the Angels of Almighty Allah, the Prophets of Almighty, the
Day of Resurrection, the Day of Judgment and Heaven and Hell, and Predestination.

Her economic rights:

The Qur'an says: “Unto the men (of a family) belongs a share of that which parents and near

kindred leave, and unto the women a share of that which the parents and near kindred leave,
whether it be little or much – a legal share.” [Surah al-Nisa : 7]

Her legal rights:

The Qur'an says: “…And they (women) have rights similar to those (of men) over them,

according to what is equitable…” [Surah al-Baqarah : 228]

Islam ensured a dignified life to the fair sex, which was hitherto treated in an unfair manner.

Woman became the mistress of the household. Man was not allowed to beat or manhandle

them nor deprive them of their share in the property. The Holy Qur'an declared: “A mother
should not be made to suffer because of her child, nor he to whom the child is born (be made to

suffer) because of his child (because both are equal before the law)…” [Surah al-Baqarah : 233]

Her right for gaining the Knowledge:

Islam has made it a duty on every Muslim male and female to gain knowledge, which is

considered to be a superior act of worship in Islam. In Islam, therefore both men and women are
credited with the capacity for learning, understanding and teaching. Knowledge is not only
limited to the religious knowledge but includes all forms of knowledge. Acquiring knowledge will

enable Muslim women and men to get a better perception and understanding of the world

around them and make them more conscious of Almighty Allah SubHanuhu wa Ta'ala.

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Conclusion:

The status of Muslim women as defined in Islam is very important because women make up half

of society and they are responsible for nurturing, guidance and reformation of the subsequent

generations of men and women. It is the female who imbues principles and faith into the souls
of the nation. Indeed, the Muslim woman is the initial teacher in building a righteous society.
Islam brought a new lease of life to women. Islam elevated the status of women to great heights

so high that she stood shoulder to shoulder with man. In the Islamic family, the role of men and
women is complementary rather than competitive. Their duties are described as equal in
importance but not identical in substance.

Now, the issue of feminism in Islam is meaningless. The coming of Islam has brightened the life
and future of women, in which Islam has lifted up their level. Islam upholds women to the
highest and most respected position.

We hope our effort will be appreciated and our sisters in faith will surely remember us in their
prayers for peace and prosperity, health and happiness and Allah’s SubHanuhu wa Ta'ala
Mercy and Favour. May Almighty Allah SubHanuhu wa Ta'ala, through the Waseela of
Sayyiduna Rasoolullah SallAllaho Alaihi wa Sallam accept this humble effort; and may He

SubHanuhu wa Ta'ala give us the Toufeeq and Hidayah to restore the true rights to our Muslim
women as dictated by Islam. Aameen!!

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Islamic Civilization and Culture:

On the outer edge of the Latin world, in Spain, Sicily, and North Africa, and surrounding

Byzantium in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, was the world of Islam. For centuries, Islam was both
a threat and the source of new ideas to the Greek East and Latin West. Between the 7th and

12th centuries, Islam became the center of a brilliant civilization and of a great scientific,

philosophic, and artistic culture. Although its language was neither Greek nor Latin, Islam
absorbed a great deal of Greek culture which it managed to preserve for the Latin West. In
general, it can be said that Islam absorbed and added its culture to the heritage of Greece,

Rome, Judaism, Christianity, and the Near East.

Islamic Civilization and Resources OnlineIn the beginning the Muslims were both open and
cautious. They borrowed and integrated elements of other cultures into their own. The new
religion of Islam, which we will get to in a moment, adopted elements of Christian, Jewish, and

pagan religious beliefs and practices. The Muslims tolerated religious minorities within territories
they had conquered so long as these minorities recognized Islamic political rule, paid taxes, and

did not proselytize among Muslims. Still, the Muslims were careful to protect the purity of their
religion, language, and law from any foreign influence. With the passage of time, and with
increased conflict with both eastern and western Christians, this protective instinct grew
stronger. In the end, Islamic culture did not penetrate the west in the same way that Germanic

culture did, but would remain strange as well as threatening to the West.

Fundamental to Islam was its religion -- this, of course, is true for the medieval west as well.
However, we know more about early Christianity then we do about early Islam. And the reason
is clear. Christianity was produced by a literate culture. Islamic religion, however, was formed

largely in an illiterate, nomadic culture.

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The home of Islam is the Arabian Peninsula. The Peninsula is predominantly desert and the
tribes who inhabited this area were nomadic, that is, they traveled from place to place.

Politically, Islam was not a unified territory nor was there any centralized government.

The great unifying agent in Islamic civilization was clearly that of Muhammad (c.570-632). He
was born at Mecca and raised by family of modest means. His father had died in the year of his
birth and his mother died when he was 6 years old. At the time of Muhammad's birth, Mecca

was one of the most prosperous caravan cities. However, Mecca was still tied to the traditional
social and religious life of the Arabian world. In other words, it was governed by the tribal
societies of the desert. Membership in the tribe was determined by blood descent. In such an

order, the interests of the individual were always subordinate to those of the group or tribe. Each

tribe worshipped its own gods in the form of objects from nature (moon, sky, dog, cat, ram) but
all Arabs worshipped one object in common: the Kaaba, a large black stone enshrined at

Mecca. It was the Kaaba that made Mecca significant as a place of worship and pilgrimage.

As a youth, Muhammad worked as a merchant's assistant, traveling the major trade routes of
the Peninsula. When he was 25, he married the widow of a wealthy merchant and became a
man of means. He also became a kind of social activist, critical of Meccan materialism,
paganism, and the unjust treatment of the poor and needy.

Muhammad worked hard at his career but like so many "saviors" and prophets, Muhammad was
plagued by doubts. His doubt increased to such an extent that he left Meccan society and lived
a life of isolation in the desert. In 610, and at the age of 40, he received his first revelation and

began to preach. He believed his revelations came directly from God, a God who spoke to him
through the angel Gabriel, who recited God's word to him at irregular intervals. These

revelations grew into the Qur'an which his followers compiled between 650 and 651. The basic

message Muhammad received was a summons to all Arabs to submit to God's will. Islam

means "submission to the will of God."

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There was little that was new in Muhammad's message. It had been uttered by a long line of
Jewish prophets going back to Noah but now ending with Muhammad, the last of God's chosen

prophets. The Qur'an also recognized Jesus Christ as a prophet but did not view him as God's
co-eternal and co-equal son. Like Judaism, Islam was a monotheistic and theocratic religion, not

a Trinitarian one like Christianity.

The basic beliefs of Muhammad's religion were (1) that God is good and omnipotent, (2) that

God will judge all men on the last day and assign them their place in either Heaven or Hell, (3)
that men should thank God for making the world as it is, (4) that God expects men to be
generous with their wealth, and (5) that Muhammad was a prophet sent by God to teach men

and warn them of the last judgment.

It ought to be clear that many of these beliefs are similar to those of the Judeo-Christian
tradition. However, Muhammad's religion was not a mere copy. Instead, Muhammad's religion

grew as a result of the social and economic conditions of Mecca itself. One other difference

ought to be noted. Christianity was produced in an urban environment while the faith of
Muhammad was fashioned from his life in the desert.

For Muhammad, there were also five obligations which were essential to his faith: (1) the

profession of faith – there is no God but Allah and Muhammad was the last prophet, (2) prayers
had to be uttered five times daily, (3) the giving of alms, or charity, (4) fasting, and (5) the
pilgrimage to Mecca. These laws are recorded in the Qur'an, a book which contains all of the
revelations of Muhammad.

Muhammad believed that God had chosen him to be the last prophet. Abraham and Moses

were prophets. So too was Jesus Christ. But Muhammad believed that Jesus was not the son of

God. The Jews and Christians, according to Muhammad, had strayed from the true faith, a faith

which Muhammad believed he had had revealed to him by the angel Gabriel. It was his task to

convert them and bring them back to the true word.

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Despite the faith of his flock, Muhammad met with disappointment as he preached his religion at
Mecca. Jews and Christians failed to convert. His faith was totally rejected by the authorities at

Mecca. It should be obvious that the merchants at Mecca would have objected to Muhammad's
belief – actually a profession of faith – that men should be generous with their wealth. The

authorities tried to quiet Muhammad and so he left for the northern city of Medina in the year
622. The journey to Medina – the hegira (the "breaking of former ties") – became the true

foundation of the Islamic faith. The hegira also marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

At Medina, Muhammad created an Islamic community. Besides the profession of faith,

Muhammad also specified that at his community there would be strict rules governing diet; wine,

gambling and usury were prohibited; he set up his own legal system; and prohibited infanticide.

After settling in Medina, his followers began to attack the caravans on their way to and from
Mecca. By 624 his army was powerful enough to conquer Mecca and make it the center of the

new religion.

Muhammad died in 632 and his death presented his followers with a series of profound
problems. He never claimed to be of divine origin yet his loyal followers saw no reason to
separate religious and political authority. Submitting to the will of Allah was no different than
submitting to the will of Muhammad. Unfortunately, Muhammad never named a successor. Who
would lead the faithful? Soon after his death, some of his followers selected Abu Bakr, a wealthy
merchant and Muhammad's father-in-law as caliph, or temporal leader.

In the early 7th century, Muhammad and successive caliphs, took up the Arabic custom of

making raids against their enemies. The Qur'an called these raids the jihad ("striving in the way
of the Lord"). The jihad was not carried out as a means to convert others for the simple reason

that acts of conversion to the Islamic faith were voluntary. The Byzantines and Persians were

the first to feel the pressure of Arab raids. At Yarmuk in 636, the Muslims defeated the

Byzantine army. Syria fell in 640. A decade later, the Muslims had conquered the entire Persian

empire. Egypt, North Africa and Spain (with its center at Córdoba) were all conquered and

under Muslim rule by the 720s. In 732, a Muslim army was defeated at the Battle of Tours, and
Muslim expansion in Europe came to an abrupt halt.

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One of the main problems confronting the Islamic world was the choice of caliph. When

Muhammad's son-in-law was assassinated, Muawiyah, a general, became caliph.. Muawiyah

made the caliphate hereditary in his own family, thus creating the Umayyad dynasty. One of the
first things Muawiyah did was to move the capital of the Muslim world from Medina to Damascus
in Syria. However, internal dissension over the caliphate created a split in Islam between the

Shiites, or those who accepted only the descendants of Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, as the true
rulers, and the Sunnites, who claimed the descendants of the Umayyads were the true rulers.
This split exists to this day.

In the 8th and 9th centuries, under the Abbasid caliphs, Islamic civilization entered a golden
age. Arabic, Byzantine, Persian and Indian cultural traditions were integrated. And while in
Europe, learning seemed to be at its lowest point, the Muslims created what I suppose could be

called a "high civilization." Thanks to Muslim scholars, ancient Greek learning, acquired from

their contact with Byzantine scholars, was kept alive and was eventually transferred to the West
in the 12th century and after (see Lecture 26). But not only did Muslim scholars preserve the
heritage of Greek science and philosophy, they added to it by writing commentaries and
glosses, thus adding to what eventually became the western intellectual tradition. Throughout
the Qur'an one can find a strong emphasis on the value of knowledge in the Islamic faith. The
Qur'an encourages Muslims to learn and acquire knowledge, stemming from, but not limited to,
the Muslim emphasis on knowing the unity of God. Because Muslims believe that Allah is all-

knowing, they also believe that the human world's quest for knowledge leads to further knowing

of Allah.

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Islamic Civilization and Culture

Meanings and the Vital Elements:

ISLAM WAS DESTINED to be a world religion and a civilisation, stretched from one end of the

globe to the other. The early Muslim caliphates (empires), first the Arabs, then the Persians and

later the Turks set about to create classical Islamic civilisation. In the 13th century, both Africa
and India became great centres of Islamic civilisation. Soon after, Muslim kingdoms were
established in the Malay-Indonesian world, while Muslims flourished equally in China. Islamic

civilisation is committed to two basic principles: oneness of God and oneness of humanity. Islam

does not allow any racial, linguistic or ethnic discrimination; it stands for universal humanism.
Besides Islam have some peculiar features that it form other cotemporary civilisations.

Salient Features of Islamic Civilization:

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS that distinguish Islamic civilisation from other civilisations and give
it a unique position can be discerned as:

 It is based on the Islamic faith. It is monotheistic, based on the belief in the oneness of

the Almighty Allah, the Creator of this universe. It is characterised by submission to the
will God and service to humankind. It is a socio-moral and metaphysical view of the
world, which has indeed contributed immensely to the rise and richness of this

civilisation.

 It is a civilisation with a universal dimension. It is not associated with a particular

geographic region, race or historical era. It is predicated on the idea that man has

precedence over the rest of the creatures of Allah. All human activities should lead to the

happiness and welfare of man. Any action intended to serve this goal is a God-blessed
action indeed.

 It is an open civilisation and is not shy of deriving and drawing niceties of other

civilisations in the past, provided they do not run counter to the spirit of Islam.1 Islam is

the most pluralist religion; it coexists with other religions, allowing full religious

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autonomy. • It is a well-balanced civilisation. It insists on equilibrium between the

material and the spiritual dimensions of life. In fact, this moderation is the essence of

Islamic thought and civilisation. It permits of no excess, no neglect, no extremism and no

recklessness—that moderation is based on a “golden mean”.

 It is a perennial civilisation and will not last as long as Islam exists. So long as, it
embodies the very principles of Islam, the Almighty Allah will preserve. This unique

civilisation will never wither away: since, it is not a national or a racial civilisation, nor

does it run counter to human nature. In any case, Islam should not be identified with

Muslims. Muslims may become weak or strong but Islam would remain an everlasting
guidance to humankind.

Role of Civilization in Development of Human Personality and Communities:

THE GLOBAL CIVILISATION created by Islam succeeded in activating the mind and thought of

the people who entered its fold. As a result, the nomadic, pagan Arabs became torchbearers of

science and learning. The Persian civilisation gained a new momentum after embracing Islam,
contributing further to the advancement of science and arts. The same can be said of Turks and
other nations.

In brief, Islam was largely responsible not only for the creation of a world civilisation in which
people of many different ethnic backgrounds participated and played a central role in developing
intellectual and cultural lives of theirs on a scale not witnessed before.

For nearly one thousand years Arabic remained the major intellectual and scientific language of
the world. For centuries, Islam was the source of new ideas to the Greek East and Latin West.

Between the 7th and 12th centuries, Islam became the centre of a brilliant civilisation and of a

great scientific, philosophic and artistic culture. Islam absorbed and added its culture to the

heritage of Greece, Rome, Judaism, Christianity and the Near East.

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Muslims respected religious minorities within the areas they conquered. Of course, these
minorities were required to recognise Islamic political rule, pay taxes and refrain from

conspiracies against the Muslims.

It is the Islamic civilisation that has contributed through its achievements in the areas of
medicine, pharmacy, chemistry, mathematics and physics or philosophy to the acceleration of
the advent of the renaissance and the ensuing revival of different sciences, which constitute the

warp and woof of the western culture.

Islamic civilisation dominated much of the Southern and parts of the Western Hemisphere

between 10th and 16th centuries. However, with the rise of industrial age and the beginnings of

age of colonialism, Islamic civilisation suffered a serious set back. Muslims found themselves
victims to the coercive and creeping Western encroachments on their culture and civilisation.

Despite political reversals, Islam as a religion remained an important global force and is still the

second largest religion, commanding the loyalties of most of the people of Asia, Africa and the
Middle East.

“It was under the influence of the Arabian and Moorish revival of culture, and in the fifteenth
century, that the real renaissance took place. Spain, not Italy, was the cradle of the rebirth of

Europe. After steadily sinking lower and lower into barbarianism, it had reached the darkest

depth of ignorance and degradation when the cities of the Saracenic world, Baghdad, Cairo,
Cordova, were growing centers of civilization and intellectual activity. It was there that the new
life arose which was to grow into a new phase of Human Evolution. From the time when the
influence of their culture made itself felt, began the stirrings of a new life.”

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Islam and World:

Impact of Islamic Civilisation on West and Vice Versa:

Islam. While the fusion was slowly going on in the West under the influence of the Christian

church, a new religion called Islam was developing in the distant East, and was winning
converts so rapidly that it became a serious menace to both the Roman Empire and the

Germans. The rapid rise of Islam is explained in part, by the geography of its birthplace, Arabia,
and the customs and character of the Arabs, as well as by the personality of the prophet
Mohammed.

Geography of Arabia:

Arabia is a peninsula in the southwestern part of Asia, bounded on the east by the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman: on the south bv the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, on the west by

the Red Sea; to the north lies Palestine and a wide desert extending almost to the Euphrates;
while in the northwest it is connected with Africa by the peninsula and isthmus of Suez. It

contains over a million square miles, and is consequently about one-third as large as the United
States. It has never been thickly populated, for probably almost all of the country is a desert

waste and very few parts are suited to pasturage or agriculture. Most of it is apparently an
elevated plateau, covered with shifting sand. All but one of the rivers dry up during several
months of the year. Mountain-chains or hills, whose prevailing direction is parallel to the coast,
shut out the sea-breezes and cut off the rain-fall from the interior. There are no forests, and

comparatively little vegetation. The horses, for which Arabia has long been noted, have to find
their food in the extensive tracts of thin desert grrass. Some of these statements have to be

made tentatively, for Arabia has been only partially explored and the interior is little known.

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Inhabitants:

The occupations of the Arabs were influenced bv these geographical conditions. In the seventh

century, the inhabitants could be divided into two general classes: the Bedouins, who lived in

tents in the desert, and the dwellers in houses, who were to be found only near the coast in the
southern and southwestern parts. The Bedouins were a pastoral people, and made their living
chietSv from their flocks and herds. The house-dwellers practised sortie agriculture and were

traders, but remained in close touch with the nomadic life of the desert. There was no central
government; the organization was by tribes. In times of peace the family was the unit; only in
case of war did the head of the tribe have any real authority outside his immediate family.

Polygamy was the rule for those who could afford the expense. Private vengeance for injuries

was the custom, but a feud might be stopped by a payment similar to the wergeld. The Arabs
were noted for their vivid imagination and great love for poetry.

Religion:

Their religion was a mixture of nature-worship and fetishism, although all believed theoretically
in the existence of one supreme God, Allah. But the djinns, or genii, were also worshiped
because they were believed to act constantly, in manifold ways, for good or evil. Jewish,

Christian, and Persian beliefs had penetrated into the country, and each had some devotees. A
sacred month was observed by all, and during this time the great fairs were held and no feuds
were allowed. Mecca, which was the chief religious center and inviolable, contained the great
national sanctuary, the Kaaba, housing approximately three hundred and sixty idols. Among the

latter were an image of Christ and also the famous black stone, a meteorite fallen from heaven,
which was the most highly venerated object. The prevailing polytheism and influences from

abroad were causing both a decay in the sincere belief in idols and a condition of unrest. The

absence of a central government and of a national religion were important influences in

preparing the way for Mohammed's success.

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Youth of Mohammed. The prophet was born about the year 571 of our era. In early childhood he
was left an orphan, and his inheritance is said to have comprised five camels who fed on wild

shrubs (that is animals of an inferior quality), a herd of goats, a black maid or servant, and a
small house. Little is known of his early vears. His utterances in the Koran contain only one

reference to this period:

"Did He not find thee an orphan and sheltered thee?

"And found thee erring and guided thee?

"And found thee poor and enriched thee?"

From the traditions it appears that Mohammed grew up a shepherd boy and later entered the
service of a rich widow, his cousin Khadija. He won her love, and at twenty-five married her; she

is said to have been about fifteen years his elder. This marriage gave him wealth, position, and
leisure.

The Call to Preach:

From childhood Mohammed had been subject to peculiar seizures, and as he grew older the
attacks became more frequent. His followers have regarded these as holy trances; Christian
writers have called them sometimes epileptic or cataleptic fits, sometimes hysteria. This
condition is important, as it made him peculiarly susceptible to nervous excitement. After his

marriage, he was wont to retire to a cave during one month each year, where he gave himself
up to meditation and prayer. But until he was about forty years of age there was no hint of his

prophetic career. At one time, while in retirement from the world, he had a vision in which he

believed that the angel Gabriel came down to the lowest heaven and commanded him to
preach.

"Cry, in the name of thy Lord, who created--

"Created man from blood.

"Cry! for thy Lord is the bountifulest!

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"Who taught the pen,

"Taught man what he did not know."

Early Preaching:

For some time Mohammed was in doubt, but Khadija comforted him and believed in him. Then

he began his preaching, appealing to " the wonders of nature, the stars in their courses, the sun

and the moon, the dawn cleaving asunder the dark veil of night, the life-giving rain, the fruits of
the earth, life and death, change and decay--"all are signs of God's power, if only ye would

understand."' " This earliest portion of the Koran is one long blazonry of nature's beauty. How

can you believe in aught but the one omnipotent God, when you see this glorious world around
you and this wondrous tent of heaven above you? is Mohammed's frequent question to his
countrymen."

Hegira:

The prophet was not without honor among his immediate associates, for his first followers were

his wife, his servant, and his cousin Ali; but progress was very slow, and it is said that in three
years he made but fourteen converts. There was little that was new in the religion which he

preached, except that he was the prophet of God. He did not claim supernatural powers or

worship for himself. " I am no more than man; when I order you anything with respect to religion,
receive it, and when I order you about the affairs of the world then I am nothing more than man."

Throughout his life he always denied that he could work a miracle. Consequently his fellow

citizens paid little heed to him. Abu Bekr, Othman, Omar, and Ali were almost the only men of

good family who believed in him, and his followers were mainly from the lower orders, especially

slaves. Opposition was not aroused until he began to preach against the idols; then his lowly
followers were persecuted, and finally his own life was in danger. He made one unsuccessful
attempt to withdraw to another city, but was stoned from its gates. Then he fled to Yatrib, which

was renamed Medinet-en-Nabi, now Medina. This hegira, or flight, was in the year 622 A.D.;
and from this the Mohammedans reckon the beginning of their era.

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The Prophet's Personality:

At Medina the prophet's personality and popularity gained converts rapidly. He was noted for his

eloquence, and his followers have believed that his inspired utterances are inimitable in their

beauty. Traditions have handed down many fragmentary statements from which it is possible to
reconstruct some phases of his character. He was fond of animals, and they trusted in him. He
seldom passed by a child without at least a smile, and he loved to take part in the children's

games; after he had married the child Aisheh, he frequently played with dolls with her. His
nature was kind and forgiving; his disposition, grave and dignified. He never lost the friendship
of one whom he trusted. In his habits he was simple; his clothes were plain but exquisitely neat;

he delighted in ablutions and perfumes. At home he kindled the fire, swept the floor, milked the

goats, and mended his own clothes and shoes. His regular food consisted of dates and water,
or barley bread; milk and honey were luxuries of which he was v ery fond, but which he seldom

allowed himself. A bench always stood before his door on which any beggar might rest and
share his food. And he was, as Aisheh said, " bashful as a veiled virgin."

His Successes:

At Medina Mohammed soon became strong enough to attempt vengeance on his enemies at

Mecca. For several years there was more or less fighting, and finally in 630 Mohammed
captured Mecca, and, although he left the black stone as an object of reverence, purified the
Kaaba of its idols. Standing before each one, he said: " Truth is come, and falsehood is fled
away ! " and his followers smashed the idol. By the end of the following year all Arabia was

enlisted for the prophet. Mohammed sent messengers to the monarchs of the neighboring
countries, summoning them to receive the new religion which he called Islam, or submission to

God. But he died in 632 before he could undertake any farther conquests.

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The Koran:

Mohammed had enjoined upon his followers: " Let the Koran ever be your guide. Do what it

commands or permits; shun what it forbids." His order was obeyed, and the Koran, which

consisted of his utterances received in visions, was reverenced and became the religious guide
for all true Mussulmans. His sayings had been committed to memory or written down by his
associates on paper, parchment, palm leaves, bones, or stones. As the whole formed a

confused mass, his successor, Abu-Bekr, 632-634, had the fragments collected and put
together. But, as other copies of Mohammed's utterances were in existence, disputes soon
arose as to what were the correct forms. Consequently the third caliph, or successor, Othman,

644-656, had an authoritative collection made, and ordered all other copies to be destroyed.

This collection has remained practically unchanged down to the present day. It is very badly
arranged: the first revelation, which was quoted above, is in chapter ninety-six.

In general, the earliest utterances come late in the book, and the later and longer passages

come in the first part of the book. There are frequent repetitions and contradictions. While some
utterances are very beautiful, the greater portion seems very commonplace in translation. But
the orthodox Mussulmans delight in the Arabic original and assert not only that it is of divine
origin, but also that it is perfect in both form and content. It has certainly been one of the most
influential books in the history of the world and deserves most careful study.

Dogma and Practice:

The dogma which it teaches consists in certain beliefs and practices which have had a
remarkable and continuing influence on historical events. The Mussulman must believe in Allah,

the one and omnipotent God: "He begetteth not nor is He begotten; nor is there one like unto

Him." The faithful must also believe in the day of judgment and the resurrection; and in

Mohammed as Allah's prophet--"verily they only are true believers who believe in God and His

apostle." These are the principal points in the creed, but the Koran also teaches that the
Mussulman must believe in the angels, who are mortal and will die on the day of judgment; in

the scriptures, which include some Christian and Jewish books, but as the Koran is the final

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revelation it has superseded these; in the prophets, of whom the greatest were Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed; and in absolute predestination--"every man's fate

have we bound about his neck." The principal religious practices are four: prayer, fasting,
alms-giving, and pilgrimage. There are five set times for prayer each day: at daybreak, just after

noon, in the middle of the afternoon, at sunset, and at nightfall. Prayer is preceded by
purification with water, or sand in the desert. Fasting is enjoined during the month of Ramadan

and lasts all day long; believers are allowed to eat and drink at night until they can discern a

black thread from a white thread by the light of day. Alms-giving was to be of the best of things;

" ye will never attain unto righteousness until ye give in alms of that which ye love." A favorite
saying of one of the caliphs was:

" Praver carries us half way to God; fasting brings us to the door of His palace; and alms
procure us admission." The pilgrimage is to Mecca and must be made at least once by each

believer. But " he only shall visit the Mosque of God who believes in God and the Last Dav, and
is instant in prayer, and payeth the alms, and feareth God only." The Koran also prohibits

wine-drinking and gambling, " abominations of the devil's making"; and eating certain things,
especlally pork. There are many other precepts governing the daily life and enjoining morality,
for among the Mohammedans moral conduct and religion were closely associated.

Early Conquests

The yoke placed upon the believers was not a light one and the religion needed a strong leader
if it was to be generally accepted. Consequently when the prophet died there was a.t first

consternation among his sincere followers; and many Arabs, especially Bedouins, seized the
opportunity to revolt, as they resented so keenly the restrictions and taxation imposed upon

them by the new religion. Abu-Bekr, who was chosen as caliph, or successor, had been one of

the earliest converts and most sincere believers. At the prophet's death he had said: '* Ye

people! he that hath worshiped Mohammed, let him know that Mohammed is dead; but he that

hath worshiped Allah, that the Lord liveth and doth not die." By his wisdom and boldness he

managed to stem the crisis and to reduce all Arabia to obedience again. Then began Early the
wonderful conquests. The Arabs, united into a nation for the first time, under the inspiration of

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the new religion, destroyed the empire of the Sassanids and robbed the Roman Empire of many
of its wealthiest provinces; between 634 and 649 Syria, Palestine, Armenia, Cyprus, Crete,

Rhodes, and Egypt were subdued and wrested from the Roman Empire. This was due partly to
the weakness of the Empire, which attempted no effective resistance; partly to the religious

differences and political disaffections among the inhabitants; and partly to the reckless daring
and fatalism of the Moslem leaders. Mohammed had tattght, "Fear the heat of combats ? Hell is

hotter ! Paradise is before you !" The Arabs among the population of Syria had welcomed their

brethren and embraced the religion, and, in general, the inhabitants of the conquered lands

found the Arab yoke lighter than the Roman, and seldom attempted revolt. Persia had been
conquered with almost equal ease, between the years 632 and 642. It had been weakened by

its unsuccessful wars against the Roman Empire, and many of the inhabitants were disaffected

on account of the absolutism and incompetence of the rulers. Islam was now dominant from the
eastern boundary of Persia to Tripoli in Africa. The Arabs were pushing onward in every

direction when their advance was interrupted by civil war at home.

Civil War:

During these years the caliphs had been chosen from the old companions of MGhammed;
Abu-Bekr, after ruling two years, had been succeeded by Omar, caliph 634444; when the latter
died, Othman had been elected. Although he had been a believer from the first, he did not have
the intense feeling of hostility to the people of Mecca that was held by most of the old believers.
He was accused of favoring his kinsmen the Ommiads, who were among the leading men of

Mecca and had formerly been opposed to the prophet. This supposed predilection for the

Ommiads aroused antagonism and finally led to the assassination of Othman in 656. These
internal dissensions, which had checked the advance of the Mussulmans, were greatly
increased by the election of Ali, the son-in-law and adopted son of Mohammed, to succeed

Othman. Ali did nothing to punish the murderers of the latter and was suspected of having been
an accomplice. Civil war broke out at once and the rebellion was led by Aisheh, the widow of the

prophet. The fighting lasted one hundred and ten days and there are said to have been ninety

battles. It was called " the war of the camel," because Aisheh rode on a camel in directing the

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revolt. She was finally captured and the war ended. But the Ommiads then began a new war.
After some fighting the xvhole matter was referred to arbitration and decided adversely to Ali.

One of the Ommiads was proclaimed caliph and took Damascus as his capital, but Ali refused
to submit and held Persia and Mesopotamia. He was assassinated in 66I by a member of a new

sect, the Kharijites, who wished to have no caliph, but a democratic government.

Ommiads at Damascus.

Under the Ommiads at Damascus the rule was much more centralized and the office of caliph
became hereditary The rulers were not religious and were interested in Islam only as a political

factor. The " old believers " in Medina and Mecca were much scandalized and attempted to

become independent, but both cities were captured by the Ommiad caliph. Most of the
inhabitants of Medina were put to the sword, the Kaaba at Mecca was burned, and the rebellion
was put down so thoroughly that all Arabia recognized the authority of the ruler of Damascus.

The large income which flowed in from the Mohammedan conquests caused a change in the

standard of living; luxuries became common and much of the former democratic simplicity was
lost; but as yet Islam retained its vigor as a conquering religion and the population soon
increased sufficiently to make further advance possible.

Conquest of Africa:

The second great period of Mohammedan conquest began in the last decade of the seventh
century and continued for about fifty years. The caliph first directed his efforts to Africa, where
Carthage was taken and destroyed in 697, and by 708 almost the whole of the northwest as far
as the ocean was subdued by theArabs. But this was a conquest from the Berbers rather than

from the Roman Empire. After the defeat of the Vandals the heavy taxation under the Empire

and the persecutions of the Jews and heretical Christians had caused many of the inhabitants to

leave Africa. The imperial government was too weak to keep the old inhabitants, the Berbers, in

obedience, and the former provinces became more or less independent states, acknowledging
sometimes a theoretical subordination to the Empire, but having lost much of the Roman

civilization. Christianity had been superseded to a great extent by a mixture of nature-worship

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and fetishworship. As a result, although separate Berber states made an obstinate resistance,
the Arabs were able to subdue one portion after another, and many Berbers eventually became

Mohammedans.

Conquest of Spain:

From Africa the Mohammedans passed over into Spain. There the Visigothic kingdom was
weak and rent with dissensions; some of the leading men were anxious to see the king defeated

and the inhabitants were severely oppressed and ready for any change. Consequently a single
victory, in 7II, was sufficient to open the whole country to Tarik, who commanded the army, and

from whom Gibraltar takes its name. It is said that his forces numbered only about twelve

thousand, of whom all but three hundred were Berbers. If this is true, it is a striking illustration of
the way in which the Arabs used the subject peoples to extend their conquests. In Spain the
Visigothic nobles frequently joined with the invaders. New bands of Arabs or Berbers poured

into the country, and soon all the peninsula, except the mountains of Galicia, was occupied by

the Mussulmans.

Battle of Poitiers

They pressed on across the Pyrenees and began to reduce southern Gaul, until in 732 they met

with their first real check near Poitiers, where Charles Martel had led a great host in order to

prevent their advance. From the fragmentary accounts of the meeting of the two armies we can
glean the main facts; for nearly a week Christians and Mohammedans watched one another,
waiting anxiously for the moment of battle; finally the Arab leader attacked; in the heat of the
fight the Franks, who had formed in hollow square, were like an immovable ocean; they stood

shoulder to shoulder without giving way, as if they were frozen to the ground, and with their

swords hewed down the Arabs. Night at length put an end to the contest; in the morning the

Franks saw the tents of the Mussulmans deserted, but feared an ambush; finally they sent out

spies, who learned that the squadrons of the Ishmaelites had vanished in the night. Later
legends embellished their victory and recounted that three hundred and seventy-five housand of

the Arabs together with their king had been killed, while the Frankish loss was only fifteen

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hundred. Even in mod ern times the importance of this battle has been greatly over estimated. It
was not a very decisive conflict; the Arabs with drew, but continued their raids elsewhere; in

743, for example, they pillaged Lyons, and they were not expelled from Narbonne until 759. But
all further advance was effectually checked by the revolt of the Berbers in Africa, who regretted

their lost independ ence. Their rebellion made it impossible for the Mohammedans in Spain to
get any new recruits from the East, as they held the country through which reinforcements must

be sent. Uncon sciously, they were aiding Charles Martel in the consolidation of his power in

Gaul.

Conquests in the East

In the East the Mohammedans had made great advances during this same period; they had
captured Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarcand and had advanced to the boundary of China; they
had taken Kabul and had subjugated the valley of the Indus. But they did not succeed in getting

possession of Asia Minor, and twice they failed in attempting to reduce Constantinople by siege.

The city on the Bosphorus was then, as so often later, the bulwark of Europe. In spite of these
defeats the Mohammedan dominions reached their greatest extent under the Ommiads. During
the same period the Arabs made a marvelous advance in civilization, but this reached its
culmination a little later, under the Persian influence at Bagdad, and consequently will be
described in another chapter.

Rise of the Abbassids

The last Ommiad rulers at Damascus were not able to retrieve the failures at Poitiers and
Constantinople. Although they did wage successful war against the Byzantine Empire, and raids

into Gaul did continue for some years, they were continually being weakened by disaffections

and rebellions among their subjects. The descendants of Ali had many partisans who held up to

execration the irreligious conduct and the luxury of the Ommiads, whose family had secured the

caliphate through the slaughter of the most faithful followers of the prophet. Repeated attempts
at rebellion were crushed and the Fatimites, who claimed to be descendants of Ali and Fatima

(Daughter of Mohammed), were not able to overthrow the caliphate; but the Abbasids,

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descendants of the uncle of Mohammed, profited by the general disaffection and, after winning
two battles against the last Ommiad, established Abu'l Abbas upon the throne.

Ommiad Emirate in Spain

He took the name of al Saffah (the Bloody), which he well deserved, for after the second victory
over the Ommiad caliph, he hunted out relentlessly each male Ommiad and had him put to
death. Of the whole family only one or possibly two escaped; one may have led an obscure

existence and founded a petty dynasty in the southeast of Arabia; one, after many vicissitudes,
became the ruler in Spain. There in 752 he established the emirate of Cordova. By his success

Spain was wrested from the power of the Abbasid caliphs; this was the first real break in the

unity of Islam. The Ommiads had ruled over all the followers of the Prophet; their successors
the Abbasids did not; the power of Islam was gradually sapped by the revolt and withdrawal of
one portion of the caliphate after another. But no other loss was so important for the history of

Europe as the revolution in Spain which isolated the Mussulmans there and made them a less

dangerous foe to the Christian tribesmen, who were able gradually to recover the whole of the
peninsula; but this reconquest was not completed for over seven hundred years, and
consequently will be described elsewhere.

Bagdad

The Ommiads still had many partisans at Damascus, so that it seemed prudent for the Abbasids
to move their capital to the east, where their Persian followers would be nearer; their victory was
a Persian victory and the Arabs were no longer the dominant people. After a short residence
elsewhere, the site of Bagdad was decided upon as the future capital, and there between 762

and 766 A. D. was built a round city with a double wall. One hundred thousand workmen were

employed to expedite the work. This was an excellent situation, as it was in the middle of a

fertile country and protected by its situation between the two rivers. Bagdad soon increased in

size and population, and became renowned as second only to Constantinople in splendor.

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Haroun-al-Rashid

This was especially true in the reign of Haroun-al-Rashid, 786-809, the hero of A Thousand and

One Nights. Even before he became caliph he had led a victorious army to Scutari and had

extorted tribute from the Byzantine Empire. Whenever the annual payment was withheld, he
made a new expedition into Greek lands and forced the emperor to terms. Haroun was
extremely active and a great traveler, making the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times, and visiting

distant portions of his caliphate. Among his subjects he was renowned as the just (al Rashid), in
spite of the well-known slaughter of the Barmecides; for the justice which he administered to the
poor was proverbial, and the latter delighted to tell how the great caliph wandered about in

disguise at night in order to see how his subjects in the capital lived and were treated. The

Thousand and One Nights has made him one of the best known characters in history, and,
allowing for the natural exaggeration, presents a remarkable picture of the civilization at Bagdad

and the habits and pursuits of its inhabitants.

Change in Ideals

A noteworthy change had taken place. The early history of Islam, after the death of the
Prophet, is little more than a chronicle of warfare and conquest. At Bagdad under Haroun, as is

clearly evident from the tales in the Arabian Nights, there was little zest for fighting and the
people were engaged in commerce, travel, and other peaceful pursuits. They were addicted to
pleasure, and religion exercised very little restraint upon their conduct. They had come under
the influence of the older civilizations in the lands which they had conquered, especially in

Persia, and had become willing pupils of the Greek traditions in philosophy and science. The
most marked trait in their culture, however, is its composite character. They borrowed or

adapted from all the peoples with whom they had come into contact. It has been well said that

they overran the domains of science as rapidly as they had conquered the kingdoms of the

earth. They were tolerant and no longer willed that conquered men should either become

Mohammedans or else be exterminated. They had always kept many of the conquered women

as concu bines or slaves, and the offspring were usually more tolerant than the fathers. Both
Jews and Christians were welcome at the court of the caliph and some held confidential

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positions about his person. Many others found employment in the cities and car ried on trades
and even learned professions.

Luxury:

The followers of the Prophet had departed widely from the habits of the early Arabs. The
caliph's income, which came in from the subject lands and from tributes, was enormous, and
was spent with lavish hands. The golden stream flowed into the laps of the courtiers and highly

paid officials and trickled down to the populace. In place of the old-time frugality extravagance
was now the fashion. It showed itself in the food, the clothing, the buildings, in reckless

expenditures of every kind. Noted princes prepared cook-books filled with receipts for costly

dishes and piquant sauces. Wine was drunk, in spite of the prohibitions of the Koran. Many
other beverages were concocted and snow was brought from the mountains to cool them. In
exercising their ingenuity in the manufacture of new kinds of incense and perfumes to tickle their

jaded senses, the Moslems were wonderfully fertile. A similar evolution had taken place in their

clothing. In place of the one homespun garment of the earlier days men now wore several, of
cotton, woolen, linen, or silken stuffs, all richly dyed. Red and yellow were the favorite colors.
The women were even more gorgeously clad than the men and often their dresses were
adorned with gold thread and many jewels. To repeat the accounts which have been handed
down by the chroniclers would merely recall the luxurious garments portrayed in the tales of
Scheherazade. In fact, she does not appear to have had much talent for invention in this field,
as even the richest dresses which she described seem commonplace after some of the

accounts given by Arab historians.

The palaces of the ca liphs were wonderfully magnificent and almost resembled those described

by Beckford in his Father. Many of the wealthy cit izens possessed costly houses, filled with

expensive furniture, sometimes cooled by snow in summer and heated in winter. All opened

upon flower gardens and orchards, carefully watered and tended. These palaces were usually

built in a style which com bined Byzantine and Persian forms. We can form some idea of their

appearance from the Alcazar at Seville and the Alhambra in Granada, which are of a later date
and seem to hold a place intermediate between the palaces of the most extravagant caliphs and

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the less extensive ones built by their subjects. The gardens were an important feature, as the
Mohammedans were fond of flowers and eagerly sought rare varieties.

Agriculture:

They had introduced and acclimatized not only flowers, but also j many kinds of vegetables and
fruits. The list of those with which Europe and America have been enriched through their agency
would be a very long one. For they were especially interested in agriculture, as some of their

sayings show: " He who plants, he who sows, he who makes the earth bring forth food suited to
man and beast performs an oblation of which account will be kept in heaven." " It is one of the

duties of the government to make the canals necessary for the cultivation of the soil." They had

learned the methods practised in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. They studied the treatises
which had been handed down and themselves wrote new and more scientific works on the use
of manure and irrigation, on grafting, on the importance of allowing the land to lie fallow, on

plant diseases and insect pests.

Wherever they found a new vegetable, a beautiful flower, or an edible fruit, they attempted to
grow it in their gardens and thence to transplant it to other lands. They were especially fond of
carrying the products of their old homes to the new countries which they had conquered.

Abderrahman introduced from Syria into Spain a palm-sprout which he had carefully tended.
The palm-trees in Spain and Portugal still bear witness to the love of his old surroundings which
the homesick monarch felt. The list of the vegetable products which the Arabs gathered in their
wanderings would be a long one and in many cases it is uncertain where these were found.

From India probably they got rice, sugar-cane, oranges and turmeric; from Egypt, papyrus and
cassia; from Syria, apricots, peaches, and lemons; from Persia, the silk-worm and the mulberry

tree. Bananas grew in Arabia itself. In some cases the country mentioned was not the original

home, but seems to have been the place where the Arabs found the product. At all events they

carried all of these to Sicily and Spain. In addition, they introduced into these countries cotton,

pomegranates, saffron, madder, sumach, camomile, roses anl other flowers, including the

convolvulus or morning glory, and very many other products of the vegetable world.

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[This subject has not been thoroughly studied; some of the statements above may be proved to
be incorrect by further research. But there can be no doubt of the great debt which we owe to

the agricultural zeal of the Arabs.]

Commerce:

The ease with which the plants were carried from one country to another is indicative of the
freedom of intercourse betxveen all parts of the Moslem world. This was especially important in

facilitating commerce, which was not burdened by tolls, restrictions, and different monetary
systems, as in Europe. Moreover, the merchant's calling held a higher place in the public

estimation than in feudal lands. Mohammed had been a merchant and naturally no one could

lose caste by following his example. Bagdad was exceptionally well-placed for commerce, as it
was the center of many trade routes. Not far distant was Bassora (Basra) and to its harbor came
the vessels which traded with the ports of Arabia, the Red Sea, India and China; even Chinese

junks came thither, although most of the traffic was in the hands of the Moslems. Besides these

water routes goods were car ried overland by caravans which traversed Asia, visited the Black
Sea and Mediterranean ports, skirted along the north coast of Africa and even penetrated far
into its interior.

At a much later date, when the Mohammedan commerce was no longer so unrestricted, Richard
the Lion-Hearted captured a caravan, and 03 a partial list of the wares which it carried is given
by a western chronicler. These included spices, gold and silver, silken man tles, purple and
scarlet robes, arms and weapons, coats of mail, costly cushions, pavilions, tents, biscuits,

pastry, conserves, medi cines, basins, chess-boards, silver dishes and candelabra, sugar, and
many other articles. The caravan is said to have been com posed of 4700 camels, besides

countless mules and asses.

In the days of the early Abbasids each city had its bazaar, or merchants' quarter, and in the

great centers were to be found porcelain, silks, lacquer and tea from China; spices, drugs,
pearls and precious stones from India and the islands in the Indian Ocean; black slaves, ivory

and gold-dust from Africa; white slaves, honey, wax and furs from the distant Scandinavian

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countries. The extent of the commerce with Europe is attested not only by the products found in
the Moslem countries, but also by the hoards of Arabic coins which have been dug up in Russia,

Swe den, Germany, and other parts of Europe. A single find at Alainz included over 15,000
coins. One of the best known tales in the Thousand and One Nights recounts the adventures of

Sind bad the Sailor. It has long been recognized that the account of his wanderings is based
upon actual reports of voyages made by Moslem merchants, and many of the places which he

was said to have visited have been identified and his descriptions have been shown to be, in

some instances, remarkably accurate. [See Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, Vol. I, pp.

438-450] His method of carrying on trade and the wares in which he dealt were characteristic of
the commerce in the days of Haroun-al- Rashid.

Manufacturing:

The Moslems acted as carriers and many of the wares in which they traded were produced by

others. But there were also many articles manufactured in Mohammedan countries, and the

number increased steadily, to satisfy the demands of trade. At first, most of the work was done
by Jews or Christians, but gradually the people in some districts would devote themselves in
large part to making some one specialty. Iron was mined in both Arabia and Persia and some
localities soon obtained a well-deserved reputation for producing many varieties of iron and
steel goods, especially weapons and armor. In the early period Damascus and Toledo had not
as yet become famous for their swords; but both straight and curved ones were made in other
parts of the Moslem world and had won a great reputation. Excellent crossbows were being

made and the breast-plates were considered the best in the world. Also steel mirrors, for then

steel and not glass was used for this purpose, were exported far and wide. In other branches of
iron work, as well as in goods made from other metals found in Arabia, there were many
products. The goldsmiths were famous and found ample employment in catering to the

prevailing love of luxury and adornment. For the same reason the makers of fine clothes and
other products of the loom amassed wealth. Many rich and handsome stuffs were made. The

caliph employed a large number of workmen to make robes of honor, of which he always kept a

store for gifts to ambassadors or to subjects whom he wished to reward. These were frequently

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marvels of fine workmanship and cost almost incredible sums of money. Rugs were made in
great numbers and were used for wall-decorations and to shut out drafts, as well as for carpets.

In summer straw mats were in demand instead of rugs, and these often were adorned with
complicated figures and most extravagant workmanship. Naturally, tents were in common use

and these afforded an opportunity for lavish display. They were frequently of immense size and
great height. Syria was noted for its manufacture of glass, especially glassware ornamented

with gold, and many costly pieces were made. Some caliphs made extensive collections of fine

specimens. Another article which was exported widely was paper, made from papyrus or cotton.

Workmen were brought to Asia from Egypt, where this manufacture had been carried on for
centuries. The Moslems soon excelled in the production of paper as well as in making inks and

in the binding of books. They refined sugar, which they exported as far as China and in which

they preserved fruits with such skill that these also became far-famed articles of export. Finally
we may mention the perfumes, of which there was a very large variety. These were in great

demand, both in the Moslem world and outside.

Science

Many of these manufactures, e. g. glass-making, would have been impossible without some
scientific knowledge. In this the Arabs had been the pupils of the Greeks, but had also learned
much from others, and in turn themselves contributed to its advance. Some of them held that "
the ink of science is of more value than the blood of the martyr." It is not possible here to go
through the whole range of the sciences which they studied and in which they were the leaders

during the Middle Ages; only a few examples can be given. Medicine in the days of Haroun was

practised almost exclusively by non-Moslems, especially Christians of Oriental origin and Jews;
but later many others, including Indians and Persians and finally Arabs, became noted in this
field. The doctors were then paid exclusively according to results and received no fees except

when the patients were cured. They specialized and the oculists seem to have been peculiarly
successful. But a good practitioner in any line might secure an ample income, and even an

almost fabulous one if he was the caliph's physician. Galen and Hippocrates were the great

authorities, but the doctors were not content to be mere imitators and some added to the store

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of medical lore; e.g., Rhazed, in the second half of the ninth century, won fame by his treatise
on smallpox.

Chemistry:

In the development of chemistry they seem to have been more independent; and, if they did not
lay the foundations of the science, they did very much to improve it. " They first invented and
named the alembic for the purpose of distillation, analyzed the substances of the three

kingdoms of nature, tried the distinction and affinities of alkalis and acids, and converted the
poisonous minerals into soft and salutary medicines." But much of their study deserves the

name of alchemy rather than chemistry, as they were chiefly interested in the search for the

philosopher's stone, which would transmute base metals into gold, and in the discovery of the
elixir of life, which would make a man eternally youthful.

Mathematics and Astronomy:

In mathematics, in which they followed Ptolemy, they won a deserved fame which is attested by
our use of the term " Arabic figures." It is still uncertain to what extent this popular usage is

justified, but it is certain that the figures themselves are older than the Moslem civilization. The
case is clearer for algebra, for which we have borrowed the name from the Arabic. The Treatise

on Algebra composed by Mohammed ibn Mousa, under the reign of Haroun's grandson, in 820

A.D., later came into use in the Christian world and was not superseded until the sixteenth
century. Arab scholars in the ninth and tenth centuries did much to develop the study of
spherical trigonometry. They founded observatories and attempted, in the first half of the ninth
century, to measure the size of the earth. But in astronomy they sought especially astrological

knowledge and their actual achievements in many phases of this science were, for the most

part, by-products of their more engrossing pursuit of astrology as a guide for present action and

as a key to the future.

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It was possible for the scholars to carry on these scientific pursuits because of the esteem in
which education was held. Some early proverbs illustrate the Arab feeling: " He dies not who

gives life to learning "; " The world is sustained by four things only: the learning of the wise, the
justice of the great, the prayers of the good, and the valor of the brave."

Education and Literature:

Mohammed had told his followers, "Seek knowledge even in China." Several of the Abbasid and

other caliphs were renowned for their patronage of learning. Institutions which may be roughly
differentiated as schools, colleges and universities were established by their liberality. Benjamin

of Tudela found twenty schools in Alexandria. In these institutions the boys studied grammar,

rhetoric, history, mathematics, astronomy and other sciences, and as a crowning feature
theology, with which law was closely associated. The Moslems had very early imbibed a great
zeal for the study of theology, partly from the Christian controversialists who were so numerous

in Syria. The political divisions encouraged, and were in part based upon, divergences in

theological beliefs. The Koran was the text for their grammatical studies. The history which
aroused their interest was mainly religious history. Their system of law was based upon the
Koran and depended upon its interpretation. Everything united to give theology the place of
honor in their educational system, although many students and literary men were more or less
irreverent and devoted themselves to other branches. The universities were founded in
connection with mosques and were equipped with libraries. In fact, there were a great many
extensive libraries formed in various parts of the Moslem world. Arab Spain is said to have had

seventy public libraries. Most of the figures as to their size come from later times and are open

to suspicion. As examples we may cite one at Tripoli which contained 100,000 volumes and
another in Spain which possessed 400,000.

The earlier libraries consisted largely of translations of the Greek works from which the Arabs

derived so much of their knowledge; later on, they themselves became copious authors. Private

individuals sometimes had extensive collections of books; one claimed that it would take four

hundred camels to carry his library. The volumes, however, contained then much less than an
average volume does to-day and many were probably like the books of Caesar in their length. It

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should also be remembered that scholars and particularly poets were held in high esteem and
their works were eagerly cherished. The caliphs and their chief officials would reward a neatly

turned verse or a witty answer by magnificent gifts, frequently of gold, but probably more usually
of robes of honor. One poet is said to have received so many gifts of the latter kind that when

his property was inventoried after his death it contained " a hundred complete suits of dress, two
hundred shirts, and five hundred turbans."

Travelers;

This poet must have traveled from center to center to have accumulated such a store. But there

was nothing unusual in this, for there was much traveling in the Moslem world. The officials and

agents of the caliphs had to make long journeys because of the extent of the caliphate. For their
convenience much was done which aided other travelers. Then, too, embassies were sent to
distant lands; presents were sent to the ruler of China in the East and to Charlemagne in the

West. The merchants, as has already been stated, traveled far and wide. Many scholars went

from one country to another to pursue their studies; for they believed that " Allah makes easy
the way to paradise for him who travels to learn." Explorers were sent out by the caliphs in the
ninth century to ascertain the truth of stories which they had heard, or to report on the
characteristics of distant lands. Doctors mere accustomed to collect, if possible, their own drugs
and medicines and, consequently, had to go where these were to be found.

Geography:

Works on geography were composed by travelers and others. One writer lived at Bassora and
collected all the facts and anecdotes that he could learn from the merchants who frequented

that port. As a rule the geographers followed the Greek traditions as to the size and form of the

earth and its divisions, but they made corrections and additions. In particular, they made maps

which may be described as excellent for their time, and especially A so when their productions

are contrasted with the ignorance and crudity shown in the maps made by the Christians. But
their works were confined almost wholly to Moslem lands and they lacked in concision and

order. They described not merely the geography but everything else of interest which they had

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learned. Their books have been happily described as a mixture of " a book of cities, or a
gazetteer, and a book of marvels, or a collection of natural history, folk-lore, and fairy stories."

There were many such works composed, from the ninth century onward; naturally the later ones
were usually better than the earlier. One of the best was the work of al Mukadassi of Jerusalem,

who was born in 946 A.D. For more than a score of years he journeyed through all the lands of
the Moslems. Then he attempted to give a systematic account of all the countries which he had

visited and of the manners and peculiarities of all the various nations. He had read widely, but

his work was original to a great extent and was based chiefly upon his own observations. Such

travelers were sure of a welcome everywhere and together with the other scholars and the
merchants did much to unify the Moslem world.

Division and Decline:

There was need of such a unifying influence, for political unity disappeared; the process of its

decay is plainly visible in the reigns of the grandson and great-grandson of Haroun, at a time

when rapid progress was being made in many branches of science and other learning. As we
look back it is very easy to see many reasons for the decline, and in some respects its causes
were very , similar to those of the decline of the old Roman Empire, or to those which brought
about the fall of the Merovingians and the Carolingians. But there were also causes which were
peculiar to the Moslem world. The caliph possessed absolute power and his executive functions
embraced all religious, political and legal activities. To exercise such powers wisely over an
empire of such enormous extent, including peoples of so many different nationalities, a very

strong man was needed. Such men are very rare in any age and any society, but were

particularly lacking under the conditions of luxurious and voluptuous living which prevailed in
Bagdad. Life in the harem sapped the vigor and blunted the powers of the Mohammedan rulers.
Then, too, there was no fixed rule of succession and palace intrigues were constant. The prize

was so great that it tempted many. Caliphs attempted to ward off this danger by having a
favorite son recognized as successor during their own lifetime, but frequently their wishes were

thwarted. They could not depend upon the loyalty of the governors of provinces, particularly

because the latter had been given too much power. In order to save trouble and expense they

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had been made practically absolute in their provinces, being allowed to collect the taxes, out of
at which they had to pay the soldiers and provide for the other administrative expenses; the only

requirement was that they should send the caliph each year a fixed sum. Consequently rulers
inThe distant provinces revolted and no longer sent the annual payment. In many cases it was

impossible to reduce such rebels to submission. As has been stated, Spain had become
independent under an Ommiad. Africa revolted. Nearer home, even in Persia itself, some parts

passed from the caliph's control. Religious enthusiasm had been the only bond which held the

people together, and this was no longer potent. Religious dissensions played a large role in the

decay; for there were manv sects and often the leader of a sect was able to get a local following
and to pose as a champion of one or another of the peoples gathered together into this unwieldy

empire. Even in his own capital the caliph did not feel safe, and in place of the Arabs, who had

been the real military backbone of the caliphate, formed a body-guard of Turks. Its commander,
like a pretorian prefect or a mayor of the palace, soon became the all-powerful master of his

nominal chief. The caliph at Bagdad came to be little more than the head of the religion, and

even in this his position was not undisputed. For in 929 A.D. the ruler of Mohammedan Spain
took the title of caliph. In the same century the Fatimite leader in Africa conquered the head of
another sect who had already assumed the title, and in turn became caliph. Later he conquered

Egypt and transferred his capital to Cairo, so that in the tenth century there were three caliphs,

residing, respectively, at Bagdad, Cordova, and Cairo.

Fallen Caliph”

Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew who had traveled widely in the last half of the twelfth century, was at

Bagdad and has left a description of the position the caliph then held. "All Mohammedan kings
acknowledge him, and he holds the same dignity over them which the pope enjoys over the
Christians. He understands all languages, is well versed in the Mosaic law, and reads and

writes the Hebrew tongue. He enjoys nothing but what he earns by the labor of his own hands,
and therefore manufactures coverlets, which he stamps with his seal, and which his officers sell

in the public market; these articles are purchased by the nobles of the land, and from their

produce his necessities are provided. The caliph is an excellent man, trustworthy and kind-

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hearted towards every one, but generally invisible to the Mohammedans.... The caliph leaves
his palace but once every year, namely at the time of the feast called Ramadan; on this

occasion many visitors assemble from distant parts, in order to have an opportunity of beholding
his countenance. He thel bestrides the royal mule, dressed in kingly robes, which are composed

of gold and. silver cloth. On his head he wears a turban, ornamented with precious stones of
inestimable value.... He is saluted loudly by the assembled crowd, who cry: ' Blessed art thou,

our lord and king.' . . . The procession moves on into the court of the mosque, where the caliph

mounts a wooden pulpit and expounds the law.... The caliph never leaves his palace again for a

whole year."

Orthodoxy:

While the caliph had lost his power the religion of Islam had gained in strength. Although various
sects had made converts, especiallv among the learned, the great mass of people at Bagdad

had never been affected by religious speculations, which they were too ignorant to understand.

The scholar might assert that " doubt is the foundation of all human knowledge," and caliphs
might assert that " the Koran was created "; the great mass remained orthodox. By the middle of
the ninth century the caliph, in order to win support against his internal foes, decreed as the
state dogma that the Koran was divinely inspired and must be followed absolutely. Orthodoxy
became more firmly fixed; a belief in rigid predestination prevailed; and " the dead letter of the
Koran sapped all progress among the faithful." This point of view gradually prevailed throughout
the Moslem world; but Cordova was the last caliphate to be affected, and in Spain progress and

freedom of thought continued longer than elsewhere. Intolerance did not gain a strong foothold;

learned scholars flourished; artists still dared to violate the precepts of the Koran. The court of
the lions in the Alhambra is the most striking illustration, for to a strict believer " images and
pictures representing living creatures are contrary to law." In this respect as in many others

some Moslems in Spain refused to be bound by the letter of the Koran and study was not
confined so exclusively to theology as elsewhere.

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Influence on Christians

The Moslem civilization is of importance to us chiefly for its influence upon our ancestors. The

first striking example of this influence was in the days of Charles the Great, to whom Harounal-

Rashid sent as presents: an elephant, a magnificent tent, costly silken garments--probably

these were robes of honor--perfumes, balsam, two great brass candelabra, and a brass water-
clock, constructed with much mechanical ingenuity. This is said to have been the first water-

clock in the west of Europe. These gifts are recorded by a contemporary western chronicler and
excited his admiration. Some probably served as models for western workmen. The Christians
in Spain learned much from their Moslem neighbors and, in turn, passed on some of this

knowledge. It is significant that Gerbert was sent to Spain to study mathematics. In southern

Italy and Sicily the Normans came into contact with both Moslem and Byzantine civilizations and
profited greatly. But it was especially during the crusades that the Christians learned to know

the Moslem achievements and derived the greatest amount of knowledge from them, this will be
treated later. For the plants which were introduced by the Arabs Europe is especially indebted

and many of these have been transplanted to America. Knowledge was also gained, as has
already been indicated for some fields. Medicine was long under the sway of the Arab authors.
Avicenna, who lived from 980 to I037, had more than a hundred treatises ascribed to him and f

rom the twelfth to the seventeenth century was the chief guide for all medical studies in the
universities of Europe.

Words from Arabic:

One of the surest proofs of the extent of the influence of the Moslem civilization is furnished by
the words which the European languages have borrowed from the Arabic. Sometimes a product

and name came together; sometimes the new knowledge was designated by the Arabic term. If

we omit all words borrowed from the Arabic which were of Greek origin, as e. g. alchemy,

alembic, carat, elixir, talisman; or of Persian origin, as e. g. azure, calabash, candy; the English

language has taken from the Arabic: alcohol, alcove, algebra, alkali, artichoke, azimuth,

benzine, caraway, cipher, civet, coffee, cotton, jasper, lute, mate (in chess), mattress, mohair,
myrrh, nitre, ogive, racket (i. e. bat), saffron, senna, sherbet, sofa, sumach, syrup, zenith, zero,

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and many more. [See Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, Second Series (Oxford, 1891),
from whom all of these examples have been taken.

Muslim World and the Contemporary Challenges:

I wonder whether to commence my words with a statement of woes and misfortunes that are, or
with the joys and delights that are to be. Is it not a fundamental objective of the Islamic

Conference to arrive at common remedies for the woes of Muslim countries, and the attainment
of a stature and position befitting them? Is it not to achieve this lofty ideal that the present
should be prevailed over and misfortunes remedied? No pain and affliction can be cured unless

it is properly diagnosed in the first place, then the best solution is sought after with discretion

and reflection, and finally, acted upon with resolve and firmness.

Our predicament is that the Islamic Ummah, once a flag-bearer of knowledge, thought, and

civilization, has in recent centuries relapsed into weakness and backwardness and worse still,

has even failed, due to the consequent painful state of passivity vis-à-vis the ostentatious
dominant civilization of the time, to properly utilize the fruits of this civilization.

Our centuries-old passivity is the outcome of the decline of a once shining human civilization,

whose achievements and remnants are still praiseworthy and to which the dominant world
civilization is truly indebted. Today, the recreation of the replica of the old civilization is neither

possible, for its time is long gone, nor desirable, even if it were possible. Considering civilization
as the product of man's responses to his questions about existence, the world, and himself and
also as representing the sum total of his efforts in the way of meeting his needs, then what is
constant in man is his quest for knowing as well as his need and longing.

However, the form and content of the questions and needs change according to time and place.
Civilizations continue to live as long as they possess the capacity to respond to the ever-
renewing questions and the ever-changing needs of man, otherwise they are doomed to

demise. As such, civilization, as a human affair, is subject to birth, development, and demise.

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The questions and needs of man in our time are in many ways different from those of our
predecessors. Our passivity in recent centuries in the face of Western civilization-which is itself

a natural response to the quest of Western man-is due to the fact that for various reasons we
have ceased to ask. The absence of question leads to the absence of thought, which in turn

leads to inevitable passivity and subjugation vis-à-vis others.

What is important, though, is to discern that such passivity, indolence, and backwardness is not

our preordained destiny. The people who once created one of the most glorious civilizations in
history still enjoy the potential to create another, provided, of course, that they lend themselves
to reason and reflection, and this cannot be accomplished without the realization of the

following:

1-Return, with reflection, to the historical self which on the one hand is rooted in eternal Divine
inspiration and on the other, carries a unique historical and cultural potentiality nurtured by the

past.

2-Proper and deep understanding of the present time. In this respect, it is imperative to discern
that between Islamic civilization or to be exact, civilization of Muslims-and our life today-there
stands what is called 'Western civilization', a civilization whose accomplishments are not few,

and whose negative consequences, particularly for non­Westerners' are plentiful.

Our era is an era of the preponderance of Western culture and civilization, an understanding of
which is imperative. However, for such an understanding to be effective and useful, it is
essential to go beyond its surface and the superficialities and to reach its theoretical basis and
the fundamentals of its values.

Recognition of our past is equally imperative, not in order to return and stay in the past, which is
pure regression, but rather for the rediscovery of the essence of our identity and its refinement
in the mentalities and habits hardened by time and place, as well as for rational criticism of the

past in order to find proper support for today's honor and dignity and a platform to go beyond
the present towards a future more splendid than the past.

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Undoubtedly, we will only succeed in moving forward along this path if we possess the requisite
fairness and capacity to utilize the positive scientific, technological, and social accomplishments

of Western civilization, a stage we must inevitably go through to reach the future. Painful and
bitter though we find the passivity and backwardness of Muslim countries, nevertheless the

mere happy reminder that we can transform our destiny through awareness, resolve, and
solidarity is a matter of elation and delight.

We can certainly move the present as well as future generations towards a new Islamic
civilization through setting our eyes on horizons farther away, being together with understanding
and helping each other as brothers. For this to become a reality, all of us must put our minds to

the realization of an 'Islamic civil society' in our respective countries.

The civil society which we want to promote and perfect in our society and which we recommend
to other Islamic societies is fundamentally different from the 'civil society' that is rooted in Greek

philosophical thinking and Roman political tradition and which, having gone through the Middle

Ages, has acquired its peculiar orientation and identity in the modern world. The two, however,
are not necessarily in conflict and contradiction in all their manifestations and consequences.
This is exactly why we should never be oblivious to the judicious acquisition of the positive
accomplishments of Western civil society.

While Western civil society, historically as well as , theoretically, is derived from the Greek city-
state and the later Roman political system, the civil society we have in mind has its origin, from
a historical and theoretical point of view, in Madinat ul-Nabi. Changing Yathreb to Madinatun-

Nabi was not just a change of name, nor did the change from Ayyam ul-jahiliah (Days of
Ignorance) to Ayyam-Ullah' (Days of Allah) represent just an alteration of designation. Madinah

is not soil and territory just as Yaum-Ullah does not stand for time.

With Madinat ul-Nabi and Ayyam-Ullah there emerged in the early days of Islam a moral

geography and history that ushered in the beginning of a new outlook, character, and culture.
This culture, with its unique and distinct view of existence and man and their origin, has for

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centuries lived in the depths of the soul and collective memory of Muslims. Now, more than ever
before, Muslims need to take abode in their own common home.

Despite the fact that ethnic, geographical, and social differences among Muslims have over time

given different semblances and flavors to the Muslim individual, Madinat ul-Nabi remains as our
eternal moral abode and Yaum-Ullah continues to flow as current time through all moments of
our lives, or else they ought to. Madinah emerged through hegira (exodus) from the land of

polytheism and oppression, as Yaum-Ullah began as the result of a break with the time of
Jahiliah (darkness) and entry into the sacred realm of Divine 'Time and Presence'.

Taking abode in the 'common Islamic home' does not mean regression, rejection of scientific

achievements, withdrawal from the modern world or seeking conflict with others. On the
contrary, it is only after such a return to the common identity that we can live in peace and
tranquility with other peoples and nations.

Living in peace and security can only be realized when one fully understands the culture and
thinking but also the concerns as well as the ways and manners of others. Sophisticated
understanding of the cultural and moral dimensions of other societies and nations entails
establishment of a dialogue with them.

A genuine meaningful discourse can take place only when the parties concerned find

themselves in their own genuine true position, otherwise the dialogue between an alienated
imitator and others is meaningless and certainly void of any good or benefit. Seeking abode in
the common Islamic home, Madinatun Nabi-is tantamount to the assumption by Muslims of their
true position; that is, securing their true Islamic identity.

In the civil society that we espouse, although it is centered around the axis of Islamic thinking
and culture, personal or group dictatorship or even the tyranny of the majority and elimination of
the minority has no place. In such a society, man, due to the very attribute of being human, is

venerated and revered and his rights respected. Citizens of an Islamic civil society enjoy the
right to determine their own destiny, supervise the governance and hold the government

accountable.

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The government in such a society is the servant of the people and not their master, and in every

eventuality, is accountable to the people whom God has entitled to determine their own destiny.

Our civil society is not a society where only Muslims are entitled to rights and are considered
citizens. Rather, all individuals are entitled to rights, within the framework of law and order.
Defending such rights ranks among the important fundamental duties of the government.

Respect for human rights and compliance with their relevant norms and standards is not a
posture adopted out of political expediency or conformity with others. Rather it is the natural

consequence of our religious teachings and precepts. Amir Al-Mu'menin Imam Ali (AS) enjoined

his representative to observe the principle of justice and equity as regards all people and not
Muslims. only, for 'they are of two groups; a group of them is your brothers in faith and the other
is like you in creation'.

Our civil society seeks neither to dominate others nor to submit to domination. It recognizes the
right of other nations to self-determination and access to the necessary means for an honorable
living. Determined not to yield to force and coercion and in its drive to stand on its own feet, our
civil society, as instructed by the Holy Qur’an, considers itself entitled to acquire all requisite

means for material and technical progress and authority. The rejection of domination and
subservience no doubt means the rejection of force and duplicity in relations among nations,
and their replacement with logic and the principle of mutual respect in international relations.

The civil society we champion is based on our collective identity whose attainment requires the
continuous and ceaseless endeavors of intellectuals and thinkers. It is not a treasure that can

be unearthed overnight; rather, it is a fountain of life and morality from whose constant effusion

we will benefit.

Therefore, enjoyment of this treasure is gradual and is dependent on scrupulous cognizance

and re-examination of our heritage as well as our doctrinal and intellectual tradition on the one
hand, and sophisticated scientific and philosophical understanding of the modern world on the

other. Hence, it is the thinkers and men of, learning who is pivotal in this movement and play the

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central role: Our success along this path depends upon politics serving thought and virtue and
not acting as a confined and restrictive framework for them.

What I have just stated is not an exercise in imagination but the panoramic outlook of a future

situation, whose achievement is possible and for whose realization it is our urgent duty to strive.
We are of the belief that movement along this clear path has commenced in Iran thanks to the
victory of the Islamic Revolution.

The honorable people of Iran are pursuing their way with self-confidence and through
perseverance in the face of difficulties and struggling against internal restrictive and regressive

habits and mindsets on- the one hand, and external pressure and conspiracies on the other.

Along this path, they extend their hands, in fraternity and cooperation, to all Muslim nations and
states and also to all nations and states who are committed to the principle of mutual respect.

Regaining Islamic honor and dignity, which God has discerned for us, and acquiring the

requisite capabilities to claim our due share in the present world and in the creation of a new
civilization, or at least, actively participating in the genesis of the civilization that will inevitably
replace the existing one, we Muslims should rely on two important factors: one, wisdom and
reason, and the other, cohesion and solidarity. In order to realize these two prodigious marvels

can there be anything for us but recourse to the Holy Qur’an-the eternal heritage of the Glorious
Prophet of Islam?

Which Divine Book or Message more than the Qur’an has so much emphasized reasoning,
meditation, reflection, contemplation, and deliberation on existence and on the world, and on
learning from the fate of past peoples and communities? Furthermore, against all 'racial, ethnic,

linguistic and even religious differences, the Holy Qur’an is the most trustworthy anchor of bond

and unity among us Muslims, provided, of course, that we appreciate it and rely on it, with

wisdom, and enlighten with its bright rays our life today as well as our future horizons, without

rigidity and habitually on the one hand, and a sense of inferiority vis-à-vis others on the other
hand.

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At this juncture and on the occasion of this august assembly, I briefly present to the
distinguished audience, with deep fraternal feeling, the priorities that Muslim countries need to

address and find remedies for, on which I seek the assistance of the conference.

1) Towards a New and just World Order

Despite the efforts of American politicians to impose their will on others, as the remaining pole
of power, around whose interests the world should gravitate, international relations are in the

process of transition from the previous bi-polar system to a new stage of history. In our view, a
new order based on pluralism is taking shape in the world that, God willing, will not be the

monopoly of any single power.

What is imperative for us ­Muslim countries-is that while valiantly resisting all kinds of
expansionism, we should strive to secure our proper position and stature in contributing to the

shaping of the new world political order and new international relations. This entails

understanding, planning, and common endeavor.

It is imperative that Muslim countries should engage in a meticulous evaluation of their position

and capabilities, and upon undertaking an objective assessment of their external environment,
proceed to adopt appropriate policies to arrive at political solidarity and consolidation of all 'their

internal resources, and thereby strive towards ensuring effective participation in international

decision making. Initially, relying on principles, common heritage and interests as well as on
negotiation, we should strive to bring our views closer together in all areas and then create a
chain of well-connected complementing possibilities through proper utilization of capabilities.

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2) Security and Peace in the Region and the World

Parallel to joint efforts towards fulfilling the historical mission of the Islamic world in contributing

to the shaping of a new humane world order, the full-fledged cooperation of Muslim countries

towards the provision and preservation of world peace is an undeniable necessity.

However, the provision of security and lasting humane peace in the world entails that the cold-
war paradigm, which was based on the necessity of the existence-for public opinion-of an actual

or imagined external enemy, be cast aside. It is unfortunate though that certain expansionist
tendencies in the world are seeking to create an imaginary enemy, of Islam.

It is, therefore, incumbent upon us all to strive, through effective and continual participation in
the promotion of peace and security at regional and global levels, to strengthen confidence,
reduce security concerns and moreover, render ineffective the wrong inculcations by the

enemies of Islam. We should be vigilant, however, about what is most threatening to our

security, that is, the trend of increasing threats against the very political, cultural, and economic
existence of Muslims, particularly because the extension of the range of these threats, law,
pursuit of state terrorism, and development of nuclear weapons, seriously threatens peace and
security in the region.

In the sensitive and strategic region of the Persian Gulf, the regional states themselves should

undertake to preserve security and peace. In our view, the presence of foreign forces and
armada in this sensitive area serves not only as a source of tension and insecurity, but also has
tragic environmental consequences.

What are happening in the dear land of Afghanistan is indeed a massive human tragedy, as well

as a fertile ground for foreign intervention and disruption of security and stability in the whole
region. Muslim countries, and for that matter, the Organization of the Islamic Conference,
should insist that there is no military solution to the Afghan problem.

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The painful predicament in this country should be resolved, initially through negotiation with the
parties involved and finally, by the Afghan people themselves. The Islamic Conference is

expected to help guide this country towards peace and tranquility through inviting all the parties
involved to engage in negotiation.

The situation in Iraq, particularly in the north, is also a cause for concern. While inviting Iraq to
cooperate properly with the United Nations, we believe that foreign intervention, particularly

conflict and war in the northern area that has led to the displacement of hundreds of thousands
of civilians, has created the grounds for widespread insecurity in the region. We attach great
importance to the territorial integrity of Iraq and declare our readiness to undertake all

humanitarian measures in this important country of the region.

The dangerous designs for foreign infiltration and penetration, particularly by Israel, in various
parts of our region are a serious cause for concern, underlining the necessity of vigilance on the

part of all countries of the region. We welcome the active and self-assertive presence of the

states of Central Asia and the Caucasus in the process of independence and development
towards the honor and dignity of the Islamic world.

At this point, while welcoming the trend of peace in the friendly and fraternal nation of Tajikistan,

I deem it necessary to express our gratitude to President Rahmonov and Mr. Abdullah Noori,
the chairman of the National Reconciliation Commission, for their cooperation towards the
Conference to exert its utmost efforts in order to prevent the spread of ethnic differences as well
as to strengthen the process of peace in this country.

Some Islamic countries are currently facing foreign threats and conspiracies and are also

burdened with difficulties emanating from internal differences. The Islamic Conference in

general and Islamic countries in particular should declare their solemn support for the

independence and interests of these countries as well as their respect for the wishes and

aspirations of Muslim nations. Moreover, the Islamic Conference should act and move in a
manner and direction that Muslims everywhere in the world, including Muslim minorities in non-

Muslim countries, find in the organization a source of confidence and assured support.

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In any eventuality, we should remain vigilant vis-à-vis visible as well as invisible sources of
threat against our security. We believe that the Islamic countries have reached the requisite

stage of maturity to undertake, through understanding and conclusion of collective agreements

and treaties, to preserve their own security as well as that of the region in which they live. In this

particular connection, the Islamic Republic of Iran, while emphasizing cooperation among states
in the Persian Gulf region for the preservation of regional peace and stability, considers the

conclusion of collective defense-security arrangements in the Persian Gulf an assured step

towards the establishment of lasting security in the region and towards the defense of the

common interests and concerns of all the countries and nations concerned.

3)Comprehensive, balanced, and Sustainable Development of Islamic Countries

Development constitutes another propitious basis for the preservation of the security, stability,
and independence of Islamic societies as well as for the honor and dignity of Muslim nations. In

our view, proper and preferred development is comprehensive, balanced, and sustainable; it

should ensure participation of all individuals, groups, and segments of society, including women
and youth. In development defined as such, the human being is the central factor, whose
enjoyment of the material and spiritual blessings of life constitutes the very fundamental
objective of development.

In order to achieve such development, we should, first and foremost, define and devise the
proper patterns of development compatible with the particularities of our respective societies
and the Islamic world. We should also acknowledge that no country could successfully

overcome all the hurdles of development on its own.

Further, it is imperative that Islamic countries undertake a comprehensive, precise, and

scientific assessment and evaluation of their capabilities and capacities, and help create­

through utilization of their respective comparative advantages-a ring of interconnected links of

complementary developmental undertakings across the Islamic world.

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Simultaneously, they should also properly exploit their God­-given assets and resources,
through efficient management and reliance on knowledge, technology, and manpower, as well

as through suitable cooperation and exchange in scientific, technical, and economic fields and
through exchange of specialized and skilled labor. The Islamic world will undoubtedly develop

into an important pole of power, progress, and authority in the present as well as the future
world through adoption and use of these steps and measures.

The existing religious bonds, spiritual affinities, and common cultural heritage among Muslim
countries, once complemented with scientific, economic, political, technical, and cultural
interaction and exchange, will certainly provide the requisite material and moral foundations and

pillars for the establishment of a progressive, advancing and tranquil society and will bring them

collective development and security.

4) Reassessment of the Role of the Organization of the Islamic Conference

The Organization of the Islamic Conference, as the only universal multilateral organization in the
Islamic world, plays an important role in the accomplishment of the aforementioned and, in
general, the realization of the fundamental objectives of 'participation, dialogue, security, and
development'. In light of the steadily growing role of religion in general and Islam in particular in

recent decades in explaining and shaping human relationships, Muslims all over the world are
well-justified to look upon the Organization of the Islamic Conference as a refuge and source to
meet their supranational Islamic and human needs and aspirations.

The Organization of the Islamic Conference, with thirty years of experience, enjoys the requisite
potential resources for a more effective presence at the international level. Hence, it is natural

that we now take up the question of looking for new approaches and mechanisms to strengthen

its organizational structure as well as to make more efficient its decisions and ensure their

implementation.

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Under the present circumstances, it is incumbent upon the Organization of the Islamic
Conference to assume a more active and innovative presence internationally, particularly in the

resolution of current conflicts among member states or the crises imposed on them from
outside.

The Organization's initiative in defending the rights of the honorable people of Bosnia stands out
as a good start for a serious change in the organization's approach to international difficulties

and crises. Preservation and continuation of such a sensitivity and active support of the rights
and interests of Muslim societies and Muslim communities and minorities in non-member
countries, along with constructive engagement in finding a solution to such chronic cases as

that of Kashmir, is imperative for the institutionalization of a more pronounced role for the

organization.

All of us should help the Organization of the Islamic Conference so that it can strive, more

forcefully and unequivocally, towards a sincere and compassionate resolution of differences

within the Islamic world. We should also support the organization, financially as well as
politically, in discharging its mandate. At the same time, more vigorous attention to the
fundamental and pressing problems and issues of the Islamic world on the part of the
organization, along with the enhancement of the content of its decisions;-and further
reinforcement of its plans and activities, will certainly make the organization more energetic and
dynamic.'

And finally, in closing, I would like to express my gratitude once again to our dear guests and

wish every success for this august gathering and greater achievements for the Organization of
the t Islamic Conference.

And let our last word be 'Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds'.'Praise

be to Allah, Lord of the Creation, will be the last of our prayers'

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Rise of Extremism:

The menace of extremism has plagued Muslim societies especially in the recent decades. This
is perhaps the most serious challenge the Muslim world is facing at present because most

Muslim societies, with only a few exceptions notwithstanding, are marred by extremism. Passing
through the stages of infecting thoughts and behaviours and plaguing speech and writing, to our

misfortune, extremism has turned into practical manifestation in massacre, bloodshed and

terrorism. In this write-up an attempt has been made to adumbrate the causes of the rise of this

monster.

What is Extremism?

Extremism literally, means driving something to the limit or to the extreme or adopting extreme
or violent course of action. Nowadays, this term is being increasingly used in religious and

political context with reference to Islam. The Muslims who adopt violent means for enforcing or

propagating their own version of Islam are termed extremists by the West. The term is applied
to curse those Muslims who are against undue US-led Western interference in internal affairs of
economically feeble Muslim states on the pretext of War on Terror.

Origin & Historical Background

The term ‘Extremism’ got prominence in international affairs especially after 9/11 attacks in the
US. Muslims belonging to the militant group Al-Qaeda, which was led by Osama bin Laden,

were accused of carrying out those attacks. Soon after that fateful incident, the then US

president George W. Bush announced the War on Terror ‘to dismantle the terrorist groups

accused of orchestrating 9/11 attacks.’ Then, the US in collaboration with some Western powers

launched an all-out military campaign against Taliban government in Afghanistan for providing
shelter and support to Osama bin Laden and his Al-Qaeda affiliates. Eventually, Taliban
government was toppled only to be replaced by US-backed government that was dominated by

Northern Alliance. This whole exercise took only a few days. Thousands of Taliban were either

killed or wounded and a large number of them were detained by the occupant forces. Although

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Taliban were removed from the government, yet their influence over the country could not be
abolished. Even today, in order to bring durable peace and stability to the war-torn Afghanistan,

the US, China and Pakistan are striving to initiate a meaningful dialogue process between pro-
US Afghan government and the Taliban.

Rise of Extremism Final 1After removing Taliban government, the US alleged that some Taliban
groups were having safe havens in Pakistan-Afghanistan bordering areas. So, the US started to

carry out drone attacks in this belt. Although the US claimed success in eliminating high-value
targets, there are widespread reports of losses of lives and material of innocent people in these
attacks.

Since the launch of US-led military campaign in Afghanistan and the start of drone attacks in its
tribal areas, Pakistan has been facing intermittent deadly terrorist attacks that have resulted in
huge losses of life, property and infrastructure. These heinous acts of terror are claimed by

certain extremist and terrorist groups on the pretext of taking revenge from US and its allies.

Even innocent schoolchildren were not spared by the terrorists. After the inhumane massacre of
APS Peshawar students on 16th December 2014, Pakistan Army launched Operation Zar-e-Azb
in North Waziristan. On account of this successful military operation, the people of Pakistan
have heaved a sigh of relief as this operation has broken the back of terrorist groups.

Causes for Rise of Extremism in Islamic World:

1. Negative Role of the West

Rise of Extremism Final 2The first major cause for the rise of extremism and anti-West

sentiments in the Islamic world is the dubious policies and double standards adopted by the

Western powers, especially the US. In 1979, when the USSR invaded Afghanistan, the United
States started a proxy war against the Russians through Afghan Mujahideen. Throughout the
1980s, Afghanistan was the battleground for a fight between pro-US Mujahideen and Russian

troops. The US provided the Mujahideen with sophisticated weapons through Pakistan because
at that time these fighters were being hailed as heroes by the US. Since Pakistan faced serious

threats to its sovereignty from the USSR, it had no option but to become a US ally in this war.

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The Afghan War had serious ramifications for Russian economy which forced the withdrawal of
the Red Army from Afghanistan in 1989 ergo disintegration of USSR in 1991. So, it was the US

that patronized extremist and militant elements in Afghanistan to achieve its vested interests.
After collapse of the USSR, Afghanistan was left on the mercy of fate and of warring groups of

Mujahideen as they took up arms against each other and ransacked their own country. Hence
this civil war and turmoil created power vacuum in Afghanistan. In order to fill that vacuum, a

new group Taliban emerged in 1994. The Taliban Mujahideen brought the entire Afghanistan

under their sway within a few months. Though Taliban were hardliners and rigid in their policies,

they brought peace and stability to the war-torn Afghanistan. Nevertheless, the same Taliban,
who once were being hailed as Mujahideen, were declared terrorists and extremists after 9/11.

Middle East is another region that has witnessed surge in extremist and anti-US sentiments.
Once again the dubious role and unjustified meddling of the US-dominated West in Arab states’

internal affairs is the fundamental cause for it. Since the establishment of Israel in the heart of
Arabia in furtherance of the notorious Balfour Declaration of 1917, the West has protected this

rogue state. Each aggression and violent act that Israel carries out against the neighbouring
Arab States has a complete military and diplomatic backing of the West. This immoral
patronage of Israel has generated genuine reservations among the Arabs.

After 9/11, the US intensified its meddling into the region’s affairs on the pretext of War against
Terrorism. In Iraq, the West exterminated Saddam Hussein in a military action in tandem with
some local groups to punish him for amassing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) — which

were never found there. After Saddam’s removal and his subsequent hanging, Iraq still has

precarious law and order situation on account of sectarian differences.

More recently, Syria has also plunged into sectarian strife which has resulted in enormous

bloodshed and destruction. The West has failed to play a positive and constructive role in

controlling internal differences in Iraq and Syria. In the aftermath of the Arab Spring, central

governments in certain Arab states have weakened and some countries like Yemen are

confronted with bloody civil wars. These developments have led to the emergence of new
violent and extremist groups in the region like Daesh or IS.

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2. Lust for Power and Internal Differences within Muslim States

The rulers of some Muslim states do also share responsibility for the rise of extremism in the

Muslim World. Decades-long rules of dictators in some Muslim countries ignited dissident

tendencies which weakened economies of these states that, in turn, provided opportunities to
the economically and technologically strong West to meddle in their internal affairs and to
overwhelm them. Instead of curbing extremist groups, the power-hungry dictators patronized

them to prolong their rule.

3. Negative Role of Muslim Clergy

The clergy of Muslims is also responsible for the rise of extremism in Muslim world. Instead of
propagating the real Islamic tenets of peace, harmony, tolerance, peaceful co-existence and
forbearance, they fan the flames of negative tendencies like sectarian differences.

How to Counter this Menace?

Rise of Extremism Final 3The Muslims need to realize that they cannot neutralize Western

influence in their internal affairs by resorting to extremism. On the contrary, this will further
deteriorate the state of affairs as is already manifest in the destruction of states like Syria,

Yemen, Afghanistan, etc. The Muslim world can counter West’s imperialistic designs only

through education and unity, and not through militancy and extremism.

The West and the US should also revisit their policies of consolidating their economies and
military prowess at the cost of killing and weakening Muslims. Otherwise the growing unrest

among the Muslims may fuel the already burning flames of extremism and terrorism.

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Islam Condemns Extremism:

Peace and harmony are the very essence of Islam whereas extremism and intolerance are in

sheer contrast to the Islamic teachings. The word Islam has been derived from Arabic word

“Salam,” which means peace and Islam means entering into peace. Allah Almighty says in
verse 256 of Surah Al-Baqara:

“There is no compulsion in religion.”

At a number of places in the Holy Quran, the Muslims have been directed in unequivocal terms

to avoid creating mischief on earth. Furthermore, in verse 32 of Surah Al-Maidah, Allah Almighty

declares slaying of one person as slaying of the whole humanity and saving the life of one
person as saving the whole humanity.

The Holy Prophet (PBUH) propagated message of Islam through peace and never forced his
opinion upon others. As a head of state, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) patronized principle of

peaceful coexistence with other nations through steps like charter of Madina. On the occasion of
the Conquest of Makkah, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) announced general amnesty for even those

who had severely persecuted Muslims. He (PBUH) was even benign to prisoners of war and in
all the battles fought during his lifetime, the Muslims were defenders, not the aggressors.

Once an Arab Bedouin came to the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and requested for only one prefect
advice. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said “Avoid anger” and repeated it again and again. He

(PBUH) also said to the Muslims:

“Facilitate things to people and do not complicate things for them, give good tidings to the

people and do not make them run away from Islam.”

Hence the need of the hour for Muslims is to shun tendencies of extremism, militancy and non-

tolerance and to promote qualities like integrity, harmony, brotherhood, tolerance and peaceful
coexistence with other communities.

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Distinctions of Islamic Civilization (Tauheed, Spiritualism, Dignity of Man,

Equality, Social Justice, Moral Values, Tolerance, Rule of Law):

Tauheed:

The notion of tawhid is the most important cornerstone in the conceptual framework for
Islamic architecture. Tawhid means asserting the unity or oneness of Allah. Tawhid is

the Islamic concept of monotheism. The word tawhid is derived from the words wahid

and ahad which mean “one”, “unique” and “peerless”. Based on the concept of tawhid,

Muslims believe that God cannot be held equal in any way or degree to any other
being or concept. Maintaining that there is no God except Allah and that there is nothing
comparable to Him constitutes the essence of tawhid and the essence of Islam. Thus,

declaring God’s oneness, tawhid, together with Prophet Muhammad’s prophethood

(shahadah), is the first requirement for one who wishes to embrace the Islamic religion.

Shirk, or associating anybody or anything with God making it comparable to Him, is the
opposite of tawhid. It is the gravest sin which God vowed never to forgive.

Tawhid has three aspects:

 Oneness of the Lordship of God (Tawhid al-Rububiyyah)

 Oneness of the Worship of God (Tawhid al-Uluhiyyah or Tawhid al-‘Ibadah)

 Oneness of the Names and Qualities of God (Tawhid al-Asma’ wa al-Sifat)

According to these three aspects, there is only one Lord for all the universe, Who is its
Creator, Organizer, Planner, Sustainer and Giver of security. He is the only Creator, the
rest is His creation. He is the only Master, the rest are His servants. Nothing from His

World can be a quality of the created world, and nothing from the created world can be

ascribed to His World. Similarities that exist between the two realms, the divine and
earthly, do not exceed the level of sheer names. Beyond that nothing is the same.

There can never be an exchange in the arrangement of designations between the two
dominions: that of the Creator and that of His creation.

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Since the Lord and Master of the world remains as such forever, the servants too

remain what they are forever. Since the Creator and Sustainer remains as such forever

providing the everlasting source of all that exist, the creatures too remain forever mortal,
recipients of and completely dependent on divine material and spiritual provisions. In all
their undertakings, it stands to reason, people’s primary mission should always be to

acknowledge this undeniable truth, unselfishly exhibit its effects and try to integrate it
into each and every aspect of their cultural and civilizational accomplishments. People
are never to get carried away by their ostensible earthly achievements and, as a result,

rebel against the established spiritual paradigms in life and then attempt to modify or

manipulate them. People’s earthly achievements ought always to reflect God’s greatness as
opposed to man’s smallness, God’s self-sufficiency as opposed to man’s lack of it, God’s

infinity and permanence as opposed to man’s wavering and insecurity, God’s supremacy as
opposed to man’s fragility. Any other approach would signify a sheer falsehood, deception

and fictitious optimism.

Spiritualism:

SPIRITUALISM is an 'Ilm' or 'Knowledge', that has been gained by communication with the
Spirit World. Modern spiritualism is like the keystone in the bridge between science and religion!
We only seek the teachings of the highest and brightest in the Spirit World, who tell us the
importance of Love, Peace, Harmony, Kindness, Healing and Service to others. We learn from

first-hand accounts of what actually happens to us when we leave this earth life, and about the
different levels! ...An 'Ilm' cannot be static!!

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Spiritualists see no distinction between a person's earthly Gender, Ethnicity, Age, Wealth,
Education, Abilities or Disabilities, 'Fiqh' or Religious creed, as we are all just Spirits within

Allah's vast Creation. ...In essence; true 'experiential' Sufi! ...Mystics.

Islam doesn’t view ‘spirituality’ separately from everyday activities. In Islam everything is
‘spiritual’ because all actions must be in accordance with God’s pleasure. This view comes from
the Islamic creed and the Muslim’s understanding of tawhid (the oneness of God).

‘There is no deity worthy of worship except God’ this convinction creates a world view, a
perspective and a unique behaviour. It essential means that all actions – from having a shower

to picking up litter from the floor – should be referred to the Creator. This establishes a constant

awareness, mindfulness and consciousness of God in everything that the Muslim says or does.

The understanding of spirituality in Islam is unlike the secular understanding. It is the constant

reference to God and ensuring that everything he or she does is in accordance with God’s

pleasure.

This consciousness is not static, it is dynamic. The level of God consciousness is dependent

upon how close the Muslim is with His Lord. This personal relationship is established and
strengthened by following a unique programme of activities that have been prescribed by God

Himself. This ‘spiritual’ programme is also an effective means to change the negative traits and

habits of the Muslim. Some of these activities include remembrance of God, prayer, giving
charity, fasting, reflecting on creation, meditation, reading and reflecting upon the Qur’an,
memorising the Qur’an and daily supplications.

The Prophet Muhammad emphasised on developing a good character by engaging a constant

practice of prayer, meditation, remembrance of God and other activities, as these actions
change the heart and thereby bring one closer to God.

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“Verily in the body there is a piece of flesh. If it is sound, the body is all sound. If it is corrupt, the
body is all corrupt. Verily, it is the heart.”

God consciousness is an essential element in Islamic spiritual practice, without it, the Muslim’s

behaviour and attitude are corrupted. The benefits of God consciousness as derived from the
Qur’an are:

 Guidance: because of His words “guidance for the muttaqeen (the people of God

consciousness)”
 Help: because of His words “Truly, Allah is with the people who have taqwa (God

consciousness)”

 Closeness with God: because of His words, “Allah is the close friend of the muttaqeen”
 Love: because of His words, “Truly Allah loves the muttaqeen”

A way out from unhappiness, and provision from where one does not expect because of His

words, “Whoever has taqwa of Allah He will make a way out for him and provide him from where
he does not expect”

Facilitation of affairs because of His words, “Whoever has taqwa of Allah He will make ease for
him in his affair”

Full covering over of wrong actions and magnification of rewards because of His words,
“Whoever has taqwa of God He will cover over his wrong actions and magnify a reward for him”

Islam has a unique view on spirituality as it encompasses all aspects of the Muslim’s life. All

actions that are referred to God are spiritual, and these actions include the supplications we

utter before we go to bed to the type of bank account we hold. God has prescribed certain
actions that develop positive characters as well as bringing the Muslim closer to God thereby

attain God consciousness. This state achieves many things including God’s love, closeness and

divine assistance.

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Dignity of Man:

Islam is a religion that aims to ascertain, uplift and sustain the honor and dignity of man. In

Islam, man is God’s vicegerent on earth. Every terrestrial component has been created for the

purpose of accommodating and facilitating the fulfillment of man’s noble mission of vicegerency.
Man resides in the center of Islam’s universe. As such, the creation of man stood for the last
segment in a long formative process of creation during which everything that there is came into

existence. It signified the pinnacle of God’s act of universe creation that went through six
stages. Moreover, God created Adam, the first man and father of humanity, with His own Hands
and in His own Image, as Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) revealed. (Sahih Muslim) This means that

"Adam has been bestowed with life, knowledge, power of hearing, seeing, understanding, but

the features of Adam are different from those of Allah, only the names are the same, e.g., Allah
has life and knowledge and power of understanding, and Adam also has them, but there is no

comparison between the Creator and the created thing. As Allah says in the Qur’an: ‘There is
nothing like Him, and He is the All-Hearer, the All-Seer‘" (al-Shura, 11).

Hence, when God created Adam, angels, the most sublime and infallible creatures, were
summoned to witness the final divine act of creation. Upon its completion, they were asked to
prostrate themselves before Adam, that is, to prostrate to God, for there is no prostration except
to God alone, and to acknowledge thereby the merit and wisdom of God’s handiwork, and to
accord respect to Adam and his existential capacities as the crown of divine invention. The
Qur’an describes the dramatic occurrence as follows: "And (mention, O Muhammad), when your

Lord said to the angels: ‘Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority (khalifah,

vicegerent).’ They said: ‘Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein and sheds
blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify You?’ Allah said: ‘Indeed, I know that which
you do not know.’ And He taught Adam the names – all of them. Then He showed them to the

angels and said: ‘Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful.’ They said: ‘Exalted are
You; we have no knowledge except what You have taught us. Indeed, it is You who is the

Knowing, the Wise.’ He said: ‘O Adam, inform them of their names.’ And when he had informed

them of their names, He said: ‘Did I not tell you that I know the unseen (aspects) of the heavens

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and the earth? And I know what you reveal and what you have concealed.’ And (mention) when
We said to the angels: ‘Prostrate before Adam’; so they prostrated, except for Iblis. He refused

and was arrogant and became of the disbelievers." (Al-Baqarah, 30-34).

Islam exists because of man; it is meant for him. Man, in turn, exists because, and for, Islam, to
be shown how to live in complete service to his Creator and Master, and to be shown the way to
self-assertion and deliverance in both worlds. Thus, the most important knowledge that Islam

grants man is the knowledge about himself, his Lord and his relationship with Him, and about
the life phenomenon and his place as well as role in it. Indeed, this is the greatest blessing that
man enjoys in Islam. It is a demonstration of man’s honorable and dignified position that he

occupies in the hierarchy of Islamic beliefs, values and principles. It is due to this that the Qur’an

often articulates such testimonials as, for example, "We have indeed created man in the best of
moulds." (Al-Tin, 4); "Verily We have honored the Children of Adam… ” (Al-Isra’, 70); "Do you

not see that Allah has made subject to you whatever is in the heavens and whatever is in the
earth and amply bestowed upon you His favors, (both) apparent and unapparent?" (Luqman,

20); “Read and your Lord is Most Honorable, Who taught (to write) with the pen, taught man that
which he knew not.” (Al-‘Alaq, 3-5).

It goes without saying that the ultimate objective of the Islamic message is the preservation of a
believer and his honor and dignity. This translates into the preservation of his religion, life,
lineage, intellect and property. There is nothing on earth that is more inviolable than a believer,
his blood, property and honor. There is nothing that supersedes him in importance. Everything

on earth exists in order to make possible and then sustain a believer’s lofty position. All things

and events play second fiddle to his status. Even holy messengers were sent and revelations
revealed for the purpose. Based on the divine Will and Letter, life systems, ordinances and
practices are concocted for this same end as well. Accordingly, cultures and civilizations are

judged only on the basis of how genuinely they were human honor and dignity-oriented and how
much they succeeded in making such enterprise a reality. It was due to this that the Prophet

(pbuh) is reported to have communicated to the Ka’bah while circumambulating (tawaf) it: "How

pure you are! And how pure is your fragrance! How great you are! And how great is your

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sanctity! By Him in whose hands lies the soul of Muhammad, the sanctity of a believer is greater
with Allah than even your sanctity (i.e., the Ka’bah). That is (the sanctity) of his property, his

blood and that we think nothing of him but good." (Sunan Ibn Majah).

At any rate, Islam is as much a personal experience and struggle as it is a collective endeavor
and mission. Islam cannot be totally and thoroughly accomplished individually, or in small
groups. Islam is a religion of, and thus aims at, society, life in its totality, and civilization. Islam is

a religion of collectively inhabiting the earth and making together the world a better place. Islam
is a religion of pragmatism and human nature. It is a simple and natural thing. It denounces
everything that is unnatural, injurious and inhuman. It denounces everything that stands on the

way of people’s individual spiritual and intellectual advancements, and collective civilizational

affirmation and rise. Simply put, Islam denounces anything that puts man’s honor and
inviolability, as well as his communal predilection and responsiveness, at stake.

It was because of this underlining character of Islam, surely, that after Prophet Muhammad

(pbuh) had received in the cave of Hira his first revelation, and with it his divine appointment as
the final messenger of God to people, where heretofore he used to spend long periods
contemplating and reflecting on the spiritual depression and failures of the world around him, he
subsequently never returned to the cave. He did not return because Islam is not a religion of
isolation and separation to be practiced by certain ascetic individuals or groups away from the
masses and the pressing realities of life. It must be pointed out that the whole process of the
Islamic transformation project started right in the cave of Hira, but not with the words of, for

example, “pray” or “fast” or “perform pilgrimage”, etc., but rather with the words "Read (iqra’) in

the name of your Lord Who created. He created man from a clot. Read and your Lord is most
Honorable, Who taught (to write) with the pen, taught man that which he knew not." (Al-‘Alaq, 1-
5). The Prophet (pbuh) was asked – as is anyone who subscribes to Islam and Muhammad’s

mission – to read, study, try to solve and make known the problems and maladies of his people,
as well as of the world and life in general. This is strongly suggested by the notions of God as

the Creator and Guardian, and man as the guided and taught mortal completely dependent on

God, which are enfolded in the above mentioned verses. Accordingly, the Prophet (pbuh) once

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said that a Muslim who socializes with people and puts up with their provocations and
annoyances, is better than a Muslim who does not socialize with people – i.e., lives alone —

and does not put up with their unpleasant deeds. (Sunan al-Tirmidhi).

Equality:

The philosophy of Islam and its law have never deviated from the values and ethics, which were

represented in a set of rights that included all human beings without distinction between colors,

races or languages, and also included the human behavior in dealing with each other. These
values and ethics were also represented in maintaining and applying these rights with the
authority of Islamic law and imposing sanctions upon offenders.

Islam’s view for humans

Islam treats man with honor and esteem out of Allah’s saying:

And We have certainly honored the children of Adam and carried them on the land and sea and
provided for them of the good things and preferred them over much of what We have created,
with preference. (Al-Isra’ 17:70)

This view gives special characteristics and features for human rights in Islam. The most

important feature is the comprehensiveness of these rights. These rights include political,

economic, social and intellectual rights. They are also common for Muslims and non-Muslims
without distinction between colors, races or languages. They are not subject to cancellation or

change, as they are linked to the teachings of the Lord of the worlds.

The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) reported this in his farewell address, which was a

comprehensive report on human rights, as he said: “Indeed, your blood and your properties are
sacred to one another like the sanctity of this day of yours, in this month of yours, in this town of

yours, till the day you meet your Lord…” (Al-Bukhari) This prophetic address asserted a set of

rights, the most important of which is the sanctity of blood, money, honor, and others.

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The Prophet (peace be upon him) also magnified the human psyche in general, preserving its
greatest right, namely the right to life. Asked about great sins, he (peace be upon him) said:

“Polytheism and killing a soul…” (Al-Bukhari) The word soul was generalized to include any soul
killed without right.

The Prophet (peace be upon him) went further as he ordered man to preserve his own life by
prohibiting suicide. He (peace be upon him) said: “Whoever purposely throws himself from a

mountain and kills himself, will be in the (Hell) Fire falling down into it and abiding therein
perpetually forever; and whoever drinks poison and kills himself with it, he will be carrying his
poison in his hand and drinking it in the (Hell) Fire wherein he will abide eternally forever; and

whoever kills himself with an iron weapon, will be carrying that weapon in his hand and stabbing

his abdomen with it in the (Hell) Fire wherein he will abide eternally forever.” (Al-Bukhari)

Islam prohibits any action that diminishes the right to life, whether through intimidation, insult, or

beating. Hisham ibn al-Hakim said he heard the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him saying:

“Allah would torment those who torment people in the world.” (Muslim)

Equality among People:

After honoring man in general and stipulating the sanctity of blood, honor and money, and the

right to life, the Prophet (peace be upon him) emphasized the right of equality among all people;

between individuals and groups, between races and peoples, between rulers and the ruled, and
between governors and the governed. So, there are no restrictions or exceptions; no difference
in legislation between Arabs and non-Arabs, or between white and black, or between rulers and
the ruled. Rather, people are differentiated according to piety. He (peace be upon him) said: “O

people! Verily your Lord is one and your father is one. All of you belong to one ancestry of

Adam, and Adam was created out of clay. Verily the noblest among you in Allah’s view is he

who is the most pious. There is no superiority for an Arab over a non-Arab except in piety.”

(Ahmad)

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Let’s look at how the Prophet handled the principle of equality in order to realize his greatness.
Abu Umamah reported: Abu Dharr taunted Bilal about his mother and said: “You son of a black

woman.” Bilal went to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and told him the story. The Prophet got
angry. Abu Dharr came and did not know what happened. The Prophet turned his face away

from Abu Dharr. Abu Dharr said: “There should be something that made you turn your face
away from me.” The Prophet said: “Are you taunting Bilal about his mother?” and then said: “By

the One Who revealed the book to Muhammad – or any other oath he wanted, God willing – one

is not preferred to another except by work. You are all equal.” (Al-Bayhaqi)

Justice in Islam:

Another right is linked to the right to equality, namely the right to justice. One of the
masterpieces in this regard is the Prophet’s saying to Usamah ibn Zayd when the latter wanted
to intercede for the Makhzumi woman who had committed theft: “By Allah, if Fatimah, daughter

of Muhammad, were to steal, I would have her hand cut off.” (Al-Bukhari)

The Prophet (peace be upon him) also banned the confiscation of one’s right to self-defense in
order to observe justice. He says: “… no doubt, for he (the creditor) has the right to demand his
debt (harshly)…” (Al-Bukhari) He says to those who take over governance and judiciary:

“…When two litigants sit in front of you, do not decide till you hear what the other has to say as
you heard what the first had to say; for it is best that you should have a clear idea of the best
decision.” (Abu Dawud)

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Right to Sufficiency in Islam:

The right to sufficiency is a unique right stipulated in the Islamic law. It was not stipulated in any

positive system or a human rights charter before. The right to sufficiency means that everyone

shall live within the confines of the Islamic state on the adequate needs of life, on condition that
he shall lead a decent life, having appropriate standards of living. This right is different from the
bare subsistence level stipulated in positive systems, which means the minimum limit that

maintains life. [Encyclopedia of human rights in Islam by Khadijah Al-Nabarawi]

The right to sufficiency is achieved through work. If one is unable to do this, Zakat (alms) can do

it; and if Zakat is unable to pay to the poor, the state budget shall pay. The Prophet (peace be

upon him) expressed this when he said: “…he who left behind property that is for his family, and
he who dies under debt or leaves children (in helplessness), the responsibility (of paying his
debt and bringing up his children) lies on me. ” (Al-Bukhari) He asserted this right when he said:

“The one who sleeps with a full stomach knowing that his neighbor is hungry doesn’t believe in

me.” (Al-Hakim) Lauding Ash`arites, he (peace be upon him) said: “When the Ash`arites run
short of provisions in the campaigns or run short of food for their children in Medina they collect
whatever is with them in the cloth and then partake equally from one vessel. They are from me
and I am from them.” (Al-Bukhari)

Rights of Civilians and Prisoners of War

Human rights reach the peak of their greatness when they relate to the rights of civilians and
prisoners during wars. In war time, the spirit of revenge and punishment dominates rather than
the spirit of humanity and compassion. But Islam has a humane approach governed by

compassion, and in that the Prophet (peace be upon him) says: “Do not kill babies, women, and

old people.” (Muslim)

This is some of what Islam enacted and stated as rights for humans on the planet. They mostly

reflect the view of humanity, which is the spirit of the civilization of Muslims.

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Social Justice;

Society’s wellbeing was paramount to Muhammad who taught that all humans were entitled to

the same rights and privileges. "People are as equal as the teeth of a comb," he said, and he

practised what he preached.

Muhammad was a social activist of his time. He shook the underpinnings of the unjust society
he lived in by bringing about social reforms: he forbade exploitation of the vulnerable, protected

the poor by establishing regular charity; and crippled an arrogant class and race-based system
by upholding equality.

Welfare and social solidarity are the basis for the progress of a nation. The Islamic civilisation
pioneered the implementation of social welfare by establishing institutions to provide support to
individuals in all levels of society in a trust system known as waqf. There were institutions for the

disabled, the blind, and those in need who would find shelter, food, and education. There were

also institutions for mothers of young children – one of Salahuddin’s (Saladin) greatest acts of
philanthropy was the establishment of two reservoirs by the gate of his fort in Damascus – one
of milk and one of fresh drinking water for the mothers to take freely.

Muhammad said: "The best people are those who are most useful to others" and today Muslims

still aspire to that maxim through participating in social and community projects. From

supporting the homeless in London to working with children with learning disabilities, British
Muslims are actively involved in making their communities better for everyone.

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Human Relationships:

Has man made progress in the quality of relationships of human beings with oneanother in the

same way as he has made progress in the creation of tools, and inthe complexity of social

structure? If he has, then we may call it evolution andexaltation. Have human beings
progressed in the sense of co-operation? Does a human being of today feel more co-operative
towards others than in the past? Hashe made a proportionate advance in the sense of

responsibility towards otherhuman beings? Has man’s exploitation of other human beings been
really effaced?Or is it that only its form has been altered and that it has increasedindegree?Has
man’s aggression against the rights of others diminished? Have humanrelations improved in

proportion to the advances made in building tools and withthe complexity of social structure? Or

have these problems remained the same as before? Or there may be some who claim that not
only no progress has been made in this connection, but also there has even been a

retrogression? In otherwords, can it be said in general that human values, and everything that is
thecriterion of the humanity of man, have advanced proportionately?

Different views have been expressed in this connection; some cynically deny ittotally that man
has made any progress whatsoever in this respect, for, theysay, if the criterion of progress is
welfare and happiness, we may hardly call it progress. For example, even in the case of tools, it
is doubted whether they have provided man with welfare. As an example, speed is one of the
things which has greatly advanced as exhibited by the telephone, airplane and other such
things. But can this improvement in speed be called progress when measured by the criterion of

human welfare? Or, since speed is a means, it has produced comfort in one respect, in other

respects it has deprived man of welfare: it carries a good man promptly to his destination, but it
also carries a wicked man as quickly to his goal and as promptly in his evil purpose. A sound
and honest man has found stronger hands and quicker legs. A wicked man, too, has the same

advantages.

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These means have made possible the transfer of a criminal from one part of the world to
another part in a few hours, to kill thousands or even millions of people at once. What, then, is

the final conclusion? Though I am not in favour of this cynicism, yet I wish to explain why it has
been expressed by some. For example, is the progress in medicine a true progress? In

appearance, it is, for I see that when a child suffers from diphtheria, right drugs and proper
medical treatment are readily available. This is progress. But some people like Alexis Carl who

measure these things with the criterion of humanity, believe that medicine is gradually

weakening human species.

They say: In the past, human beings had resistance against diseases; the weak were destroyed

and the strong remained alive, and this made successive generations stronger and resistant to

diseases, and also prevented the unnecessary increase of population. But now, medicine is
artificially preserving weak persons who otherwise would have perished and were really

condemned to death by nature. Therefore, the successive generations are not fit to survive, and
so every generation becomes weaker than its predecessor. A child born in the seventh month of

pregnancy is by the law of nature condemned to death; but now medicine, with its progress and
means, preserves this baby. But what will become of the next generation? Moreover, there is
the question of over-population. It happens that those who are fitter for the improvement of the

human race are destroyed and those who are not competent to bring about this improvement
somehow manage to survive. This is the reason for doubt in this matter.

Moral Values:

Ethics and values are the moral or spiritual aspect of the Islamic civilization. They are also the

essence and basis for any civilization. In the meantime, they ensure the secret of their survival
and resilience throughout the history and generations. If this aspect disappears one day, man
will lose his moral warmth, which is the spirit of life and existence; mercy will quit his heart; his

conscience will not be able to play its role; he will no longer know the truth of his existence and
himself; and he will be bound with material restrictions, from which he cannot escape.

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Moral values and ethics are an integral aspect of Islam. They are the essence of an Islamic
civilization and make any Islamic civilization different from others. This book presents an insight

into the status and importance of morals and ethics in Islam.

The need for studying values from an Islamic perspective could be felt if we came to know that
doubts cast by some intellectuals that Muslims are to abandon their moral and spiritual values if
they are to seek scientific and technological progress and to seek merge to western life, and

that it is impossible for Muslims to build on values, because the absence of values is the source
that brought industry and science and that values shall limit space for achieving civilization. This
is not true, because some nations achieved civilizations while they protect their identity and

values such the Japanese. There are Muslim scholars who adhere to their Islamic values,

theology and behavior and they achieved vast progress in scientific and technological fields.

The Holy Quran is a methodology of morals and virtue, that is stated the rules of morals, and

drew the path of right behavior that achieves happy life to all society individuals. Allah states in

the Holy Quran (Surely, this Qur’an guides to what is most right; and gives to the believers who
do good deeds the glad tidings that they shall have a great reward) (Al-Isra: 09), and that (And if
there comes to you guidance from ME, then whoso will follow MY guidance, will not go astray,
nor will he come to grief;) (Taha: 123), and the Holy Quran is the constitution of morals in Islam.
Such morals search for change through struggle and not on the concept of sociology, but on its
Islamic concepts that aim to build on moral values not on physical benefits. It is change to the
best in beliefs and in systems. It is changing polytheism to oneness, ignorance by knowledge,

unemployment by work, poverty by richness, weakness by strength, and selfishness by

solidarity, and vulgar by chastity, and all other values that Islam is calling for in the process of
building human society.

The criteria of progress and backwardness in Islam concept is unique. It is linking development

to faith and guidance, and backwardness to infidelity and ashtray, even if they are linked to

physical civilization and scientific benefits.

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Allah States (And if there comes to you guidance from ME, then whoso will follow MY guidance,
will not go astray, nor will he come to grief (*) But whosoever will turn away from MY

remembrance, his will be a straitened life) (Taha: 123-124), and the Holy Quran is very frank in
keeping the ashtray on his agony, even if physical potentials are abundant, and this is the case

of western life that are built solely on physical learning and experiment, and on old beliefs that
are built on exchange in all its dealings. Allah States (Have they not traveled in the earth that

they could see what was the end of those before them ? They were mightier than these in

power and they left firmer marks in the earth.

But ALLAH seized them for their sins, and they had no one to protect them from ALLAH (*) That

was because their Messengers came to them with manifest Signs but they disbelieved; So

ALLAH seized them. Surely, HE is Powerful, Severe in punishment) (Ghafir: 21-22), and He
States (Have they not traveled in the earth so that they might see how evil was the end of those

who were before them ? They were stronger than these in power, and they tilled the soil and
populated it more and better than these have populated it. And their Messengers came to them

with manifest Signs. And ALLAH would not wrong them, but they wronged their own souls.) (Al-
Room: 09

Features of such values could be summarized as follows:

 They are logic: that they conform with the nature of good human thinking. No one among
philosophers tried to turn down one of these values cast in the Holy Quran. Allah said his
Holy Book (And truly, it is a mighty Book, (*) Falsehood cannot approach it either from

before it nor from behind it. It is a revelation from the Wise, the Praiseworthy.) (Fussilat:
41-42).

 They are realistic: that they match real life and human nature and conform with change

in all situations and during all eras. They are not absolute ideals or impossible
imaginations, or strange from human nature.

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 They are useful: that they are useful for both human and society in this life, and could
lead to more benefits in the other life.

 They are balanced: that they are not for individuals or to society separately. Instead they

are medium built on balance and consistency, between individual and society benefits.

 They are the foundation of society: that they conform between physical and materialistic

needs, between soul and body, between rights and duties, under the supervision of fair

authority of the Holy Quran.

 They are eternal: they are cited from the Sacred Shariaa of the Holy Quran and from the

religion of Islam which Allah accepted as the sole religion for all humans.

 They are internally consistent: the source of values in Islam is the Holy Book and

Sunnah, from this point it shall not be thought that there could be any kind of dispute or
conformance, as Allah Says (Will they not, then, meditate upon the Qur’an ? Had it been
from anyone other than ALLAH, they would surely have found therein much

discrepancy.) (Al-Nisaa: 82). The most important thing here is that sources of values in

Islam should be thought of as coming from one unit.

From this point values in Islam could not be the thing that is pleasant for one person during any
time alone. In this case Islam called them desires that all Muslims are to confront and limit. And

that they could not be extracted from the human experience or from the social activity. They are

divine not left for the society, or to its activities or experiments. Values in Islam are good
meaning without any kind of guidance such as love, it is for known types, and such as

conviction which should not turn to dullness or inactivity. Values in Islam are the courses that
determine positive and negative attitudes, and not left for motivations only, they are moved by
faith sometimes. Values in Islam are not as communist term their values. Work is one of the

values of Islam, and not all values of Islam is what is thought of as to conform with mid, for mind

in Islam is a means for understanding decided values.

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Tolerance:

In the eyes of history, religious toleration is the highest evidence of culture in a people. It was

not until the Western nations broke away from their religious law that they became more
tolerant, and it was only when the Muslims fell away from their religious law that they declined in

tolerance and other evidences of the highest culture. Before the coming of Islam, tolerance had
never been preached as an essential part of religion.

If Europe had known as much of Islam, as Muslims knew of Christendom, in those days, those
mad, adventurous, occasionally chivalrous and heroic, but utterly fanatical outbreak known as
the Crusades could not have taken place, for they were based on a complete misapprehension.

Innumerable monasteries, with a wealth of treasure of which the worth has been calculated at
not less than a hundred millions sterling, enjoyed the benefit of the Holy Prophet's
(Muhammad’s) Charter to the monks of Sinai and were religiously respected by the Muslims.

The various sects of Christians were represented in the Council of the Empire by their

patriarchs, on the provincial and district council by their bishops, in the village council by their
priests, whose word was always taken without question on things which were the sole concern
of their community.

The tolerance within the body of Islam was, and is, something without parallel in history; class
and race and color ceasing altogether to be barriers.

The two verses (2:255-256) of the Qur’an are supplementary. Where there is that realization of
the majesty and dominion of Allah (SWT), there is no compulsion in religion. Men choose their
path - allegiance or opposition - and it is sufficient punishment for those who oppose that they

draw further and further away from the light of truth.

What Muslims do not generally consider is that this law applies to our own community just as
much as to the folk outside, the laws of Allah being universal; and that intolerance of Muslims

for other men's opinions and beliefs is evidence that they themselves have, at the moment,

forgotten the vision of the majesty and mercy of Allah (SWT) which the Qur’an presents to them.

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In the Qur’an I find two meanings (of a Kafir), which become one the moment that we try to
realize the divine standpoint. The Kafir in the first place, is not the follower of any religion. He is

the opponent of Allah’s benevolent will and purpose for mankind - therefore the disbeliever in
the truth of all religions, the disbeliever in all Scriptures as of divine revelation, the disbeliever to

the point of active opposition in all the Prophets (pbut) whom the Muslims are bidden to regard,
without distinction, as messengers of Allah.

The Qur’an repeatedly claims to be the confirmation of the truth of all religions. The former
Scriptures had become obscure, the former Prophets appeared mythical, so extravagant were
the legends which were told concerning them, so that people doubted whether there was any

truth in the old Scriptures, whether such people as the Prophets had ever really existed. Here -

says the Qur’an - is a Scripture whereof there is no doubt: here is a Prophet actually living
among you and preaching to you. If it were not for this book and this Prophet, men might be

excused for saying that Allah’s guidance to mankind was all a fable. This book and this Prophet,
therefore, confirm the truth of all that was revealed before them, and those who disbelieve in

them to the point of opposing the existence of a Prophet and a revelation are really opposed to
the idea of Allah's guidance - which is the truth of all revealed religions. Our Holy Prophet
(pbuh) himself said that the term Kafir was not to be applied to anyone who said “Salam”

(peace) to the Muslims. The Kafirs, in the terms of the Qur’an, are the conscious evil-doers of
any race of creed or community.

I have made a long digression but it seemed to me necessary, for I find much confusion of ideas

even among Muslims on this subject, owing to defective study of the Qur’an and the Prophet's

life. Many Muslims seem to forget that our Prophet had allies among the idolaters even after
Islam had triumphed in Arabia, and that he “fulfilled his treaty with them perfectly until the term
thereof.” The righteous conduct of the Muslims, not the sword, must be held responsible for the

conversion of those idolaters, since they embraced Islam before the expiration of their treaty.

So much for the idolaters of Arabia, who had no real beliefs to oppose the teaching of Islam, but

only superstition. They invoked their local deities for help in war and put their faith only in brute
force. In this they were, to begin with, enormously superior to the Muslims. When the Muslims

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nevertheless won, they were dismayed; and all their arguments based on the superior power of
their deities were for ever silenced. Their conversion followed naturally. It was only a question of

time with the most obstinate of them.

It was otherwise with the people who had a respectable religion of their own - the People of the
Scripture - as the Qur’an calls them - i.e, the people who had received the revelation of some
former Prophet: the Jews, the Christians and the Zoroastrians were those with whom the

Muslims came at once in contact. To these our Prophet's attitude was all of kindness. The
Charter which he granted to the Christian monks of Sinai is extant. If you read it you will see that
it breathes not only goodwill but actual love. He gave to the Jews of Medina, so long as they

were faithful to him, precisely the same treatment as to the Muslims. He never was aggressive

against any man or class of men; he never penalized any man, or made war on any people, on
the ground of belief but only on the ground of conduct.

The story of his reception of Christian and Zoroastrian visitors is on record. There is not a trace

of religious intolerance in all this. And it should be remembered - Muslims are rather apt to
forget it, and it is of great importance to our outlook - that our Prophet did not ask the people of
the Scripture to become his followers. He asked them only to accept the Kingdom of Allah, to
abolish priesthood and restore their own religions to their original purity. The question which, in
effect, he put to everyone was this: “Are you for the Kingdom of God which includes all of us, or
are you for your own community against the rest of mankind?” The one is obviously the way of
peace and human progress, the other the way of strife, oppression and calamity. But the rulers

of the world, to whom he sent his message, most of them treated it as the message of either an

insolent upstart or a mad fanatic. His envoys were insulted cruelly, and even slain. One cannot
help wondering what reception that same embassy would meet with from the rulers of mankind
today, when all the thinking portion of mankind accept the Prophet's premises, have thrown off

the trammels of priestcraft, and harbor some idea of human brotherhood.

But though the Christians and Jews and Zoroastrians refused his message, and their rulers

heaped most cruel insults on his envoys, our Prophet never lost his benevolent attitudes
towards them as religious communities; as witness the Charter to the monks of Sinai already

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mentioned. And though the Muslims of later days have fallen far short of the Holy Prophet's
tolerance, and have sometimes shown arrogance towards men of other faiths, they have always

given special treatment to the Jews and Christians. Indeed the Laws for their special treatment
form part of the Shari'ah.

In Egypt the Copts were on terms of closest friendship with the Muslims in the first centuries of
the Muslim conquest, and they are on terms at closest friendship with the Muslims at the

present day. In Syria the various Christian communities lived on terms of closest friendship with
the Muslims in the first centuries of the Muslim conquest, and they are on terms of closest
friendship with the Muslims at the present day, openly preferring Muslim domination to a foreign

yoke....

From the expulsion of the Moriscos dates the degradation and decline of Spain. San Fernando
was really wiser and more patriotic in his tolerance to conquered Seville, Murcia and Toledo

than was the later king who, under the guise of Holy warfare, captured Grenada and let the

Inquisition work its will upon the Muslims and the Jews. And the modern Balkan States and
Greece are born under a curse. It may even prove that the degradation and decline of European
civilization will be dated from the day when so-called civilized statesmen agreed to the inhuman
policy of Czarist Russia and gave their sanction to the crude fanaticism of the Russian Church.

There is no doubt but that, in the eyes of history, religious toleration is the highest evidence of
culture in a people. Let no Muslim, when looking on the ruin of the Muslim realm which was
compassed through the agency of those very peoples whom the Muslims had tolerated and

protected through the centuries when Western Europe thought it a religious duty to exterminate
or forcibly convert all peoples of another faith than theirs - let no Muslim, seeing this, imagine

that toleration is a weakness in Islam. It is the greatest strength of Islam because it is the

attitude of truth.

Allah (SWT) is not the God of the Jews or the Christians or the Muslims only, any more than the
sun shines or the rain falls for Jews or Christians or Muslims only.

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Rule of Law:

The Qur'an is the principal source of Islamic law, the Sharia. It contains the rules by which the

Muslim world is governed (or should govern itself) and forms the basis for relations between

man and God, between individuals, whether Muslim or non-Muslim, as well as between man
and things which are part of creation. The Sharia contains the rules by which a Muslim society is
organized and governed, and it provides the means to resolve conflicts among individuals and

between the individual and the state.

There is no dispute among Muslims that the Qur'an is the basis of the Sharia and that its

specific provisions are to be scrupulously observed. The Hadith and Sunna are complementary

sources to the Qur'an and consist of the sayings of the Prophet and accounts of his deeds. The
Sunna helps to explain the Qur'an, but it may not be interpreted or applied in any way which is
inconsistent with the Qur'an.

Copy-boards held safely out of view on their heads, students in Djenné, Mali recite a Qur'an
passage from memory. (Aramco World Magazine, September-October, 1991; photo Brynn
Bruijn).

Though there are other sources of law—i.e., ijma', (consensus), qiyas, (analogy), ijtihad,

(progressive reasoning by analogy)—the Qur'an is the first and foremost source, followed by the

Hadith and Sunna. Other sources of law and rules of interpretation of the Qur'an and the Hadith
and Sunna follow in accordance with a generally accepted jurisprudential scheme.

And nor shall we be punishing until we had sent them an Apostle.

Qur'an 17:15

The Qur'an contains a variety of law-making provisions and legal proscriptions interspersed

throughout its chapters (suwar) and verses (ayat). A number of rules exist for interpreting these
provisions, such as the position of a given ayah within the context of the surah, which in turn is

interpreted in accordance with its place in the sequence of revelations, its reference to other
revelations, and its historical context in relation to particular conditions which existed at the time

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of the given revelation. These and other rules are known as the science of interpretation (ilm
usul aI-fiqh). According to these rules, for example, one initially is to refer to a specific provision

and then to a general provision dealing with a particular situation. No general provision can be
interpreted to contradict a specific provision, and a specific rule will supersede a general

proposition. A general provision, however, is always interpreted in the broadest manner, while a
specific provision is interpreted in the narrowest manner. Reasoning by analogy is permitted, as

are applications by analogy, except where expressly prohibited. Simplicity and clear language

are always preferred. Similarly, the clear spirit of certain prescriptions cannot be altered by

inconsistent interpretations. A policy-oriented interpretation within the confines of the rules of

jurisprudence is permissible and even recommended, as is the case with the doctrine of ijtihad

(progressive reasoning by analogy).

"Avoid condemning the Muslim to Hudud whenever you can, and when you can find a way out

for the Muslim then release him for it. If the Imam errs it is better that he errs in favor of
innocence (pardon) than in favor of guilt (punishment)."

The Prophet's Hadith

"Were people to be given in accordance with their claim, men would claim the fortunes and lives

of (other) people, but the onus of proof is on the claimant and the taking of an oath is incumbent
upon him who denies."

The Prophet's Hadith

Muslim scholars do not consider Islam to be an evolving religion, but rather a religion and legal

system which applies to all times. It is, therefore, the application that is susceptible to evolution.

Indeed, the provisions of the Qur'an are such that by their disciplined interpretation, with the aid
of the Hadith and Sunna and other sources of interpretation, Islam can, as intended, provide the
solution to contemporary social problems.

Fourteen centuries ago Islam was a spiritual, social, and legal revolution. Its potential for

effecting progress remains unchanged. This is essentially the belief of enlightened

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fundamentalist Muslims. Islamic fundamentalism is not, therefore, a regressive view of history

and contemporary reality. Islam at the height of its civilization, between the seventh and

eleventh centuries, was neither repressive nor regressive. It was a progressive, humanistic, and
legalistic force for reform and justice.

Lo! Allah commandeth you that ye restore deposits to their owners, and , if ye judge between
mankind, that ye judge justly. Lo! comely is this which Allah admonisheth you. Lo! Allah is ever

Hearer, Seer.

Qur'an 4:5

Translation:

A great number of European scholars traveled to the Islamic world and studied Arabic and

Islamic sciences. They translated many books from Arabic and wrote some books in which they
elaborated what they learned from Muslims. They also spread these sciences by teaching them

in Europe. According to some sources in Medieval Europe, more than 1400 Arabic books in
various fields of sciences were translated.

Translated works are in three categories:

First are Greek works which were translated from Arabic into Latin. Although some Greek works
had already been translated into Latin, however there is no doubt that many important Greek

works including some of Aristotle’s works were translated from Arabic. In the middle of the
twelve century, a translation center was established in Toledo in which, according to the advice

of the Archbishop Raymond, many Greek books were translated from Arabic into Latin. Among

these works were some books of Aristotle, the translation of the Book of Causes, which was a
selection of Proclus’ Elements of Theology and the famous Theologia which was mainly taken

from a book of Plotinus. The second group of books that were translated from Arabic into Latin

was Muslim’s interpretations of Greek philosophy and sciences, and the third group belonged to
independent Muslim works. In this regard Russell writes: “Their learned men read Greek, and

wrote commentaries. Aristotle’s reputation is mainly due to them…Their importance, for us, is

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that they, and not the Christians, were the immediate inheritors of those parts of the Greek
tradition which only the Eastern Empire had kept alive. Contact with the Mohammedans [he

means Muslims], in Spain, and to the lesser extent in Sicily, made the West aware of Aristotle;
also of Arabic numerals, algebra, and chemistry. It was this contact that began the revival of

learning in the eleventh century, leading to Scholastic philosophy…if the Arabs had not
preserved the tradition, the men of Renaissance might not have suspected how much was to

gained by the revival of classical learning.” From among the long list of scholars who contributed

in the transmission of Islamic sciences to Europe here I mention only few names. Gerber (938-

1002), who later became pope, after three years studying Islam in Spain translated some Arabic
books and also wrote some books such as Geometria and Liber de Astrolbia in which he

elaborated some aspects of Islamic sciences. Constantine the African (1015-1087) traveled to

some Islamic lands and studied some Islamic sciences such as medicine and became familiar
with some Greek works in Arabic such as those of Galen and Hippocrates. When later he

became the assistant of Giscard he took the advantage of his position in spreading Islamic

sciences. Adelhard of England also traveled to some Islamic lands and became an influential
figure in introducing Europe to some Islamic sciences. Gundisalvi (1151) translated some works
of Aristotle including his Metaphysics from Arabic. He, along with some others, translated some

parts.

Ibn Sina:

One of the greatest Muslim philosophers is Ibn Sina/Avicenna (980-1037). His book as-Sifa is

an encyclopedia of all sciences of his time.. It contains logic, metaphysics, mathematics and

physics. Mathematics includes arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Physics includes
different branches of natural sciences, biology and psychology. This book was translated into
Latin and was known as Sufficientiae. Ibn Sina’s thought was well known and respected both in

Islamic world and in medieval Europe. Copleston says: “When portions of writings of Avicenna
were translated into Latin in the twelfth century, the Christian world found itself faced for the first

time with a closely knit system which was bound to exercise a strong attraction on certain

minds.” For example, Gondysalvi both in psychology and cosmogony refers to Ibn Sina and tries

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to harmonize the latters’ ideas with Christianity. Ibn Sina was not only a commentator of
Aristotle, but, in addition to this, he had his own independent philosophical system in which he

refers both to Greek philosophy and Islamic belief system. As Copleston says, “…however
much he borrowed from former philosophers, Avicenna had thought out his system carefully and

independently and had welded it into a system of a peculiar stamp.” Islamic view of human
knowledge and illumination, distinction between essence and existence, and argument for

necessary being from contingent being were among the ideas that via Ibn Sina came into

medieval philosophy. One of the contributions of Muslim philosophers was to show how and to

what extent one can combine between Greek philosophy and religious beliefs. The connection
of physics and metaphysics which was developed in the thought of Thomas Aquinas was largely

inspired by Islamic philosophy particularly that of Ibn Sina. Another hotly debated idea in

medieval philosophy that has its origin in Ibn Sina, is the idea of intentions. Ibn Sina
distinguished between first and second intentions. First intentions are universal concepts that

are applicable on objective realities, such as the concept of human and horse. Second

intentions are abstract universals which are only in the mind. These are logical concepts, such
as subject, predicate, and proposition. The medieval philosophers such as Aquinas and William
of Ockham paid serious attention to this discussion. However, a third type of universal concepts

was recognized in Islamic philosophy which did not attract serious attention in the West was

philosophical concepts, i.e., abstract concepts which have no referent in reality, but at the same
time related to reality and describe it, such as concepts of causality, unity and contingency. Ibn

Sina’s influence was not limited to one group or trend; rather it was so comprehensive that
hardly one can see a philosopher who is not in a way influenced by him. Gundisalvi who studied

Ibn Sina and Ghazali was the originator of a movement that Etienne Gilson calls it Augustinian-

Avicennian Movement? His discussion on knowledge and wisdom is particularly inspired by

Islamic philosophy. It must be noted that some ideas of Ibn Sina are misinterpreted in the West.

For instance, it is said that since according to Ibn Sina the creation is necessary, therefore God

has no free will, or God has no knowledge of particulars, or His power is limited. These
misunderstandings can be seen even in the works of some contemporary philosophers such as

Capleston. It seems that Ghazali is responsible for some of these misunderstandings. On the

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basis of these misunderstandings and under the influence of Ghazali some theologians like
William of Auvergne (1249) claimed that Ibn Sina’s philosophy is against religious beliefs.

Some Europeans accepted some ideas of Idn Sina and rejected some others, such as
Alexander of Hales, John of Rochelle and Albert the Great (1260-1280). They accepted Ibn

Sina’s theories of abstraction and the necessity of illumination but did not accept his theory of
active intellect. His critics, such as Aquinas, are also influenced by him. It is interesting that

both Augustinian Bonaventura and Aristotelian Aquinas, both Italian and critics of each other,

were influenced by Ibn Sina. About the relation between Albert the Great and Aquinas, Brehier

says that they both studied in Italy in an environment where studying the Islamic sciences were
encouraged by Fredrick II. Albert was a student in Padua around 1223 and Thomas studied in

Naples under an Averroesian professor before 1243. After Ibn Sina many great philosophers

appeared in Islamic world such as Tusi, Suhravardi, and Mulla Sadra Shirazi each of whom had
his own system of philosophy and this tradition continued up to our time. However, this latter

development of Islamic philosophy was not known by western scholars and thus did not have

much impact on Europe.

Ghazali:

Mohammad Ghazali/Algazel (1058-1111) is a Muslim theologian and Sufi who has been an
influential figure in both Islamic world as well as in Medieval Europe. In his famous book The
Incoherence of Philosophers, he rejected and condemned philosophers especially Farabi and
Ibn Sina. In his view, many elements in philosophy are against religious beliefs. The impact of

this book was beyond measure so that since then philosophy in Sunni world has never survived.

Ghazali’s works were also translated in Latin and grasped some European attentions. Ghazali
anticipated David Hume in rejecting the causal relations in material world, but he interprets the
succession of two phenomena to be according to God’s will

Ibn Rushd:

Islamic Spain had also some famous philosophers among whom are Ibn Masarra (931), Ibn

Baja (1138), Ibn Tufayl (1100-1185), and finally, the most influential of them, Ibn Rushd/

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Averroes (1126-1198). Ibn Rushd is best known as the commentator par excellence of Aristotle
philosophy. Aristotelianism in medieval Europe is due more than anyone else to the works of Ibn

Rushd. He interprets and defends Aristotle philosophy against critics such as Ghazali. Ibn
Rushd wrote Tahafut al-Tahafut/The incoherence of the Incoherence in response to Ghazali’s

The Incoherence of Philosophers. The most famous translators of Ibn Rushd were Michel Scot
and Hermann of German. One of the famous Averroisian theologians and the founder of Latin

Averroists is Siger Brabant. From 1266 to 1277 he taught Aristotelian philosophy and the

thought of Ibn Rushd in Paris University. Among the fourteenth century Averroesians is Jean de

Baconthrop. Ibn Rushd was so influential that his impact led to a movement around the
beginning of the Renaissance in Padua in the north of Italy. Ibn Rushd was also sometimes

misinterpreted in the West. For example, one of the ideas that are attributed to him is the idea of

“double truth,” which means that it is possible that a statement be true in philosophy and false in
religion or vice versa. Whereas according to Ibn Rushd, philosophy and religion or reason and

the scripture (i.e., the Quran) never contradict each other. Whenever such incoherence is seen

one should know that this incoherency is only at the surface; therefore, the scripture must be
interpreted symbolically and metaphorically so that does not contradict the reason. The church
condemned Averroesians in 1270. The famous Averroesian Siger of Brabant was condemned in

219 statements and put into prison. The influence of Muslim philosophers on the West is an

undeniable fact. Copleston writes: “the influence, positive or negative, of Islamic philosophy on
that of Christendom is now a matter of common knowledge among historians.” Elsewhere he

states: “The translation of works of Aristotle and his commentators, as well as the Arabian
thinkers, provided the Latin Scholastics with a great wealth of intellectual material. In particular

they were provided with the knowledge of philosophical systems which were methodologically

independent of theology and which were presented as the human reflection on the universe.
The systems of Aristotle, of Avicenna, of Averroes, opened up a wide vista of the scope of the

human reason and it was clear to the medieval that the truth attained in them must have been

independent of Christian revelation…In this way the new translations helped to clarify in the
minds of the medieval the relation between philosophy and theology…” According to Copleston,

the philosophy of Muslim philosophers had superiority over the philosophy of Christian

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philosophers in medieval Europe, therefore they studied Muslim philosophy and respect it. It is
noteworthy that one of the ways that Islamic philosophy was introduced to medieval Europe was

through Jewish philosophers. They knew Arabic and Islamic philosophy. One of these
philosophers was Ibn Gabirol (1021-1069) who lived in Spain. He was the author of Yanbu’ al-

Hayat (the Spring of Life), that was translated into Latin. Saint Bonaventura was influenced by
his thought. The most famous Jewish philosopher is Ibn Maymun/Maimonides. He was borne in

Cordova in 1135 and died in Cairo in 1204. in His book, Delalat al-Haeirin (Guidance for

Perplexed) explains Aristotelian rational philosophy. He interprets Holy Scriptures by reason. In

his view, where religious text is not in harmony with rational thinking it must be interpreted
allegorically. He disagrees with Aristotle in the idea of the eternity of the world. Maimonides is

influenced by Farabi and Ibn Sina in arguing for the existence of God and had impact on

Christian theologians. The development of mystical thought in the Spain was not irrelevant to
the Islamic influence either. In addition to some works of Ibn Sina and Ghazali, we should

mention Sirr al-Asrar/ Secretes secretornum from an unknown Muslim author. This book that

combines Aristotelian philosophy with neo-Platonic thoughts was translated into Latin and
known to the scholars. Finally, I should mention Dante’s Divine Comedy. According to scholars
like Bruno Nardi and Asin Palacios, Dante in his major philosophical concepts is in debt to

Muslim philosophers. These concepts include: Divine light, intellects, the effects of spheres on

human destiny, the idea of illumination and that only the intellectual dimension of the human is
created. The impact of Islamic thought on Europe was so vast that Watt writes: “All strands of

European thought had to take cognizance of the translations from Arabic, nor merely the
Averroes’s and their opponents, the party of St Thomas Aquinas, but also conservative

Platonists like Bonaventura and Roger Bacon. The whole range of subsequent European

philosophy was deeply indebted to the Arabic writers.” In another passage he writes: “When one
becomes aware of the full extent of Arab experimenting, Arab thinking and Arab writing, one

sees that without the Arabs European science and philosophy would not have developed when

they did. The Arabs were no mere transmitters of Greek thought, but genuine bearers, who both
kept alive the disciplines they had been taught and extended their range.” ” Here I will mention

in brief the impact of Muslims in Medieval Europe in some scientific fields.

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Mathematics:

Since seventh century, Muslims paid serious attention to mathematics. They found out that the

growth of philosophy and sciences depends on mathematics. Therefore, they translated

mathematical books from different languages such as Indian, Syriac, and Greek into Arabic.
They learned Indian numerals and eagerly developed mathematics. Mohammad Ibn Musa
Khwarizmi (847) known as Algorisms, put together Indian and Greek mathematical thought and

got new valuable achievements. By bringing sifr (zero) into numerals he brought remarkable
changes in mathematics. He also founded the science of algebra. Al-Kindy, Ibn Sina, Banu
Musa, Thabit Ibn Ghurra, Jamshid Kashani, Abulwafa Buzajani, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Khayyam

Nishaburi and Nasir al-Din Tusi are among the great Muslim mathematicians each of whom had

a remarkable contribution in the advancement of mathematics. Among the Muslim

mathematicians of Spain we can name Maslama al-Majriti (1007) and his pupil Amr Kirmani

(1066). Jabir Ibn Sanan al-Battani/Albategnius (929) established trigonometry, and Buzjani and
Tusi developed it. Establishment of observatories and attempts in precision in astronomical

calculation helped the development of mathematics. The Europeans in Spain and then in Sicily
got familiar with the works and ideas of Muslim Mathematicians. The French Gerber, who later
became the pope, was the first European scholar who studied mathematics in Islamic Spain and

later spread mathematical sciences especially the Arabic numerals in Europe. The translation of
the Islamic mathematical works into Latin caused a significant impact on the development of
mathematics in Europe. Through the works of Algorisms algebra became known in Europe and
was considered as the basic for mathematical studies till the time of F. Viete (1540-1603), the

French mathematician. Through these works Indian numerals, algorism as the method of

calculation, and zero were adopted and the Gerber calculating table gave its place to Algorisms’
numeral system. Since the tenth century, Arab numerical system was employed in Italy and

then in other parts of Europe. This impact continued by translation of other mathematical works.
Some important Greek sources such as The Euclidean Principles and Almagest of Ptolemy
(Megale Syntaxes) became known to Europeans by Muslims and through Arabic translations.

The Great Italian mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci in his childhood traveled with his father,

who was a merchant, to the different Islamic countries and studied mathematics and taught and

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spread it when he returned to Italy. His works had an enormous impact on mathematical thought
in Europe.

Medicine:

Medicine was also one of the sciences that Muslims had especial attention to it and physicians
have always been respected in Muslim society. Thus medicine was developed and some
encyclopedias about physicians were written, such as Tabaqat al-atibba of Ibn Usaybiah.

Muslims learned from Persian medicine which was developed in Gondishapur University and
translated works from Indian and Greek sources. From these sources and Islamic teachings on

health, they created a new Islamic medicine. From among Muslim physicians zakariyya Razi

(Razes) and Ibn Sina gained more fame in medieval Europe. Razi wrote about 220 books most
of which related to medicine. His most famous medical book is Al-Hawi/the Comprehensive.
This book which was translated into Latin was one of the main text books in Europe up to

seventeen century. Razi was the first who described blister and typhoid. Ibn Sina who was a

philosopher and scientist was also a genius in medicine. He practiced medicine since he was
sixteen years old. He has many discoveries and inventions in this science. His book Qanun
(The Canon), which as Meirhof says is a master peace in the world of medicine, was translated
into Latin and for centuries was the main reference in medicine. In Spain also medicine
improved and great physicians such as Abulqasim Zahravi, Ibn Zuhar Andolusi, and Ibn Rushd
(Averroes) had important contributions. Gerard Cremona translated some medical books
including Qanun of Ibn Sina. In fifteenth century Qanun was reprinted sixteen times and in

sixteenth century more than twenty times. According to Meirhof, no book ever has been read

like this. Up to more than six centuries this book was a reliable reference in Europe. In 1279
Faraj Ibn Salim translated Razi’s al-Hawi. This book too, was a textbook and a reference source
in Europe and only in 1542 was reprinted five times. According to some historians Salerno

School in Italy, which had significant impact on the advancement of medicine in Europe, was
established by Muslims. Philip Hitti also thinks that Muslims participated in establishing this

school. Its most famous physician, Constantine the African studied Arabic and medicine in

Islamic lands and transmitted it into this school. He taught Islamic medicine in this school and

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translated some works from Islamic medicine. One of the traces of Muslims impact in medicine
is the presence of many Arabic words in different branches of medical sciences and

pharmacology. As Watt writes: “In the works of Ferrari da Grado, for example, Avicenna is cited
more than three thousand times, Rhazes and Galen thousand times each, and Hippocrates only

a hundred times… European medicine in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was still little
more than an extension of Arab medicine.”

Physics:

In the science of physics too many great scientists emerged in the Islamic world. Al-Kindi wrote

a book on the light which was several times translated into Latin. But the most brilliant Muslim

physicist was Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen). His al-Manadir (optics) was repeatedly translated into
Latin and since its translation many scientists even Johannes Kepler and Roger Bacon were
influenced by it. Will Durant says that without Alhazen, Bacon could not do anything. According

to Brehier, Alhazen’s studying of light and the science of optics had enormous impact on the

Latina scholars of the twelve century. One of his contribution is the analysis of visual perception
which is classic and still is respected so that Witelo adopted it

Concluding Remark:

I conclude with the remark of Montgomery Watt who says: “…it is clear that the influence of

Islam on western Christendom is greater than is usually realized. Not merely did Islam share
with Western Europe many material products and technological discoveries; not merely did it
stimulate Europe intellectually in the fields of science and philosophy; but it provoked Europe
into forming a new image of itself. Because Europe was reacting against Islam it belittled the

influence of Saracens and exaggerated its dependence on its Greek and Roman heritage. So,

today an important task for us western Europeans, as we move into the era of the one world, is

to correct this false emphasis and to acknowledge fully our debt to the Arab and Islamic world.

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The Role of Islam in the Modern World:

Aftermath of the Colonial Period:

At the height of European colonial expansion in the 19th century, most of the Islamic world was

under colonial rule with the exception of a few regions such as the heart of the Ottoman empire,
Persia, Afghanistan, Yemen and certain parts of Arabia. But even these areas were under

foreign influence or, in the case of the Ottomans, under constant threat. After the First World

War with the breakup of the Ottoman empire, a number of Arab states such as Iraq became
independent, others like Jordan were created as a new entity and yet others like Palestine,
Syria and Lebanon were either mandated or turned into French colonies. As for Arabia, it was at

this time that Saudi Arabia became finally consolidated. As for other parts of the Islamic world,

Egypt which had been ruled by the descendents of Muhammad Ali since the 19th century
became more independent as a result of the fall of the Ottomans, Turkey was turned into a

secular republic by Ataturk, and the Pahlavi dynasty began a new chapter in Persia where its
name reverted to its eastern traditional form of Iran. But most of the rest of the Islamic world

remained under colonial rule.

Arab:

It was only after the Second World War and the dismemberment of the British, French, Dutch
and Spanish empires that the rest of the Islamic world gained its independence. In the Arab
world, Syria and Lebanon became independent at the end of the war as did Libya and the

shaykdoms around the Gulf and the Arabian Sea by the 1960's. The North African countries of

Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria had to fight a difficult and, in the case of Algeria, long and
protracted war to gain their freedom which did not come until a decade later for Tunisia and

Morocco and two decades later for Algeria. Only Palestine did not become independent but was

partitioned in 1948 with the establishment of the state of Israel.

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India

In India Muslims participated in the freedom movement against British rule along with Hindus

and when independence finally came in 1947, they were able to create their own homeland,

Pakistan, which came into being for the sake of Islam and became the most populated Muslim
state although many Muslims remained in India. In 1971, however, the two parts of the state
broke up, East Pakistan becoming Bengladesh.

Far East:

Farther east still, the Indonesians finally gained their independence from the Dutch and the

Malays theirs from Britain. At first Singapore was part of Malaysia but it separated in 1963 to
become an independent state. Small colonies still persisted in the area and continued to seek
their independence, the kingdom of Brunei becoming independent as recently as 1984.

Africa

In Africa also major countries with large or majority Muslim populations such as Nigeria,

Senegal and Tanzania began to gain their independence in the 1950's and 1960's with the
result that by the end of the decade of the 60's most parts of the Islamic world were formed into

independent national states. There were, however, exceptions. The Muslim states in the Soviet

Union failed to gain their autonomy or independence. The same holds true for Sinkiang (called
Eastern Turkestan by Muslim geographers) while in Eritrea and the southern Philippines Muslim

independence movements still continue.

National States

While the world of Islam has entered into the modern world in the form of national states,

continuous attempts are made to create closer cooperation within the Islamic world as a whole

and to bring about greater unity. This is seen not only in the meetings of the Muslim heads of
state and the establishment of the OIC (Organization of Islamic Countries) with its own

secretariat, but also in the creation of institutions dealing with the whole of the Islamic world.
Among the most important of these is the Muslim World League (Rabitat al-alam al-Islami ) with

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its headquarters in Makkah. Saudi Arabia has in fact played a pivotal role in the creation and
maintenance of such organizations.

Revival and Reassertation of Islam

Muslims did not wish to gain only their political independence. They also wished to assert their
own religious and cultural identity. From the 18th century onward Muslim reformers appeared
upon the scene who sought to reassert the teachings of Islam and to reform society on the basis

of Islamic teachings. One of the first among this group was Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab,
who hailed from the Arabian peninsula and died there in 1792. This reformer was supported by

Muhammad ibn al-Sa'ud, the founder of the first Saudi state. With this support Muhammad ibn

'Abd al-Wahhab was able to spread his teachings not only in Arabia but even beyond its borders
to other Islamic lands where his reforms continue to wield influence to this day. In the 19th
century lslamic assertion took several different forms ranging from the Mahdi movement of the

Sudan and the Sanusiyyah in North Africa which fought wars against European colonizers, to

educational movements such as that of Aligarh in India aiming to reeducate Muslims. In Egypt
which, because of al-Azhar University, remains to this day central to Islamic learning, a number
of reformers appear, each addressing some aspect of Islamic thought. Some were concerned
more with law, others economics, and yet others the challenges posed by Western civilization
with its powerful science and technology. These included Jamal al-Din al-Afghani who hailed
originally from Persia but settled in Cairo and who was the great champion of Pan-Islamism,
that is the movement to unite the Islamic world politically as well as religiously. His student,

Muhammad 'Abduh, who became the rector of al-Azhar. was also very influential in Islamic

theology and thought. Also of considerable influence was his Syrian student, Rashid Rida, who
held a position closer to that of 'Abd al-Wahhab and stood for the strict application of the
Shari'ah. Among the most famous of these thinkers is Muhammad Iqbal, the outstanding poet

and philosopher who is considered as the father of Pakistan.

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Reform Organizations

Moreover, as Western influence began to penetrate more deeply into the fiber of Islamic society,

organizations gradually grew up whose goal was to reform society in practice along Islamic lines

and prevent its secularization. These included the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-muslimin)
founded in Egypt and with branches in many Muslim countries, and the Jama'at-i Islami of
Pakistan founded by the influential Mawlana Mawdudi. These organizations have been usually

peaceful and have sought to reestablish an Islamic order through education. During the last two
decades, however, as a result of the frustration of many Muslims in the face of pressures
coming from a secularized outside world, some have sought to reject the negative aspects of

Western thought and culture and to return to an Islamic society based completely on the

application of the Shari'ah. Today in every Muslim country there are strong movements to
preserve and propagate Islamic teachings. In countries such as Saudi Arabia Islamic Law is

already being applied and in fact is the reason for the prosperity, development and stability of
the country. In other countries where Islamic Law is not being applied, however, most of the

effort of Islamic movements is spent in making possible the full application of the Shari'ah so
that the nation can enjoy prosperity along with the fulfillment of the faith of its people. In any
case the widespread desire for Muslims to have the religious law of Islam applied and to

reassert their religious values and their own identity must not be equated with exceptional
violent eruptions which do exist but which are usually treated sensationally and taken out of
proportion by the mass media in the West.

Education and Science in the Islamic World

In seeking to live successfully in the modern world, in independence and according to Islamic

principles, Muslim countries have been emphasizing a great deal the significance of the role of

education and the importance of mastering Western science and technology. Already in the

19th century, certain Muslim countries such as Egypt, Ottoman Turkey and Persia established

institutions of higher learning where the modern sciences and especially medicine were taught.

During this century educational institutions at all levels have proliferated throughout the Islamic
world. Nearly every science ranging from mathematics to biology as well as various fields of

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modern technology are taught in these institutions and some notable scientists have been
produced by the Islamic world, men and women who have often combined education in these

institutions with training in the West. In various parts of the Islamic world there is, however, a
sense that educational institutions must be expanded and also have their standards improved to

the level of the best institutions in the world in various fields of learning especially science and
technology.

At the same time there is an awareness that the educational system must be based totally on
Islamic principles and the influence of alien cultural and ethical values and norms, to the extent
that they are negative, be diminished. To remedy this problem a number of international Islamic

educational conferences have been held, the first one in Makkah in 1977, and the foremost

thinkers of the Islamic world have been brought together to study and ponder over the question
of the relation between Islam and modern science. This is an ongoing process which is at the

center of attention in many parts of the Islamic world and which indicates the significance of
educational questions in the Islamic world today.

Conclusion

The Islamic world remains today a vast land stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with an

important presence in Europe and America, animated by the teachings of Islam and seeking to
assert its own identity. Despite the presence of nationalism and various secular ideologies in
their midst, Muslims wish to live in the modern world but without simply imitating blindly the
ways followed by the West. The Islamic world wishes to live at peace with the West as well as

the East but at the same time not to be dominated by them. It wishes to devote its resources
and energies to building a better life for its people on the basis of the teachings of Islam and not

to squander its resources in either internal or external conflicts. It seeks finally to create better

understanding with the West and to be better understood by the West. The destinies of the

Islamic world and the West cannot be totally separated and therefore it is only in understanding

each other better that they can serve their own people more successfully and also contribute to

a better life for the whole of humanity.

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Public Administration and Governance in

Islam
Concept of Public Administration in Islam:

The concept of a system of administration in Islam is quite different from that in the Western

world. Islam is a complete code of life and encircles all human activities. Life according to Islam

is a constant struggle to overcome satanic propensities running in human blood. Islam is not a

utopia of unrealizable ideas and it firmly expounds that an administration should keep a strict
watch over his thoughts and actions. It emphasizes inner purity of soul because it provides

social harmony in society and engenders self-discipline. Islam, in fact , laid down the foundation

of a sound system of administration. Islam emphasizes certain intrinsic qualities which an

administrator must possess. These are also regarded as the cohesive characteristic features

which Islam has put forward for a perfect and excellent administrative system. First among them

is “HONESTY” a moral quality which is influences the individuals to refrain from inflicting injuries
on others by cheating. Dishonestly breeds aversion.

Pollutes social life:

Degenerates politics and corrupts administration. The impact of dishonestly is particularly

ruinous if a dishonest person occupies a position of authority. According to Islam, corruption is a

sin for which there is no atonement. The Holy Quran has clearly pointed out that the corrupt will

be subjected to divine chastisement. It enjoins Muslims from usurpation of each others wealth
and from offering bribes to judges so that through their aid someone’s property might not be

seized dishonestly.

Islam enunciates certain principles in order to eliminate corruption from administration. The Holy

Prophet (S.A.W) in his administration reforms gave the highest priority to honestly and moral

integrity of officers. His instructions to the officialdom always highlighted right action and honest

conduct. Officers were disallowed to have anything beyond their salaries and allowances and

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even gifts of all kinds were forbidden to them. The Holy Prophet took special care in allocating
offices of the state. A tradition has been narrated by Bukharee from Abu Hurraira in which The

Prophet pointed out that if the offices were assigned to unworthy people, which would mean the
end of this world. The principle of honesty was a corner stone in the foundation of administrative

structure during the time of the Holy Prophet and was strictly adhered to by his four pious
successors in organizing and administering the affairs of the state. Hazrat Umar (R.A), who

created effective and efficient governmental machinery, set very high ethical standards for

public servants. Civil and military officers found guilty were always subjected to severe

reprimand and were very often given exemplary punishments. Hazrat Omer (R.A) in a letter
addressed to Hazrat Amar bin Aas, Governor of Egypt, made serious inquiries about the ways

and means by which he had accumulated wealth and property which he did not possess before

his appointment as Governor. Similarly, in an official circular addressed to all the Governors,
The Caliph of Islam forbade them to accept even gifts.

Hazrat Ali’s letter to Malik Bin Ashtar, on his appointment as Governor of Egypt, has been

considered by historians as a great contribution to the growth of administrative ethics in Islam.

In a similar letter to Osman Bin Haneef, the Governor of Basra, Hazrat Ali condemned officers
who had the habit of attending parties arranged in their honour by interested people. This, he

thought, was a corruption of a subtle nature.

To ensure honestly in administration, several steps were taken including provision of all possible
amenities and comforts to the officials because it was believed that inadequate salaries and

absence of reasonable facilities could be one of the factors of corruption. Islam also takes into

consideration the evil consequences of force and fraud and for this it emphasizes complete
justice in administration. Hazrat Abu Saeed reported that The Holy Prophet said, “Verily the
dearest of men near Allah Almighty on the Resurrection Day and the nearest before Him for

company will be the just ruler.” According to Imam Ghazali, the success of any political authority
depends on the quality of justice in its jurisdiction, In Islam an unjust Governor is threatened

with torments, reserved for infidels while a just and righteous ruler has been ensured an

unending bliss. The concept of veracity in the Islamic system of administration is also of great

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importance. Actually, in no other institution there is a great need for veracity than in
administration because decision taken in this field has deep and far-reaching repercussions. If

veracity is adopted as an integral part of administrative behavior a decision-makers constantly

insist on truthful assessment of every situation, there is hope that the climate in administrative

agency could be free from suspicions or providing some information should not be motivated by
selfishness. Veracity, in order to be effective, has to be spontaneous. It should also be a deeply

ingrained habit rather than an act of expediency resulting from some kind of fear or injury. The

Holy Quran says, “When you speak a word or pronounce a judgment, be true and just, though

the person concerned be your relative speak not falsely, although the declaration might be
against your parents or your near relatives”. In Islamic hierarchical organization, the procedure

is not rigid and formalistic. Distinction between juniors and seniors, is no doubt, maintained but

they are all accountable to Allah Almighty, the sole sovereign. Islam encourages healthy
criticism and, therefore, it is the duty of a junior to point out his senior’s omissions which are

contrary to religion and morality. Reference in this connection may be made to the inaugural

address delivered by Hazrat Abu Bakar (R.A) in which he asked the people to exercise strict
vigilance on his affairs and that when he deviated from the path of righteousness, they were
under no obligation to obey his commands. Many evils in society stem from hasty and

miscalculated decisions. Errors of judgment and fault in policy-making can be reduced

considerably if the decision-maker has the habit of patiently investing the issues in hand.
Administrative system in Islam has applauded patience as one of the noble qualities of the

administrator. A tradition of the Holy Prophet narrated by Abdullah Bin Abbas says, “When Allah
wishes the welfare of a community, He blesses it with officers who are patient and large-

hearted.” Islam has focused special attention on the general complaints against bureaucracy i-e

its members tend to isolate themselves from people.

If this attitude exists among the civil servants, they can hardly become aware of the needs of the
masses. Accessibility, thus, is an important feature of the Islamic administrative system. A close
and constant contact between the commoners and the officialdom can breed an atmosphere of

truth and confidence which is very very essential for the success of governmental policies.

Public servants who are self-opinionated, secluded and arrogant can never implement public

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policies effectively. On the other hand, an administrator who is easily accessible gets a greater
fund of first hand, reliable information and better perspectives of his decisions. According to the

Islamic tradition of administration, officers at all levels and in all circumstances have to provide
free access to the public. In a letter addressed to Hazrat Saad Bin Abi. Waqas Hazrat Omer

gave special instructions to all high ranking officials advising them not to isolate themselves
from the people. Emphasizing the importance of accessibility, Nizam-ul-Mulk Toori says that

accessibility should be a fundamental characteristic of administration in a country. In his opinion,

every officer, from head of the state to the man working at the lowest level must cordially

welcome the people who come to them in connection with some official business. Last, but not
least, came accountability.

Islam lays greater emphasis on this point. An official is not only accountable to Allah Almighty
on the day of judgment but also to the people in this world. Islam has maintained a balance

between administrative powers and administrative responsibilities. An officer in an Islamic state

is expected to perform a constructive role in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the

people. Therefore he is grand wide powers to exercise in these fields. He is not only the
executor of public policy but is very largely its initiator and formulator as well. On the other hand,
strict supervision is exercised by the people and several other independent institutions in order

to control the activities of the public officials so that they may not become dictatorial in their
behavior. If we adopt such a system of administration, we can be the most developed nation of
the world.

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Quranic Guidance on Good Governance

An Overview

Islam is first and foremost an ethical, practical and spiritual understanding of the world and the
cosmos mediated by the concept of the absolute unity of God (tawhīd). By subscribing to unity
of God one undertakes a covenant with oneself, one’s Creator and all other creatures. A
person’s belief in One God calls him to be responsible not only to himself and fellow human

beings, but to everything in the plant and the animal world and the overall environment, as
everything in the universe is created by the one God, and has a purpose.

In order for man to understand this purpose, the Qur’an repeatedly asks mankind to observe,
ponder, and use reason. (Consider, for example, 4:82; 23:68; 38: 29; 47: 24.)3 The emphasis
on the role of reason in determining man’s relationship with everything in the universe is central

to man’s ability to utilize it for the benefit of humanity. By highlighting the rights and obligations

of God over man, and man over man, the Qur’an establishes the point that man serves God
mainly by serving humanity.

In this journey of life one is happy and successful when one enjoys one’s life in an orderly and
civilized manner. It gives spiritual satisfaction when one fulfills one’s responsibilities to God and

the society. In this process the individual will not only satisfy his material and spiritual needs, but

also contribute positively to human civilization.

Naturally, for the realization of this vision of human life, good governance is a pre-requisite. The

importance of good governance is underscored by the fact that no civilization in history was

established without a good government. Therefore an individual may seek happiness and

success in his personal life by obtaining guidance from the Most Merciful – the Creator of the
universe – in fulfilling his obligations toward society. The Islamic worldview integrates the role of
the individual in absolute terms with the overarching concern for peace and general human well-

being.

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Human beings are a special creation of God. God has created man as His representative
(khalīfah). God has made everything else in the universe subservient to man, and if he utilizes

them positively, he participates in God’s continuous process of creation. This participation is

neither by chance nor optional, but a responsibility – the purpose of one’s very life and

existence. God has not left man empty-handed to fulfill his responsibilities in this life. He has
endowed man with reason, physical and intellectual capabilities, knowledge and other

resources. These potentialities and resources.

including one’s very own life – are given to man as a trust (amānah). Hence he is not the
absolute owner of any one of them. Even his own body and life has been given to him on trust;

hence, he is not allowed to abuse them or harm himself. That is why drug abuse and suicide are

forbidden (harām) in Islam. Potentially there is an enormous prospect for innovative creativity
and growth in this process of creation. But this cannot occur without a direct involvement of

man. Since human beings have been endowed with the ability to think, rationalize and
understand, they must strive to cultivate their potentials in order to qualify to be contributors to

this process of creation and growth initiated and spearheaded by God. Thus the underlying
principle guiding man’s life and relationships with all the other creatures is that everything in the
universe is a trust (amānah) from God to man, and as representative of God on earth, man has

been assigned the duty of establishing civilization and a peaceful society.

God has fashioned the nature – fitrah – of every human being in such a way that no one can
survive alone.4 In other words social organization is vital for mankind, and no human

organization can be established without some form of universal principles accommodating the

interests of all or most members of a given group. Therefore it may be safely suggested that
some form of political organization existed from the very beginning of human history.
Unfortunately very little information is available about the early formation of ancient civilizations.

The Qur’an tells that mankind originally belonged to one community (ummah), and God has
guided them by sending prophets with glad tidings and warnings, but they disagreed among

themselves for selfish motives; this led to division in the society (2: 213). These divisions

occurred because some “holders of religion” sold the sacred message “at a cheap price” (2:

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102-103) for their personal worldly gains. Every individual is free to choose between an ethical
life and a life motivated by selfishness,greed, and evil desires. The challenge for mankind is to

overcome this negative power and thereby contribute to the growth of civilization. Good
governance is indispensable for the peace and prosperity of human civilization. We believe that

with the passage of time human beings have grown more mature and they have acquired
greater enlightenment to understand properly the purpose of life. They are also supposed to

have acquired better judgment and self-control to understand Divine guidance. This document

contains the following fundamental key points.

 The essence of Qur’anic guidance on good governance is the understanding of the

concept of amānah (trust) and ‘adālah (justice) within the framework of the Islamic

worldview.
 The Islamic worldview is determined by the Qur’anic story of creation.

 The concepts of amānah and ‘adālah (justice) provide a framework for the main
practical concepts (i.e., sharī‘ah and shūra) of good governance in the Qur’an.

 The principles behind the sharī‘ah and shūra are open to human understanding based
on reason.
 Islamic humanism manifests itself in a significant way in the formulation of principles

central to the establishment of Islamic political institutions.

 This is a key concept in both Islamic ethics and theology. For a detailed discussion, see
Al-Tahir Ibn Ashur, Maqāsid al-Sharī‘ah al-Islamiyyah. (Amman: Dār al-Nufais, 1999),
189-195.

 An understanding of Islamic humanism necessitates both a deep look into Islamic

history and the development of an Islamic theory of knowledge.

 While amānah and ‘adālah provide the ontological basis, the sharī‘ah and shūra furnish

the practical mechanism for Islamic polity.

 The maqāsid (objectives) of the sharī‘ah are meant to preserve religion, life, reason,
progeny and wealth. An overarching principle of all policy making (political, legal,

economic, social, environmental etc.) that emerges from these objectives is maslaha

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(public interest). Public interest can be defined in simple words as promoting and
preserving the things that are harmful to it.

Role of Leadership in Good Governance:

The Islamic concept of leadership is rooted in the institutionalization of principles rather than
personalities. Nevertheless, the Prophet stands as the best example of leadership in Islam. It is
worth mentioning that the Prophet was known as al-amīn in his society even before he began

his mission. The term is derived from amn, from which amānah is also derived. As noted
earlier, the notion of leadership dominated the Islamic theory of good governance during the

early days of the institution of the khilāfah, or caliphate. The community generally agreed with

the idea that the leader had to be qualified to lead the people both in prayers and in worldly
affairs because he was answerable individually to God and to the community. The leader had to
rule on the basis of the trust delegated to him by God and also by the members of the

community, who could publicly monitor his activities. The leader acknowledged that he was not

the ruler but the servant of the people and his job was to work for the well being of all in the
society, that all his decisions, actions and policies were guided by the criteria of public interest
and that he was accountable to the society and to God. The leadership did not have to come
from any royal family or aristocracy: Talent, character, sincerity, integrity and commitment to
God’s guidance were the main criteria for leadership. Early caliphs considered themselves
commoners. They also separated their personal needs from the needs of the government. They
were considered model characters by the rest of the community.

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Concept of Governance and its Applications in the light of Quran, Sunnah and Fiqh

Introduction to Islam

The word Islam is derived from Arabic word S L M and its mean surrender, obedient and as well

as peace and this mean that a person can have a physical and mental peace only when he fully

surrenders to all mighty GOD

This religious system is been start by Muhammad SWT Peace be up him at seventh century
and Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in the world and in each five person one is a

Muslim in all around the world there is 3 million of the Muslims (Malik, 2003)

The Holy Quran describes good governance as the law of justice, a just and principled order
and compliance of rights and responsibilities in a society.

The Qur’an declares: “Those when given authority in land, establish (system of) salah, give

zakah and enjoin what is good (mauruf) and forbid what is wrong (munkar) (Quran, al-Hajj,
22:41)

It further says: “O you who believe stand up as a witness for Allah in all fairness, and do not let
the hatred of people deviate you from justice (‘adl). Be just, this is closest to piety (Quran, Al-
Maidah, 5:8)

Islamic view of good governance is qualitative and not mechanical. Major features of good

governance can be précised under seven fundamentals

 Rules of Law (As-Shura)

 Khilafah
 Accountability
 Transparency

 Justice

 Equity

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 Al-amr bil maruf wa nahi an al-munkar

Rules of Law ( As-Shura):

As-shura is one of the most important constitutional principles in the Islamic Law. As it’s very
important that’s why it’s been mentioned in Quran Moreover, a sura (chapter) in the holy Qur’an
was named after that principle. It is called “Shura”. This show the importance of this principle in
all the affairs of Muslims. The whole system of the Islamic state from its beginning to the

selection of the Khalifa of the state and all those in key positions as well as its communications
must be led by Shura, so it should be carried out directly or indirectly over selected or

nominated councils

There is mention in Quran: O you, who believe, be custodians of justice (and) witness for Allah,
even though against yourselves or your parents or your relatives. Whether a man is rich or poor,

Allah is the greatest well-wisher than you. So follow nor the behests of lust, lest you swerve

from justice (Quran, An-Nisa, 4:135)

Even the Prophet, although he was the receiver of direct guidance from the Almighty Allah, was

command-ed. Allah says:

Consult them in affairs (of moment). Then, when you have to take a decision put the trust in

Allah. For Allah loves those who put their trust (in Him). (Quran, Al-Imran, 3:159)

Following this advice and lead, Khalifa Umar admonished that:

There is no khilafah without consultation.

Thus, The same mechanism was followed by the follower of Muhammad SWT for the selection

of Khalifa and It was the first Muslim elected four khulafah guidance, although the selection and

approval process varies. The important principle is the truth and accountability and public
confidence in those elected by the community.

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The importance of Shura:

The basic fundamentals of Islamic political system is called Shura.its is responsible for all the
affairs of Muslims .Thus, the Islamic state might have preceded the modern democratic systems
with regard to the necessity of agreement over choosing the one who runs its affairs and cares
for its interests, something which stresses the value and effectiveness of unanimity among

Muslims (Al-Nuzum, p24, 25) .

Decision maker of Shura:

A group of Muslim people who have the power to make decision are all called Shura. And those
who are members of Shura must have some qualities like Education, Wise and Justice so it can

be said that the Shura people are scholars and leaders.

For applying the rulers it’s important and necessary to have a Shura .It can be said that it is one

of the most important manifestations of civilization that Muslims contributed to its creation and

consolidation in the Muslim community. So, Shura was a kind of expression of the divine will on
the basis of what the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “My nation shall not agree upon an

error.” (Majah) . In Here I would like to mention that Khalifa in Islam can’t give the Right to

express the divine will. I.e. he is not authorized to pass legislation, because the power of
legislation is entitled to the Muslim community or the whole nation (Al-Sanhuri) and this, of

course, happens in the absence of clear evidence from the Qur’an and the Prophet’s traditions.

Difference between Shura and democracy:

We should say the Islamic Shura is much different from modern democracy system. Democracy

is the people made rules and assumed by people and people should make their own

constitution and law, In order for people to assume lawmaking authority, set laws and distinct
between authorities, general elections are held to select a group of individuals who are able to

monitor all authorities, and those persons have the rights to remove or bring ministers or head
of a state

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Islamic Shura have a different view. Shura in Islam is based on the rule of Allah’s and Sunna
Muhammad SWT and loyalty to those rules in basis of faith.

Scholars are the people of power and decision. They come at the top of the people of Shura.

Given Allah’s rules, scholars don’t have their own consultation laws they just have to prove the
text is from Quran and sunnah.

The truth is that democratic system can be easily controlled or avoid by some powerful parties

over political actions in a country and they will and politely parties and they will force to apply by
the nation. However the Islamic Shura is supremacy for Allah only and and give the priority to

Allah’s rule which lead to the emergence of men living in the company of Allah and fearing Him

Honestly (Ghalush)

Khilafah:

Khalifa is an Arabic word means successor. The word caliph is simply an Anglicized version of

khalifa. The terms khilafat and caliphate, though derived from khalifa and caliph individually,
have different meanings. Khilafat refers to the Islamic institution of spiritual successor ship,

whereas caliphate indicates a politico-religious Muslim state governed by a caliph

When the Prophet Muhammed SAW past a way in (632 C.E.), Hazrat Abu Bakr succeeded to

his spiritual, administrative purposes as successor of the messenger of God (khalifa rasul
Allah). Bernard Lewis, the preeminent historian of Islam, observes:

“Abu Bakr was given the title of Khalifa or ‘Deputy’ (of the prophet) … and his election marks the

appointment of the great historic institution of the Caliphate. His voters can have no idea of later

purposes and growth of the office. At the time, they made no effort to define his duties or
powers. The only state of his selection was the maintenance of the inheritance of the Prophet.”

(Lewis, 1993)

Allah has promised to those among you who believe and act rightly, that He will surely make

them Successors (khalifas) in the earth, as He made Successors from among those who were
before them; and that He will surely establish for them their religion, which He has chosen for

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them; and that He will surely grant them security and peace in place of their fear (Quran, Alnoor,
24:54)

In this verse, the Holy Quran presents the institution of khilafat as a reward for collective virtue.

It is often understood to provide a basis for an Islamic organization founded upon the
democratic lines headed by a khalifa whose office is, in principle, elective and bound by the
Quran and the sunnah.

In a well-known hadith, the Prophet Muhammad SWT is reported to have observed:

Prophet Hood shall remain among you as long as God wills. Then khilafat on the pattern of

prophet hood will commence and remain as long as He wills. A corrupt monarchy shall then
follow and it shall remain as long as God wills. There shall then be a oppressive despotism
which shall remain as long as God wills. Then once again khilafat will arise on the principle of

prophet hood (Masnad-Ahmad)

This hadith not only reassures us about the repetition of well guided khilafat but it also permits a
historical judgment on what was to follow the early Khilafat.

The famous historian of Islam, Muhammad SWT ibn Jarir Al Tabari, narrates the following

incident

Umar said to Salman: ‘Am I a king or a khalifa?’ and Salman answered: ‘If you have levied from

the lands of the Muslims one dirham, or more, or less, and applied it unlawfully, you are a king
not a khalifa’. And Umar wept

Here Hazrat Umar, the second Khalifa, whose goodness, sense of justice, and puritanical
strictness were well-known, came to tears by the mere mention of the possibility of misusing a

single coin from the public exchequer. This incidence underscores the characteristic of the

rightly-guided khilafat. (Al Tabari, Tarikh al-Rusul Wal Muluk)

As God’s sovereignty extends over the universe, the final ideal of a public in Islam is a universal

federation or association of independent states, related together for maintenance freedom of

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integrity, for the maintenance of peace, and for cooperation in promoting human welfare
throughout the world (Khan, Feb 1993)

A khalifa has the promise of divine support so long as it remains firmly based on the precept of

prophet hood – that is, the principles and prototypes demonstrated by prophets. He is bound by
the rules of great law. He decides questions of rule after discussion with the chosen
representatives of the people.

In governing the corporation, man is seen as the essential element for the system to be
effectively working in the right way. As man is the shareholder, creditor, examiner, regulator,

manager as well as the director thus, its manifest that man plays the principal roles in managing

and led to the accomplishment of company’s vision and mission. The issues of man in term of
values, ethics and moral conduct therefore need to be well detained in the first place to ensure
the concern of the society could be taken care. The concern among other things are

maintenance trust, maintaining honesty, exercising transparency and accountability, traditional

in managing resources, caring and concern of the environment. The failure to impress these
values may pose serious problem to the public at large.

Accountability:

In the Holy Qur'an, the word hesab is repeated more than eight times in different verses (F,

1997) Hesab or 'account' is the root of accounting, and the references in the Holy Qur'an are to
'account' in its generic sense, relating to one's responsibility to 'account' to God on all matters
relating to human effort for which every Muslim is 'accountable'.

The Muslims believe in the terms of accountability that they will be judged for whatever they do

in this world in the hereafter (life after death). In Islam, It’s the duty of each Muslim to fulfill the
wills of Allah in order to seek his pleasure and the promised prizes in the life after death. Thus, it
requires every action and word in this world must be in line with the Islamic teachings. It does

not matter what action the Muslims do either ibadah (solah) or purchasing shares in the stock
market, eating , sleeping like daily jobs they must follow the Islamic teaching framework

carefully. The importance of accountability to the man’s life also has been mentioned by Holy

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Quran: “…Lo the hearing and the sight and the heart – of each of these will be asked” (Quran,
Bani Israill, 17:36)

Abdullah reported that Allah’s Messenger Muhammad SWT said: Every one of you is a guardian

and accountable (mas’ul) for his charge. Thus the Khalifa is a custodian of the people and He is
responsible for them. And a man is a guardian of his household and he is accountable for them;
and a woman is in charge of the household and her children and she is accountable for them;

and a servant is guardian of his master’s property, every one of you is accountable for his
subjects (Bukhari)

In the view of corporate governance practices, as far as Islam is concerned, the country

directors, management as well as the auditor should perform their professional duties with the
objective of satisfying the needs of the Public and to Allah as well. Supposing, there should be
no such disease (i.e. fraud; material misstatement) exist in the country if this concept could be

affected and could be reflected in their conducts. Unfortunately, most of them have been

followed by the physical experienced life which has led to the bad behaviors that cause the
owners (community) of the country suffer the penalties.

Transparency:

The concept of transparency has been divulged by Allah in the following Ayat: “O you who

believe! When you deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed
period of time, reduce them to writing. Let a scribe write-down faithfully as between the
parties…” (Quran, Al-Baqarah, Beginning of the Ayat, 2:282). This verse states that every
transaction must be written to avoid justice.

Applying the concept of transparency, corporation should also disclose information regarding its
strategy, actions, contribution to the community and the use of resources and protection of
environment (Haniffa, 2002)

Transparency is the necessity for openness in all public affairs. Transparency allows Committee

to gather information that may be unsafe to exposure misuses and defending their benefits.

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According to Ayee transparency entails that: citizens have a right to available information
pertaining to, for example, award of contracts, privatization of state enterprises, rules against

corruption or the funding of political parties (Ayee, 2000). A transparent government is that
which offers chance to citizens to find out the true proofs at first hand, without the material being

changed or presented through a misrepresenting mirror.

In core, transparency is basically concerned with open and established system of government,

the extermination of corruption and the institutionalization of a system that is fair, just and based
on the rule of law. Transparency or openness in governance is important in the process of
growth. It is serious in the elimination of corruption and the promotion of responsibility in the

conduct of government business. Today, the quest for transparent performance has become a

world-wide phenomenon with the Transparency International.

Justice:

In the Islamic worldview, justice means placing things in their rightful place. It also means giving
others equal treatment. In Islam, justice is also an honest quality and a feature of human
personality, as it is in the Western tradition. Justice is close to equality in the wisdom that it
creates a state of equilibrium in the distribution of rights and duties, but they are not equal.

Sometimes, justice is accomplished through inequality, like in unequal distribution of wealth.

(Muslims)

Justice in the Islamic governmental system, including social justice, which means that the
government should arrange to meet and please the needs and needs of all the people as they
have a valid part of the country and citizens of the country. This contains the facility of job,

means of existence and financial justice. This in turn suggests that it is the duty of the

government to provide food, housing and clothing for all the people in the country. Economic

justice aimed at equitable supply of lifestyle and checks the awareness of wealth in a few

hands.

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The Importance of Justice:

The Quran, the holy scripture of Islam, considers justice to be a highest virtue. It is a basic

objective of Islam to the degree that it stands next in order of importance to belief in God’s

exclusive right to worship (Tawheed) and the truth of Muhammad SWT prophet hood. God
declares in the Quran: God commands justice and fair dealing... (Quran, Al-Nahal, 16:90).

And in another passage:

O you who believe, be upright for God, and (be) bearers of witness with justice!.. (Quran, Al-

Mayeeda, 5:8).

Therefore, one may achieve that justice is an responsibility of Islam and unfairness is forbidden.
The importance of justice to the Quranic value system is showed by the following verse:

We sent Our Messengers with clear signs and sent down with them the Book and the Measure
in order to establish justice among the people… (Quran, Al-Hadeed, 57:25).

The phrase ‘Our Messengers’ shows that justice has been the goal of all admission and
scriptures sent to humanity. The verse also shows that justice must be measured and applied
by the values and rules set by admission. Islam’s approach to justice is complete and complete.
Any path that leads to justice is believed to be in accord with Islamic Law.

God has required justice and, although He has not prescribed a definite path, has provided
general rules, on how to achieve it. He has neither given a fixed means by which it can be

found, nor has He stated unacceptable any specific means or methods that can lead to justice.
Therefore, all means, processes, and methods that enable, improve, and advance the cause of
justice, and do not interrupt the Islamic Law are valid (Qarzawi)

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Equality in Justice:

The Quranic standards of justice exceed thoughts of race, religion, color, and faith, as Muslims

are ordered to be just to their friends and enemies similar, and to be just at all levels, as the

Quran puts it:

O you who believe! Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even if it be against
yourselves, your parents, and your relatives, or whether it is against the rich or the poor...

(Quran, Al-Nisa, 4:135)

According to another Quranic passage:

Let not the hatred of a people swerve you away from justice. Be just, for this is closest to
righteousness… (Al-Mayeeda, Quran (Al-Mayeeda), 5:8)

The scholars of the Quran have decided that these decisions apply to all nations, followers of all
faiths, as a matter of fact to all humanity (Kamali)In the view of the Quran, justice is a

responsibility. That is why the Prophet was told:

…If you judge, judge between them with justice… (Al-Mayeeda, Quran (Al-Mayeeda), 5:42)

Furthermore, the Prophet was sent as a judge between peoples, and told:

…Say: I believe in the Scripture, which God has sent down, and I am commanded to judge
justly between you... (Al-Shura, 42:15)

The Quran want that justice can be encountered for all, and that it is a characteristic right of all
human beings under Islamic Law (Qutb)

To reduce justice is a trust that God has discussed on the human being and, like all other trusts,
its contentment must be directed by logic of accountability outside simple traditionalism to set

rules.

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The reference to justice which directly follows a reference to fulfillment of trusts indicates that it
is one of the most important of all trusts (Razi, Al-Tafsir al-Kabir)

Equity:

The principle of equality is one of the most important constitutional principles upon which the
contemporary system rests. This means that the principle of equality contained in the individual
communities are equal in rights, responsibilities and public duties that will be enjoyed by all

without discrimination of race, origin, lan-measure or belief. The principle of equality has been
initiated by the Qur'an and Sunnah and the expansion of Islam during some as a precedent in

Islamic law and its own time and place

This value of equality is not to be incorrect for or confused with similarity or stereotype. Islam
teaches that in the view of Allah Almighty, all people are equal, but they are not necessarily

indistinguishable. There are variances of capabilities, abilities, determinations, wealth and so

on.

Yet, none of these differences can by themselves found the status of lead of one man or race

over another. The standard of man, his skin color, the amount of capital he has and the degree
of respect he enjoys has no attitude on the personality of the individual as far as Allah is

concerned. The only difference, which Allah identifies, is the difference in religiousness the only

standard which Allah applies, is the standard of goodness and spiritual excellence. In the
Quran, Allah Almighty Says (what means): O mankind, indeed we have created you from male
and female, and have made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Indeed
the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and

Acquainted (Quran, Al-Hujrat, 49:13) .

This is to declare that in Islam, no nation is made to be above other nations or to rise above
them. Man's value in the eyes of men and in the eyes of Allah is determined by the good he

does, and by his respect to Allah.

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The differences of race, color or social status are only supplementary. They do not affect the
true standing of man in the vision of Allah. Again, the value of equality is not simply a substance

of constitutional rights or the agreement of nobles or condescending charity. It is an article of

trust, which the Muslim takes seriously and to which the must follow honestly. The fundamentals

of this Islamic value of equality are extremely deep-rooted in the arrangement of Islam. It stems
from basic ideologies such as the following:

 All men are created by One and the Same Eternal God, the Supreme Lord of all.
 All mankind belong to the human race and share equally in the common parentage of
Aadam (Adam) and Eve (Hawa).

 Allah is Just and Kind to all His creatures. He is not partial to any race, age or religion.

The whole Universe is His Dominion and all people are His creatures.
 All people are born equal, in the sense that no one brings any possession with him; and

they die equal in the sense that they take back nothing of their worldly belongings.
 Allah judges every person on the basis of his own merits and according to his own

deeds.
 Allah has discussed on man, a title of honor and dignity.

Those were some of the principles behind the value of equality in Islam. When this concept is
fully utilized, it will leave no place for prejudgment or harassments. And when this Great rule is
fully applied, there will be no room for domination or conquest. Concepts of chosen and gentile
peoples, words such as ‘privileged’ and ‘condemned’ races, words such as “social classes” and

“citizens” will all become worthless and outdated.

Prophet Muhammad SWT said: O mankind, your Lord is one and your father is one. You all

descended from Aadam, and Aadam was created from earth. He is most honored among you in

the sight of God who is most upright. No Arab is superior to a non-Arab, no colored person to a

white person, or a white person to a colored person except by Taqwa (piety) (At-Tirmithi).

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Therefore, it would be improbable to declare the complete equality of human beings, although
humans are essentially equal in rights, duties and accountability, and there is some degree of

similarity in physical and mental behaviors, which enables them to understand and apply rules
and laws. At the same time, it is understandable that there is a natural range among human

beings in terms of qualities and abilities; therefore there will be limits in natural, common and
political positions. Some of the limits are temporary, some permanent; some are rare, some

regular. However, a control is specific to a particular situation. It may not be generalized to

inequality in other rights. A person who is morally upright is not equal to a staff in terms of

morality, but they may be equal otherwise. Nor is an intelligent person equal to a dull one, but
they are equal in other spheres. In the same way, a woman is not indistinguishable to man in

her characters, gifts and skills.

Al-amr bil maruf wa nahi an al-munkar:

Amongst the greatest responsibilities are amr-bil-Ma’roof (ordering for acknowledged virtues)

and nahi anil munkar (forbidding from sin). Allah says: “And there should be a group amongst
you who invite towards good, order for acknowledged virtues, forbid from sin and these it is that
are the successful ones” (Quran, Al-Imran, 3:104).

The Holy Prophet SWT said: “How will it be for you when your women will commit sins and your
youth will transgress and you will not order for acknowledged virtues nor forbid from sin? It was
said to him: “Will that happen O messenger of Allah?” Then he SWT said: Yes. Then he said:
“How will it be for you when you order for sins and forbid from acknowledged virtues?” Then it

was said to him: “O messenger of Allah SWT! Will that happen?” Then he said: “Yes and worse
than that how will it be for you when you perceive acknowledged virtue as sin and perceive sin

as acknowledged virtue?”

Imam Sadiq said: Woe to the people who do not support the religion of Allah by enjoining good

and forbidding evil (Sadiq)

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The expression 'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa-nahy an al-munkar' is a very important one. It is associated
to Jihad, that is, doing one's highest to understand a aim. Jihad is not essentially war fought on

the battlefield for which the specific Arabic and Quranic term is 'qital.' Jihad has a very wide
meaning and states to striving for the cause of Allah Almighty to promote goodness and

eliminate evil. A mujahid is a person who carries out Jihad or works hard for the cause of
endorsing the values of the Glorious Quran.

Thus, Amr bil ma‘ruf wa nahy an al-munkar which means ordering good and forbidding evil, is a
Jihad related principle. It seeks to intelligently carry the benefits of Islam to the people and to
inform them of the meaning of what devil do. The Quran calls Muslims the model community

which requires to convey the Prophet SWT message to entire humanity and to live the Quran,

just as the Prophet did.

"Amr bil Ma'ruf wa Nahy an al Munkar" is an important Islamic duty, together believed by all

Muslims. The difference is in the understanding of it. Some consider that it is enough to

accomplish the duty by the "heart and tongue," which means one should support al-ma'ruf and
oppose al-munkar in his heart and use his tongue to speak out for al-ma'ruf and against al-
munkar. But there are some who justify taking up arms (if necessary) for the sake of fulfilling this
duty.

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Governance Structure in Islam i.e. (Shura, Legislation, Sources of Islamic Law)

Legistive:

Separation of powers

Unlike Christianity, Islam does not separate religion from state, and many Muslims argue it is
apolitical Islam not political Islam that requires explanation and that is an historical fluke of the
"shortlived heyday of secular Arab nationalism between 1945 and 1970."[19]

In the early Islamic Caliphate, the head of state, the Caliph, had a position based on the notion

of a successor to Muhammad's political authority, who, according to Sunnis, were ideally

elected by the people or their representatives,[20] as was the case for the election of Abu
Bakar, Uthman and Ali as Caliph. After the Rashidun Caliphs, later Caliphates during the Islamic
Golden Age had a much lesser degree of democratic participation, but since "no one was

superior to anyone else except on the basis of piety and virtue" in Islam, and following the

example of Muhammad, later Islamic rulers often held public consultations with the people in
their affairs.

The legislative power of the Caliph (or later, the Sultan) was always restricted by the scholarly

class, the Ulema, a group regarded as the guardians of the law. Since the law came from the
legal scholars, this prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results. Laws were decided based
on the Ijma (consensus) of the Ummah (community), which was most often represented by the
legal scholars. In order to qualify as a legal scholar, it was required that they obtain a doctorate
known as the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") from a
Madrasah. In many ways, classical Islamic law functioned like a constitutional law.

Practically, for hundreds of years after Rashidun Caliphate and until the twentieth century,

Islamic states followed a system of government based on the coexistence of sultan and ulama
following the rules of the sharia. This system resembled to some extent some Western

governments in possessing an unwritten constitution (like the United Kingdom), and possessing

separate, countervailing branches of government (like the United States) — which provided

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Separation of powers in governance. While the United States (and some other systems of
government) has three branches of government — executive, legislative and judicial — Islamic

monarchies had two — the sultan and ulama.

According to Olivier Roy this "defacto separation between political power" of sultans and emirs
and religious power of the caliph was "created and institutionalized ... as early as the end of the
first century of the hegira." The sovereign's religious function was to defend the Muslim

community against its enemies, institute the sharia, ensure the public good (maslaha). The state
was instrument to enable Muslims to live as good Muslims and Muslims were to obey the sultan
if he did so. The legitimacy of the ruler was "symbolized by the right to coin money and to have

the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah khutba) said in his name."

Accountability

Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, impeach or

remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public
responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam. Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their
Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either
unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis ash-

Shura. Similarly Al-Baghdadi believed that if the rulers do not uphold justice, the ummah via the
majlis should give warning to them, and if unheeded then the Caliph can be impeached. Al-
Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal
must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that oppression by a caliph is enough for

impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani obliged rebellion
upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani

said that to ignore such a situation is haraam, and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate

should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two ayahs from the Qur'an to justify

this:

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"...And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, 'Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs,
and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the

punishment you give us and curse them with a very great curse'..."[33:67–68]

Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful
impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if
the majority agree they have the option to launch a revolution against them. Many noted that

this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.

Rule of law:

The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and
accountability

Narrated ‘Aisha: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from Bani Makhzum who had
committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No

one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama
spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody

in a case connected with Allah’s Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a
sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them

stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's

Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I
would cut off her hand."

Various Islamic lawyers do however place multiple conditions, and stipulations e.g. the poor

cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty, before executing such a law, making it very

difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known during a time of drought in the Rashidun
caliphate period, capital punishments were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.

Islamic jurists later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes
to the ordinary law of the land, where no person is above the law and where officials and private

citizens are under a duty to obey the same law. A Qadi (Islamic judge) was also not allowed to

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discriminate on the grounds of religion, race, colour, kinship or prejudice. There were also a
number of cases where Caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to take their

verdict.

According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, the legal scholars and jurists
who once upheld the rule of law were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the
codification of Sharia by the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century:

How the scholars lost their exalted status as keepers of the law is a complex story, but it can be
summed up in the adage that partial reforms are sometimes worse than none at all. In the early

19th century, the Ottoman empire responded to military setbacks with an internal reform

movement. The most important reform was the attempt to codify Shariah. This Westernizing
process, foreign to the Islamic legal tradition, sought to transform Shariah from a body of
doctrines and principles to be discovered by the human efforts of the scholars into a set of rules

that could be looked up in a book

Once the law existed in codified form, however, the law itself was able to replace the scholars
as the source of authority. Codification took from the scholars their all-important claim to have
the final say over the content of the law and transferred that power to the state.

Obedience and Opposition:

According to scholar Moojan Momen, "One of the key statements in the Qur'an around which

much of the exegesis" on the issue of what Islamic doctrine says about who is in charge is

based on the verse

`O believers! Obey God and obey the Apostle and those who have been given authority [uulaa
al-amr] among you`(Qur'an 4:59).

For Sunnis, uulaa al-amr are the rulers (Caliphs and kings) but for Shi'is this expression refers
to the Imams."

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According to scholar Bernard Lewis, this Qur'anic verse has been elaborated in a number of
sayings attributed to Muhammad. But there are also sayings that put strict limits on the duty of

obedience. Two dicta attributed to the Prophet and universally accepted as authentic are
indicative. One says, "there is no obedience in sin"; in other words, if the ruler orders something

contrary to the divine law, not only is there no duty of obedience, but there is a duty of
disobedience. This is more than the right of revolution that appears in Western political thought.

It is a duty of revolution, or at least of disobedience and opposition to authority. The other

pronouncement, "do not obey a creature against his creator," again clearly limits the authority of

the ruler, whatever form of ruler that may be.

However, Ibn Taymiyyah — an important 14th century scholar of the Hanbali school — says in

Tafseer for this verse "there is no obedience in sin"; that people should ignore the order of the
ruler if it would disobey the divine law and shouldn't use this as excuse for revolution because it

will spell Muslims bloods. According to Ibn Taymiyya, the saying, 'Sixty years with an unjust
imam is better than one night without a sultan`, was confirmed by experience.

He believed that the Quranic injunction to "enjoin good and forbid evil" (al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-n-
nahy ʿani-l-munkar, found in Quran 3:104 and Quran 3:110 and other verses) was the duty of
every state functionary with charge over other Muslims from the caliph to "the schoolmaster in
charge of assessing children's handwriting exercises."

Shi'a Tradition:

In Shia Islam, three attitudes towards rulers predominated — political cooperation with the ruler,
political activism challenging the ruler, and aloofness from politics — with "writings of Shi'i ulama

through the ages" showing "elements of all three of these attitudes

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Shuraa:

In some Muslim nations, shuras play a role in the constitution or governance. Some Muslim

nations, such as Turkey, are secular democracies[citation needed], and (Morocco) is a

constitutional monarchy. They could thus be said to be ruled by one version of shura. For
instance, the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan is officially called the Majlis-i-Shura, although the
Constitution uses various spellings of the term. In Egypt, the Upper House of Parliament is

known as the Shura Council. The People's Consultative Assembly in Indonesia is called Majlis
Permusyawaratan Rakyat in Indonesian language. The word musyawarat is derived from
shura/syawara.

In some monarchies and clerical regimes, there is a shura with an advisory or consultative role.
Saudi Arabia, a monarchy, was given a shura council, the Consultative Assembly of Saudi
Arabia, in 1993; there are now 150 members. All real power is held by the King, who is elected

by family members. Oman, also a monarchy has a shura council; all members are elected

except the president, who is appointed by the Sultan. The council can only offer advice, which
may be refused if vetoed by the Sultan.

In Iran, a council called the assembly of experts has the ability to impeach the supreme leader.

In addition to that, a general shura wields legislative powers, equivalent to a modern day
Western parliament.

Shuras have also been a feature of revolutions in Islamic societies, such as in the Iranian
revolution of 1979, where they were formed by workers and held considerable power over parts
of the economy for a year before being dismantled. Shuras were similarly a feature of the

uprisings in Iraq[5][6] in 1991, where they functioned as a form of participatory democracy.

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Resemblance between majlis al-shura and a parliament

Many traditional Sunni Islamic lawyers agree that to be in keeping with Islam, a government

should have some form of council of consultation or majlis al-shura, although it must recognize

that God and not the people are sovereign. Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis
should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good
caliph from a bad one, and have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Al-

Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people
themselves should create a majlis, select a list of candidates for caliph, and then the majlis
should select a caliph from the list of candidates.

Many contemporary Muslims have compared the concept of Shura to the principles of western
parliamentary democracy. For example:

What is the shura principle in Islam? ... It is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all

persons in any given society are equal in human and civil rights. Second, that public issues are
best decided by majority view. And third, that the three other principles of justice, equality and
human dignity, which constitute Islam's moral core, ... are best realized, in personal as well as
public life, under shura governance.

Other modern Muslim thinkers distance themselves from democracy. Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, the

founder of the modern transnational Islamist party Hizb ut-Tahrir, writes that shura is important
and part of "the ruling structure" of the Islamic caliphate, "but not one of its pillars." If the caliph
"neglects it," by not paying much or any attention, as happened after the first four caliphs, "he
would be negligent, but the ruling system would remain Islamic."

This is because the shura (consultation) in Islam is for seeking the opinion and not for ruling.
This is contrary to the parliamentary system in democracy.

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The democratic parliamentary system being distinct from and inferior to the true Islamic
caliphate system according to Taqiuddin an-Nabhani.

Under the Hizb ut-Tahrir constitution, non-Muslims may not serve a caliph or any other ruling

official, nor vote for these officials, but may be part of the majlis and voice "complaints in respect
to unjust acts performed by the rulers or the misapplication of Islam upon them."

Still others, such as the Muslim author Sayyid Qutb, go further, arguing that an Islamic shura

should advise the caliph but not elect or supervise him. In a rigorous analysis of the shura
chapter of the Qur'an, Qutb noted that Islam requires only that the ruler consult with at least

some of the ruled (usually the elite), within the general context of God-made laws that the ruler

must execute. In 1950 Qutb denounced democracy in favor of dictatorship, saying it was
already bankrupt in the West and asking why it should be imported to the Middle East.

The practice of a consultative, but not bill-passing, caliph-electing or popularly elected shura,

was adopted by the self-described strict Emirate of Afghanistan. While the Kandahar Shura of
the Taliban debated issues, in the end its spokesman declared, "we abide by the Amir's view
even if he alone takes this view."

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Governance under Pious Khelifat

After the Holy Prophet Sallallaho Alaihi Wasailam his true Caliphs and related Imam is Hazrat
Abubakr.Siddique (May Allah be pleased with him). After him it is Hazrat Umar Farooque (May

Allah be pleased with him). Then it is Hazrat Usman (May Allah be pleased with him). After him
it is Hazrat Ali (May Allah be pleased with him) and then Hazrat Imam Hasan (May Allah be

pleased with him). These leader's Khilafat is known as Raashida (Pious) because these great

Sahhabis (companions) gave true representation of the Holy Prophet.

Belief: The length of Khilafat Raashida

The true pious Khilafat as per the traditions of the Holy Prophet lasted thirty years. Meaning it
finished after six months of true Khilafat performed by Hazrat Imam Hasan (May Allah be
pleased with him). Then the leader of Muslims Umar Bin Abdul Aziz performed the pious

Khilafat, and Hazrat Imam Mehdi (May Allah be pleased with him) will perform true Khilafat in

the final era. Hazrat Amir Ma'awiya was the first king in Islam. [Takmeelul Iman, Wa Kamal Ibne
Hamam]

Belief: Who is the most virtuous of Caliphs

After the Prophets, and out of all of Allah's creations including Jinn, Humans, Angels, the most

virtuous is Hazrat Abubakr Siddique, then Hazrat Farooque Azam, then Hazrat Usman Gani,
then Hazrat Maula Ali (May Allah be pleased with them). Whoever believes that Hazrat Ali is

more virtuous than Hazrat Abubakr (May Allah be pleased with him) or Hazrat Farooque (May

Allah be pleased with him) is a misguided person and from a bad sect.

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Rise and Fall of Ommayyad, Abbassi and Saluki Kingdoms:

A peep into the early history of Khilafat and Islam is essentially necessary at this stage specially

to enable our non-Muslim brothers and sisters to have a thorough understanding of the unique
Divine Mission of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti.

This section is therefore devoted to the early history of Khilafat and the deviation of the Bani

Ommayya from the true path of Islam, fired by the greed and love of unbridled materialism

under the influence of their appetitive soul (Nafs). It was this deviation which caused the tragedy
of Kerbala.

After the death of the Holy Prophet Muhammad , the question of succession became a difficult

problem as no successor was nominated. The Muhajerins (those who followed the Prophet
from Mecca to Medina in Hijrat) wanted Hazrat Abu Bakr to be the Caliph. But the Ansars
wanted two Imams, one for themselves and another for the Quraish and the Muhajerins.

Hazrat ‘Umar, however, handled the dispute most tactfully and Hazrat Abu Bakr was elected to
be the first Caliph of Islam. This decision excluded Hazrat Ali, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-
law, who, according to some, should have been the rightful successor of the Prophet. But the
principle of free election in Islam was held high which even the magnanimous Ali himself did not

grudge. This dispute, however, has been the cause of some differences between the Shia and
Sunni sects of Muslims.

Hazrat Abu Bakr lived a very pious life following in the footsteps of the Holy Prophe t. During his
Caliphate, Mesopotamia and Syria came under Islamic dominion. Before his death, he
nominated Hazrat ‘Umar as his successor, a decision which was again unanimously hailed by

all Muslims including the family of the Prophet .

During Hazrat ‘Umar's Caliphate, two of the most powerful Empires of the Persians and the
Romans came under Islamic sovereignty. He made Khilafat a very powerful institution and was

one of the greatest administrative geniuses Islam has ever produced. He founded many useful

systems and institutions for a truly benevolent government. He strictly followed the teachings of

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the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Holy Prophet and never swerved from the tenets of
Islam. He lived a strictly austere life and took special pains in administering love and justice to

the people strictly in accordance with the Laws of Islam.

Hazrat ‘Umar was, however, fatally wounded by a fanatic disbeliever while he was in prayers,
but, before he succumbed to his injuries, he nominated a Council of Regency discriminantly
omitting his son Abdullah from the Khilafat. Subsequently Hazrat Usman Ghani, who is reputed

for his philanthropy and magnanimity, was unanimously installed as the third Caliph of Islam.
For six years during his Caliphate, propagation of Islam in foreign countries continued
successfully but once more the fatal hand of mischief-mongers fell on this Caliph also and he

was assassinated.

Hazrat Ali:

Hazrat Ali now succeeded as the fourth Caliph of Islam. The Shias maintain that Hazrat Ali,

being the son-in-law of the Prophet , was the rightful heir to the Caliphate and should have been
proclaimed Caliph indisputably after the death of the Prophet . Dissensions on this point had
been continuing and some disgruntled persons stirred up feelings against Hazrat Ali.

Muawiya, the ambitious governor of Syria, did not recognize Hazrat Ali's election and refused to

pay homage to him. Civil war followed and this glorious son of Islam, while in prayers in a

mosque in Kufa (Iraq), was attacked by an assassin who struck him a serious blow with the
sword from which he could not survive. This was another fatal blow to Islam in its early history.

After Hazrat Ali's untimely death, unfortunately, greed and materialism entered the portals of the

Islamic community. The ambitious Muawiya had his chance and was successful in securing the

consent of Hazrat Imam Hassan (the elder son of Hazrat Ali) to waive his right to the Caliphate
and, in 661 A.D., the people of Kufa were influenced to elect Muawiya for this high office. The
short-lived period of the patriarchal Khilafat had thus ended with the death of Hazrat Ali. The

well-known tragedy of Kerbala in which Hazrat Imam Husain (the younger son of Hazrat Ali)
died as one of the greatest martyrs of the world, sealed the fate of Khilafat in the Prophet's

family.

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The nefarious idea behind this tragedy was to destroy all the legitimate and legal claimants or
successors to this office of Khilafat from the blood of the Holy Prophet. But this was not to be,

as the blood-heritage of the Holy Prophet did survive even after this gruesome tragedy, by the
grace of God. Many Muslim saints were born of this sacred heritage to carry on the torch of

Islam in the world and Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer was one of them to played
such a glorious role in preaching Islam.

After the death of Hazrat Ali, the aristocracy of Mecca seized all political power and the seat of
Khilafat was also transferred from Medina to Damascus. The first four Caliphs of Islam lived a
very humble life. They wore clothes with patches and never permitted any pomp and show of

royalty in their courts. They performed their duties in the spirit of piety and benevolence and

maintained no elaborate machinery for government. They personally looked after the affairs of
administration.

This short period of 30 years, during which the first four Caliphs ruled, is called the Khilafat-ul-

Kamila, (the perfect Caliphate), for in each case their title to the rulership of Islam was
confirmed by the entire Muslim nation. They rendered meritorious services to the cause of
Islam. They propagated Islam with all humility, presenting it in its true spirit before the world. In
short, they lived and died for Islam.

Muawiya, The First Muslim King:

Muawiya was the first Caliph of the House of Ommayads who seized power in 661 A.D. and
whose house ruled till 749 A.D. He was the first king in Islam, though he retained and used
officially the title of Khalifa and "Commander of the faithful." Now the Khilafat ceased to be

elected and the hereditary principle was introduced.

Even after the fall of the Ommayyads hereditary succession became a general rule. Religion
was no longer the determining factor in the politics of the Khilafat and the Ommayyads

developed imperialistic fashions. From this period the secular and spiritual functions of Islam
were separated. They built up a very big empire the boundaries of which reached its farthest

limits in the West and in the East.

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The African Burbars were subdued; Spain was conquered; and in 712 A.D. Mohammed-bin-
Qasim annexed Sind in India also. While the Ommayyads by their military exploits extended the

Muslim Empire far and wide, they crushed the real spirit of Islam. They loved pomp and
pageantry of power and built up a brilliant court. They cultivated the royal ways and customs like

other monarchs though they were predominantly Arabian in their habits.

The Abbasides:

The later Ommayyads thus lost both the character and the spiritual valor of Islam. There were
internal rebellions and external wars which weakened and destroyed their power. In 132 A.H.

Abul Abbas conquered Iraq, declared himself Khalifa in the mosque of Kufa and, wiping off the

last remnants of Ommayyads, laid the foundation for the rule of Bani Abbas at Baghdad.

The Abbassides ruled from 749 to 1256 A.D. at Baghdad, which was their capital for about 500

years, during which period it was the center of all intellectual, political and social activities of

Islam. At one time it was considered to be the largest city of the world.

With the accession of tile Abbassides to power, the Arab element receded into background and

Iranian influences became predominant. Persian ways and manners were adopted by the court
and the Caliphs tried to imitate the glories of the old kings of Persia. Power corrupted them and

with the passage of time, the Abbasside Caliphs became mere puppets in the hands of the

Turks who were employed in their military commands.

Their political authority declined and ultimately in 1256 A.D. Halaku Khan, the grandson of

Gengiz Khan, invaded Baghdad and killed Al-Mustasim, the then-ruling Caliph, which tragedy

dropped the curtain on Abbasside rule for ever. The best period of the Abbasside rule was from

170 A.H. to 218 A., when Caliphs Haroon-ul-Rashid and Mamcon reigned.

Both of them were highly intelligent and able rulers. During their regimes, peace prevailed and

the country flourished both intellectually and materially. The pomp and pageantry of their courts
have been proverbially famous throughout the world and their wealth knew no bounds. The well-

known publication Arabian Nights is based in this period.

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Rise of the Saljuks:

With the decline of the Abbassides, whose suzerainty was now confined to Baghdad, a Suljuki

tribe of Turkistan gradually rose to power in Khorasan whose exploits in the cause of Islam

deserve a special mention here. Its defender was a brave son of the Ghuz dynasty. He had
some trouble with the king of Turkistan and migrated with 100 sowars, 1000 camels and 50,000
sheep to Jand, near Bokhara, where he embraced Islam. Islam by that time had not fully spread

among the tribes of Ghuz and Turkistan.

This leader often fought to repel the occasional invasions of the barbarous tribes from

surrounding districts. He also used to help the Sosant kings from time to time and ultimately

formed a small kingdom of his own in the neighborhood of Mawar-un Nahar (Transoxiana). On
his death, his grandsons Tughral Beg and Chaqar Beg succeeded him and played a most
brilliant part in the history of Islam. They collected a large army by enlisting a considerable

number of the Ghuz tribes from, Central Asia and for years continued to fight successfully

against the rulers of Bokhara and Kashghar and the governors of Sultan Mahmood of Ghazni.

They consolidated and spread their power gradually and, at last captured Moro, at one time the
capital of Afghanistan. Masood, son of Sultan Mahmood of Ghazni, was thus compelled to raid

their territory with a big army of 70,000 Sowars and 30,000 troops supported by a large number
of elephants. But the Saljukis cleverly avoided a direct battle. But when Masood had taken
Balkh and Nishapur, both Tugbrai Beg and Chaqar Beg fought and defeated him, he had to run
for his life back to Ghazni where he died soon after this defeat.

After this brilliant victory, the Saljukis now ruled over all the cities of Khorasan and established

two centers of their government--Balkh in the East and Nishapur in the West. Both Tughral and

Chaqar were excellent administrators. They divided their duties wisely between themselves.

Tughral Beg assumed charge of the administration while Chaqar Beg took over command of the

army. Tughral Beg then left his brother in charge of Khorasan and himself proceeded towards
Kirman, Hamdan, Jarjan and Azerbaijan, all of which he conquered. He then turned towards

Syria and returned only after annexing the whole of the surrounding lands of the Roman Empire.

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Chaqar Beg, however, died during his brother's absence and was succeeded by his son Alap
Arsalaan.

When Tughral Beg also died after some time Alap Arsalaan took over full command of this vast

kingdom from the River Joehun (Bactrus) to the Euphrates. During his reign there was another
decisive war with the Romans who carried an injured feeling against Tughral's attacks and had
been longing for a vengeance ever since their defeat. They thought that after Tughral's death

they had a splendid opportunity to capture Baghdad. When this news reached Alap Arsalaan he
lost no time to run to the help of Baghdad, conquering Armenia and Girjistan on his way.

Kaiser Armanus, king of the Romans, met him with a mighty army of more than 100,000 that

included French, Normans, Macedonians, Bulgarians and some Turkish soldiers. This big force
was also reinforced by more Christian battalions on the way. Alap Arsalaan had only 40,000
troops. When both the armies faced each other, he offered to make a treaty of peace to avoid

bloodshed, but Kaiser Armanus rejected the offer, as he was too proud and confident of his

victory. His condition for peace was that Alap Arsalaan must surrender the city of Ray, the
Muslim seat of government in their central region, to which the Sultan did not agree. At last a
bloody war took place in which brave Alap Arsalaan personally led his army with the sacred vow
of not to return alive from the battlefield, setting an example to his army to fight desperately to
the bitter end. He then arranged his troops so carefully that after a full day's battle, he
succeeded in routing the enemy.

Kaiser Armanus was wounded and taken prisoner. When he was presented before the Sultan,

he was treated royally and was provided with a separate furnished tent attended by Muslim
Sardars according to his royal dignity. During the course of conversation, the following

questions and answers were exchanged:

Sultan: "How would you like to be treated now?"

Kaiser: "If you are a cruel king, then behead me; if you are liberal then make me your slave, but
it is in your interest to free me after taking a ransom."

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Sultan: "Suppose if I would have been your prisoner, what treatment would you have given
me?"

Kaiser: "I would have lashed you." The Sultan smiled and with an air of magnanimity replied:

"Anyway, I shall not treat you like this."

A treaty was then signed on the conditions that the Kaiser would pay 1,000,000 sovereigns as
war damage with 360,000 sovereigns as annual tribute; that all Muslim prisoners shall be freed;

and that the Kaiser shall marry his daughter to the son of the Sultan.

Alap Arsalaan, after this great victory, returned to conquer Turkistan which was one of his

ancestor's ambitions. This was the priming period of Sultan Alap Arsalaan's reign which spread
into the farthest of the Caspian coast. But a severe tragedy awaited him. Soon after his return
from the southern front, he was obliged to embark upon another military campaign against an

ordinary chief named Yusuf who had rebelled in Turkistan. Yusuf was too poor a match for the

Sultan's army. He was arrested and brought before him. While under interrogation, Yusuf
insulted the Sultan who ordered his beheading. This infuriated Yusuf, and he drew out his
dagger to attack the Sultan. When the courtiers intervened, the Sultan instructed them: "Let him
come. I will make him the target of my own arrow." Alap Arsalan was an excellent archer but this

time his foot slipped and he missed the aim. Before he could recover, Yusuf's dagger plunged
into him, and thus one of Islam's most brilliant sons left this world in 465 A.H.

Nizam-ul-Mulk:

It must be remembered that all the brilliant achievements of Alap Arsalaan were in a great

measure due to the very able support of his Wazeer, Nizam-ul-Mulk, who was a genius in

political and administrative affairs. Islamic history has produced very few able statesmen of his
caliber. Apart from his military exploits, Alap's short reign of 12 years was a period of all-round
prosperity for his subjects.

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Malik Shah:

On the death of Alap Arsalaan, his son Malik Shah succeeded him at the early age of 19. Aided

by the guidance of his father's Wazeer, Nizam-ul-Mulk, he also undertook many new conquests

and spread his dominions in the East right up to the borders of China, subduing the rebellious
Tartars by consecutive defeats. On his return from this campaign, he turned to the Western and
Southern countries and reached Girjistan after annexing all the intervening Roman lands. The

Kaisar had stopped payment of his annual tribute so he attacked the Roman Empire and
conquered the whole country from Antakia to Constantinople forcing the Kaiser to a treaty on
the promise of paying his tribute regularly in future.

A Diligent Ruler:

Malik Shah lived a most strenuous life and spent all his time in personally looking after the

administrative affairs of his kingdom. He seldom stayed in his capital and constantly toured over

his vast empire which now extended from the borders of China in the East to the Roman Empire
in the West. He toured through his big country twelve times during his reign, visited each
province personally and ordered bridges, mosques, canals, schools, hospitals, roads and
caravanserais equipped with amenities for travelers to be built for the benefit of his subjects.

Like his father, he was the most benevolent king of the Saljuki dynasty. Wherever he traveled,
he showered wealth upon his people. Historians have paid him illuminating tributes for his
qualities of head and heart.

The Downfall:

Indeed, the secret of this Saljuki king's extraordinary success was due to Nizam-ul-Mulk who

was as good and able a Wazeer as Malik Shah himself was a king. This combination worked
miracles. Nizam-ul-Mulk has written a very authentic book on politics called Siyasat Nama which
contains rules and policies for running a successful government. This able Wazeer had also

solved many religious disputes among the Muslims.

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Certain tribes, like the Baatanis and the Qaraatmis used to utter disrespectful remarks against
other Sunni sects after the Friday prayers. This injured the feelings of the Ulema so much that

they were compelled to migrate to other lands. Nizam-ul-Mulk wisely solved this problem by
discontinuing the practice and bringing back all the learned Ulema with due honor. He founded

great universities in Baghdad and Nishapur known as Nizamia after his name, where thousands
of scholars received education in Oriental learning and philosophy, art and other sciences.

The great Sheikh Hazrat Abdul Qadar Gilani (ra) of Baghdad, Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
(ra), Imam Al-Ghazali (ra) and many other learned dervishes and Sufis had received their
education in these Nizamia universities, which attracted students from distant countries also.

Nizam-ul-Mulk also discontinued many old taxes for the well-being of his master's subjects and

effected many beneficial changes in the old systems of revenue. He was a pious Muslim and
never missed his prayers. In response to the call of the Azan, he left everything, however

urgent, in order to offer his prayers first.

End of a Great Epoch

In the concluding years of Malik Shah's life, many disputes arose about his successor and, due
to the intrigues of Queen Turkan Khatoon (mother of Prince Mahmood, the youngest son of

Malik Shah) and some shortsighted courtiers, the king was unavoidably obliged to remove
Nizam-ul-Mulk from the office of Wizarat (premiership). Immediately after this, a Baatani
Fidayee (member of a reactionary party that played havoc in the early history of Islam) killed this
great Wazeer at the instance of Hasan bin Sabah who has a long story of his reactionary

activities. Thirty three days after this heart-rending tragedy, king Malik Shah also died of a
broken heart and thus the curtain rang down over one of the most illuminating chapters of the

early history of Islam.

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After Malik Shah

Malik Shah had four sons: Barkiyarooq, Mohammed, Sanjar and Mahmood. In spite of Queen

Turkan Khatoon's intrigues, her youngest son Mahmood failed to succeed the king against the

claim of the eldest son Barkiyarooq. But Barkiyarooq had none of the qualities of either the late
king or the late Wazeer to hold the kingdom together. Mahmood usurped Azerbaijan, Isfahan
and Armania. Sanjar rebelled and took forcible possession of the territory from Jarjan to

Maawar-un-Nahar, leaving only Khuzistan, Persia, Dayar Bakr and Ray to Barkiyarooq, who
died in 498 A.H. after a short rule. Mutual wars between the remaining three brothers then
started from which Sultan Sanjar emerged successful in securing sovereignty over the whole

kingdom.

Ruinous Wars:

At the time of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti's birth, (536 - 537 A.H.) it was this very Sultan

Sanjar who was ruling over Khorasan, Sistan and Iran. Although Sultan Sanjar was a wise and
brave ruler, ill luck always dominated him and never allowed him to settle down in peace.
Throughout his whole life he was fighting against his brothers and their sons. This continued
warfare naturally weakened him and his government. His administrative machinery deteriorated

beyond repair yet he never lost his courage and perseverance. Although he met conspicuous
success in Iran, in the Western and Southern parts of his kingdom he could not maintain his
authority for long. In the meantime, a long series of wars with Chughtayce Tartars and Karghezi
tribes had also broken out which gave a death blow to Saljuki power after it had flourished for

about 100 years.

If we glance over the vastness of the Saljuki kingdom, we find that except the Abbasside period

of 500 years, such an extensive Muslim Empire had never existed. Even from the administrative

point of view, such a vast kingdom had seldom enjoyed a better and peaceful organization with

all-round tranquillity in the early history of Islamic rule in Central Asia. The names of Alap
Arsalaan, Nizamul-Mulk and Malik Shah, who strengthened the foundations of their kingdom

and successfully managed this great Empire will ever shine in the annals of Islamic history

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Political and Civil Administration:

The government of Umar was more or less a unitary government, where the sovereign political

authority was the Caliph. The empire of Umar was divided into provinces and some autonomous

territories like in some regions Azerbaijan and Armenia, that had accepted the suzerainty of the
Caliphate. The provinces were administered by the provincial governors or Wali. The selection
of which was made personally by Umar, who was very fastidious in it. Provinces were further

divided into districts, there were about 100 districts in the empire. Each district or main city was
under the charge of a junior governor or Wali, usually appointed by Umar himself, but
occasionally they were also appointed by the provincial governor. Other officers at the provincial

level were:

 Katib, the Chief Secretary.

 Katib-ud-Diwan, the Military Secretary.

 Sahib-ul-Kharaj, the Revenue Collector.

 Sahib-ul-Ahdath, the Police chief.

 Sahib-Bait-ul-Mal, the Treasury Officer.
 Qadi, the Chief Judge.

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the Governor (Wali) was in most
cases the Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province. Every appointment was
made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view
to regulating the conduct of Governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to

assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them.

Umar's general instructions to his officers were:

"Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent
you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their

rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall
into the error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of

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them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is
tyranny over them."

Various other strict code of conducts were to be obeyed by the governors and state officials.

The principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which
people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of
corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governor received

as much as five to seven thousand dirham annually besides their shares of the spoils of war (if
they were also the commander in chief of the army of their sector). Under Umar the empire was
divided into the following provinces.

 Arabia was divided into two provinces, Mecca and Medina;

 Iraq was divided into two provinces, Basra and Kufa;
 In the upper reaches of the Tigris and the Euphrates, Jazira was a province;

 Syria was a province;

 Umar divided Palestine in two provinces Aylya and Ramlah;

 Egypt was divided into two provinces, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt;
 Persia was divided into three provinces, Khorasan; Azarbaijan and Fars.

Umar was first to established a special department for the investigation of complaints against
the officers of the State. This department acted as Administrative court, where the legal
proceedings were personally led by Umar. The Department was under the charge of
Muhammad ibn Maslamah, one of Umar's most trusted man. In important cases Muhammad ibn

Maslamah was deputed by Umar to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action.
Sometimes an Inquiry Commission was constituted to investigate the charge. On occasions the

officers against whom complaints were received were summoned to Medina, and charged in

Umar's administrative court. Umar was known for this intelligence service through which he

made his officials accountable This service was also said to have inspired fear in his subjects.

Umar is regarded as one of the greatest political geniuses in history. While under his leadership,

the empire was expanding at a unprecedented rate, he also began to build the political structure

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that would hold together the vast empire that was being built. He undertook many administrative
reforms and closely oversaw public policy. He established an advanced administration for the

newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and bureaucracies, and ordered a
census of all the Muslim territories.

During his rule, the garrison cities (amsar) of Basra and Kufa were founded or expanded. In
638, he extended and renovated the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and the Al-

Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina. Umar also ordered the expulsion of the
Christian and Jewish communities of Najran and Khaybar allowing them to reside in Syria or
Iraq. He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them

the equivalent land in their new settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims to reside in the

Hejaz for longer than three days. He was first to establish army as a state department. Umar
was founder of Fiqh, the Islamic jurisprudence. He is regarded by Sunni Muslims to be one of

the greatest Faqih. Umar as a jurist started the process of codifying Islamic Law. In 641, he
established Bayt al-mal, a financial institution and started annual allowance for the Muslims. A

year later he also started allowance for the poor, underprivileged and old non-Muslim citizens of
the empire. As a leader, 'Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt
the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had

when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In 639, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth
year 17 since the Hijra, he decreed that the Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of
the Hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to Madinah.

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Military Expansion:

Wars of Caliph Umar:

It is widely believed that Umar stressed more on consolidating his power and political influence
in the conquered land, rather than pursuing conquests. Nevertheless under Umar, The Islamic
empire grew at an unprecedented rate. In 638, after the conquest of Syria, Umar dismissed
Khalid, his most successful general due to his every growing fame and influence. Later however

Umar regretted over his decision.

The military conquest were partially terminated between 638–639 during the years of great

famine and plague in Arabia and Levant respectively. During his reign Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica,
Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost whole of Sassanid Persian Empire including
Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were annexed to Islamic Empire.

Accordiong to one estimate more than 4050 cities were captured during these military

conquest.[56] Prior to his death in 644, Umar had ceased all military expeditions apparently to
consolidate his rule in Egypt and newly conquered Sassanid Empire (642–644). At his death in
November 644, domain of his rule extended from present day Libya in west to Indus river in east
and Oxus river in north.

The Great Famine:

In the year 638 Arabia fell into severe drought followed by a famine. Bedouin people began to

die because of hunger and epidemic disease. Hundreds of thousands of people from all over

Arabia gathered at Madinah where food was rationed. Soon the reserves of food at Madinah

began to decline, and Umar wrote to the provincial governors of Syria, Palestine and Iraq for

aid. A state of emergency was declared in Madinah and Arabia. The timely aid of Umar's
governors saved the lives of thousands of people throughout Arabia. The first governor to
respond was Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, the governor of Syria and supreme commander of

Rashidun army. He sent a historic letter to Umar saying

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I am sending you the Caravans whose one end will be here at Syria and the other will be at
Madinah.

Later, Abu Ubaidah paid a personal visit to Madinah and acted as an officer of Disaster

management cell, which was headed personally by Umar. Once an adequate supply of rations
reached Madinah, Umar dispatched his men to the routes of Iraq, Palestine and Syria to take
the supply caravans to the desert settlements deeper into Arabia, which in turn saved millions

from starvation. For internally displaced people, Umar hosted a dinner every night at Madinah,
which according to one estimate had attendance of more than hundred thousand people. By
early 639 conditions begun to improve. Arabia received precipitation and as soon as the famine

ended, Umar personally supervised the rehabilitation of the displaced people. They were given

adequate amounts of rations and were exempted from payment of zakat for that year and the
next year.

The great Plague:

While famine was ending in Arabia, many districts in Syria and Palestine were devastated by
plague. While Umar was on his way to visit Syria, at Elat, he was received by Abu Ubaidah ibn
al-Jarrah, governor of Syria, who informed him about plague and its intensity and he was

suggest to go back to Madinah. Umar tried to persuade Abu Ubaidah to come with him to
Madinah but he denied to leave his troops in that critical situation. Abu Ubaidah died in 639 due
to plague, which also cost the life of 25,000 Muslims in Syria. After the plague had weakened in
late 639 Umar visited Syria for political and administrative re-organization, as most of the

veteran commanders and governors had died of plague.

Assassination:

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citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2012)

Tombstone of Caliph Umar, in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, Medina. The first window from the right

gives a view of Umar's grave.

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In 644, at zenith of his power, Umar was assassinated. His assassination was carried out by
Persians, in response to the Muslim conquest of Persia.[59] The assassination was planned

several months earlier. In October 644 Umar went for Hajj in Mecca, the assassins started the
hoopla of Umar's possible death that year, and the massive crowd of the congregation was

used by the conspirators as a veil to hide themselves. It is related that when Umar stood at
Mount Arafat he heard a voice saying:

"O Caliph, never again will you stand on the Mount of Arafat".

A companion of Umar, Jabir bin Mutaam is reported to have said:

We saw a man standing at the top of the hill and crying 'Verily that is the last Hajj of Umar. He
will never come here again.

During one of rituals of Hajj, the Ramy al-Jamarat (stoning of the Devil), some one threw a
stone on Umar that wounded his head, a voice was heard that Umar will not attend the Hajj ever

again. Amongst the conspirators was:

 Hormuzan, the alleged mastermind of the plot. He was Persian Commander in Chief and
was captured and brought to Umar at Madinah where to save his life he apparently

converted to Islam.

 One of Umar's advisors, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, a former Jewish Rabbi, who had converted to
Islam.

 Jafinah, the Christian Arab from Iraq, who was also a foster brother of Saad ibn Abi

Waqqas, former governors of Busra.

 Piruzan, popularly known as Abu Lulu, he was slave of Mughira ibn Shu'ba the then

governor of Busra.

It was Abu Lulu who was assigned the mission of assassinating Umar. According to the plan,

before the Fajr prayers (the morning prayers before the dawn) Abu Lulu will enter Al-Masjid al-
Nabawi, the main mosque of Madinah where Umar led the prayers and will attack Umar during

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the prayers, and will flee or will mix with the congregation at mosque. There were Persian
children slaves in Madina. Seeing them, Firoz is quoted saying:

You have been enslaved at such a tender age. This Umar sees eaten my heart. I will take his

heart out".

Abu Lulu brought a conjectural complaint to Umar about the high tax charged from him by his
master Mughirah. Umar wrote to Mughirah and inquired about the tax, Mughirah's reply was

satisfactory Umar held that the tax charged from Abu Lulu was reasonable, owning the to his
daily income. Umar than is reported to have asked Abu Lulu:

I heard that you make windmills; make one for me as well. In a sullen mood, Firoz said, " Verily I
will make such a mill for you, that whole world would remember it ".

On 3 November 644, Umar was attacked, while leading the morning prayers, Abu Lulu stabbed
him six times in the belly and last on the navel, that proved fatal. Umar was left profusely

bleeding while Abu Lulu tried to flee but people from all sides rushed to capture him, he in his
efforts to escape is reported to have wounded twelve other people, six or nine of them later

died. At last he was captured but committed suicide from the same dagger. Umar died of the
wounds three days later on Sunday, 7 November 644.[60] Umar is reported to have left the

following testament:

 Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansar. Those out of them who are good,

be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the

conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger

and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only

on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the
Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Dhimmis for they are your responsibility.
 Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jizya without undue

inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter
of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard

to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the

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legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure
the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not

violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers.

 In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those

who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the
miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who

are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their

wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no

consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it
may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with

the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunnah. Freely consult

the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from
God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about

you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims, justify your

leadership by being the best among them all. May God bless you.
 As per Umar's will, he was buried next to Al-Masjid al-Nabawi alongside Muhammad and
Caliph Abu Bakr by the permission of Aisha.

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Aftermaths:

On his death bed Umar vacillated to appoint his successor, however it has been reported that

he said that if Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, Khalid ibn Walid or Salim, the mawali and freed

Persian slave, were alive he would have appointed one of them his successor. Umar finally
appointed a committee of six persons comprising,

 Abdur Rahman bin Awf

 Saad ibn Abi Waqqas

 Talha ibn Ubaidullah

 Uthman ibn Affan

 Ali ibn Abi Talib

 Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

Their task was to chose a caliph from amongst them. Umar appointed a band of fifty armed

soldiers to protect the house where the meeting was proceeding. Until the appointment of the
next caliph Umar appointed a notable Sahabi, a mawali, Suhayb ar-Rumi (Suhayb the Roman)
as a caretaker Caliph. While the historic meeting for selection of caliph was preceding,
Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr and Abdur Rahman bin Awf revealed that they saw the dagger used

by Abu Lulu, the assassin of Umar. A night before Umar's assassination, reported Abdur
Rahman bin Awf, he saw Hormuzan, Jafina and Abu Lulu, while they were suspiciously
discussing some thing, bewildered by his presence, the dagger fell, it was the same two sided
dagger used in the assissination.

Abudulrehman ibn Abu Bakr, son of late caliph Abu Bakr also confirmed that few days before

Umar's assassination, he once saw this dagger with Hurmazan. After the mystery of

assassination got uncovered by the two of the most notable governmental figures, it seemed

clear that the assassination was planned by the Persians residing in Medina. Infuriate by this

Umar's younger son Ubaidullah ibn Umar sought to kill all the Persians in Madinah. He killed
Hormuzan, Jafinah, and daughter of Umar's assassin Abu Lulu, who is believed to be a Muslim.

Ubaidullah was intercepted by the people of Madinah and withholding him from the massacre.

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Amr ibn al-Aas is said to have intercepted him, convinced him to handover his sword. The
murder of Jafinah, enraged Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, his foster brother, and he assaulted

Ubaidullah ibn Umar and again the companions intervened. It is also believed that Umar
daughter Hafsa bint Umar provoked Ubaidullah to take the punitive action. When Umar was

informed about the incident, he ordered that Ubaidullah should be imprisoned and the next
Caliph should decide his fate. Umar died on 7 November 644; on 11 November Uthman

succeeded him as the Caliph. After prolonged negotiations the tribunal decided to give blood

money to the victims and released Umar's son Ubaidullah, on the ground that after the tragic

incident of Umar's assassination people will be further infuriated by execution of his son the very
next day.

Legacy:

Umar is regarded as one of the most influential figures in Islamic history. He was in a true sense

the architect of the Islamic Empire. As a leader, 'Umar was known for his simple, austere

lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued
to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted.

Physical Appearance:

Umar is said to be blessed with a strong physique. He could travel on foot for miles. From

contemporary sources it appears that Umar had attained perfection in the art of wrestling. He
was an athlete and a wrestler. He is said to have participated in the wrestling matches on the
occasion of the annual fair of Ukaz.

From first hand accounts of his physical appearance Umar is said to be vigorous, robust and a

very tall man, in markets he would tower above the people. The front part of his head was bald,
always A'sara Yusran (working with two hands),[63] both his eyes are black, with yellow skin,
however, ibn Sa'ad in his book The Book of the Major Classes (Tabaqat al-Kubra) stated that he

never knew that 'Umar had yellow skin, except if the people took into criterion a certain part of
his life where his color changed because he always ate oil at that part of his life,[64] Others say

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he has reddish-white skin. His teeth were ashnabul asnan (very white shining). He would always
color his beard and take care of his hair using a type of plant.

Early Muslim historians Ibn Saad and Al-Hakim have recorded a description of Umar mentioning

that Abu Miriam Zir, a native of Kufa described Umar as:

 I went forth with the people of Medina on a festival day, and I saw Umar walking
barefoot. He was advanced in years, bald, of a tawny colour- a left handed man, tall and

towering above the people.

Umar's eldest son Abdullah described the physical appearance of his father as follows:

 He was a man of fair complexion, a ruddy tint prevailing, tall, bald and grey.an other
historian Salima bin al-Akwa'a said about him:

 Umar was ambidexter, he could use both his hands equally well.
 Ibn Asakir records on the authority of Abu Raja al-U'taridi that:

 Umar was a man tall, stout, very bald, very ruddy with scanty hair on the cheeks, his
moustaches large, and the ends thereof reddish.

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Political legacy:

Umar is considered as a political genius, as an architect of Islamic Empire he is regarded as

52nd most influential figure in history.[68] Umar remained politically stagnant during Prophet

Mohammad's era, however after his death, it was Umar's brilliance that Abu Bakr was elected
Caliph, despite of massive initial confrontations at Saqifah. Umar successfully broke the alliance
of the tribes of Madinah who claim Caliphate to be their right in addition cleverly sidelined Ali,

paving the way for the succession of Abu Bakr. during Abu Bakr's era, he actively participated
as his secretory and main adviser. After succeeding Abu Bakr as caliph, Umar win over the
hearts of Baudouin tribes by emancipating all their prisoners and slaves taken during Ridda

wars, his excellent oratory skills helped him to heightened his popularity graph, mostly among

the poor and underprivileged people. He proved himself as a excellent manager during the year
of the great Famine when his dynamic abilities saved millions from starvation. He is best known

to built up an efficient administrative structure of the empire, that held together his vast realm.
He organized an effective network of intelligence, partly a reason for his strong grip on his

bureaucracy.[69] His judicial reforms were fairly modern and advance in nature when compared
to contemporary systems of his era. He opposed the construction of present day Suez Canal, as
it posed threat to the security of Madinah. Twelve hundred years later Great Britain opposed the

construction of the canal for the same reason as it then posed threat to its colonies in Indian
subcontinent. One of the reason of the compactness of his political rule in the conquered lands
is reputed to his policy of tolerance to their religious believes and imposition of far lower taxes
on them as compared to Sassanid Persian empire and Byzantine Empire. Their local

administration was kept un-touched and several of the former Byzantine and Persian official

were retained on their services under Umar's governors.

Umar was very painstaking in every matter. His meticulous was evident from his appointment of

governors and judges that never let him lose his grip on the government. He never appointed
governors for more than two years, for they might get influence in their county. He dismissed his

most successful general Khalid ibn Walid, due to his immense popularity and growing influence

that he saw menace to his authority. Rather than tenacious conquest he stressed more on

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consolidating his rule in the conquered land, a fact that saved Byzantine empire from complete
disappearance. Umar is reported to have wished an official tour across his domain to personally

examine the condition of his subjects. In 641, before the conquest of Persian empire, Umar is
reported to have said:

If I would live few more years, I wish to visit Syria next year, then next Iraq and then the next
year Egypt to personally check the conditions of the subjects and inquire whether my mandate

is followed or not.

It should be noted that at the time, Umar made this statement, Persia was not yet conquered

(conquest of Persia begun in 642). He would walk the streets of Medina with a whip in his hand,

and it is said that Umar's whip was feared more than the sword of another man. He is famous
for covert night tour of the city to know the secret life of his domain, the tradition that later be
followed by some of the Abbasid Caliphs and even Mughul rulers of Indian subcontinent. Saeed

M.Mohtsham cites from Caliph Umar's rule in his research paper Vision and Visionary

Leadership – An Islamic Perspective:

"He used to monitor very closely the public policy and had kept the needs of the public central to
his leadership approach. As second caliph of Islam, he refused to chop off the hands of the

thieves because he felt he had fallen short of his responsibility to provide meaningful
employment to all his subjects. As a ruler of a vast kingdom, His vision was to ensure that every
one in his kingdom should sleep on a full stomach.

If a dog dies hungry on the banks of the River Euphrates, Umar will be responsible for
dereliction of duty.

—(Umar)

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The author further wrote that:

He also knew that just having a vision is not enough unless it is supported by effective

strategies. He didn’t only have a vision; he truly transformed his vision into actions. For

example, to ensure that nobody sleeps hungry in his empire, he used to walk through the
streets almost every night to see if there is any one needy or ill."

In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Gibbon refers to Umar in the following terms:

"Yet the abstinence and humility of Umar were not inferior to the virtues of Abu Bakr: his food

consisted of barley bread or dates; his drink was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or

tattered in twelve places; and a Persian satrap, who paid his homage as to the conqueror, found
him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the mosque of Muslims."

Military legacy:

It has been reported that Umar was a champion wrestler of his time, and though not

distinguished as a swordsman, he would later attain prominence as a master strategist. Along

with Khalid, he is said to be one of the key figures in the collapse of the Arabian rebellion, the
greatest triumph of Abu Bakr. One of his greatest strategic marvels was his brilliant fission of

Persio-Roman alliance in 636, when Emperor Heraclius and Emperor Yazdegerd III allied

against their common enemy Umar. He was lucky in that the Persian Emperor Yazdegerd III
couldn't synchronize with Heraclius as planned.

Umar fully availed the opportunity and successfully tackled the minefield by straining the

Byzantines to jump in the battle. This was contrary to the orders of Empreror Heraclius, who

presumably wanted a coordinated attack along with the Persians. Umar did this by sending
reinforcements to the Roman front with instructions that they should appear in the form of small

bands, one after the other, giving the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcements that

finally lured the Byzantines to an untimely battle. On the other hand Yazdegerd III of Persia was
engaged in negotiations that further gave Umar time to transfer his troops from Syria to Iraq.

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These troops proved decisive in the Battle of Qadisiyyah. Both the battles thus fought proved
decisive and are noted as two of the most decisive battles in history.

His strategic dimensions were the prime reason of Muslim victory at 2nd Battle of Emesa in 638.

Where the pro-Byzantine Christian Arabs of Jazira, aided by Byzantine Emperor, making an
unexpected flanking movement and laid siege to Emesa (Homs). Umar's brilliance was behind
this Muslim victory and was achieved without firing a single shot.

Umar's orders to invade the very homeland of the Christian Arab forces besieging Emesa, the
Jazirah. A three prong attack against Jazirah was launched from Iraq. To further pressurize the

Christian Arab armies, Umar instructed Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of Muslim forces in

Iraq, to sent reinforcement to Emesa, Umar himself led a reinforcement from Madinah and
marched towards Emesa. Under this unprecedented press-gang, Christian Arabs retreated from
Emesa before Muslims reinforcement could reach their. This incursion from Byzantines however

resulted in Muslim annex Mesopotamia and parts of Byzantine Armenia.

Nonetheless the greatest triumph of Umar remained Conquest of Persian empire. After years of
non-offensive policy according to which Umar wished the Zagros Mountains to be the frontiers
between Muslims and Persians, after Battle of Nahavand Umar launched a whole scale invasion

of Sassanid Persian Empire. The invasion was a series of well coordinated multi-prong attacks
that was based on the principle of isolating and then destroying the target. Umar launched the
invasion by attacking the very heart of Persia aiming to isolate Azerbaijan and eastern Persia. It
was immediately followed by simultaneous attacks on Azerbaijan and Fars. In the final

secession Sistan and Kirman and captured thus isolating the stronghold of Persian, the
Khurasan. The final expedition was launched against Khurasan where after Battle of Oxus river

Persian empire ceased to exist, and emperor Yazdegerd III fled to Central Asia. He founded the

city of Cairo, conquered 36,000 cities or castles, and built 1400 mosques.

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Sunni view of Umar:

Sunnis remember Umar as a rigid Muslim of a sound and just disposition in matters of the

religion of Allah, a man they title Farooq, meaning "leader, jurist and statesman", and the

second of the rightly-guided Caliphs. He patched his clothes with skin, took buckets on his two
shoulders, always riding his donkey without the saddle, rarely laughing and never joking with
anyone. On his ring is written the words "Enough is Death as a reminder to you O' 'Umar".[72]

He did not seek advancement for his own family, but rather sought to advance the interests of
the Muslim community, the ummah. The general Sunni sentiment for Umar is summarized by
one of Muhammad's companions, Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud:

Umar's submission to Islam was a conquest, his migration was a victory, his Imamate (period of
rule) was a blessing, I have seen when we were unable to pray at the Kaabah until Umar
submitted, when he submitted to Islam, he fought them (the pagans) until they left us alone and

we prayed.

—Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud,

Umar made the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times. Mohammed had the highest esteem for Umar.
He said that:

If God had wished to give another prophet to the world, His choice would have fallen upon Umar

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Shi'a view of Umar:

Umar is viewed very negatively in Twelver Shi'a literature and is often regarded as a traitor to

Muhammad, a usurper of Ali's rights, and, by some, a murderer. Some Twelver Shi'a writers

have accused him of killing Muhammad's daughter Fatimah. According to the majority of
Twelver scholars, Fatimah, wife of Ali, was physically abused by him. These sources report that
the event caused her to miscarry her child and eventually led to her death soon after.[74][75]

(see Umar at Fatimah's house). However, some Twelver scholars reject these accounts of
physical abuse as a "myth". Other Shia sects, like the Zaidiyyah, following Zaid ibn Ali, accept
Umar and Abu Bakr as legitimate caliphs, despite their beliefs that they are inferior to Ali.

Western views:

In his book Mahomet and His Successors, Washington Irving estimates the achievements of

Umar in the following terms:

The whole history of Omar shows him to have been a man of great powers of mind, inflexible
integrity, and rigid justice. He was, more than any one else, the founder of the Islam empire;

confirming and carrying out the inspirations of the prophet; aiding Abu Beker with his counsels
during his brief caliphate; and establishing wise regulations for the strict administration of the

law throughout the rapidly-extending bounds of the Moslem conquests. The rigid hand which he

kept upon his most popular generals in the midst of their armies, and in the most distant scenes
of their triumphs, gave signal evidence of his extraordinary capacity to rule. In the simplicity of
his habits, and his contempt for all pomp and luxury, he emulated the example of the prophet
and Abu Beker. He endeavored incessantly to impress the merit and policy of the same in his

letters to his generals. 'Beware,' he would say, 'of Persian luxury, both in food and raiment.

Keep to the simple habits of your country, and Allah will continue you victorious; depart from

them, and he will reverse your fortunes.' It was his strong conviction of the truth of this policy

which made him so severe in punishing all ostentatious style and luxurious indulgence in his
officers. Some of his ordinances do credit to his heart as well as his head. He forbade that any

female captive who had borne a child should be sold as a slave. In his weekly distributions of

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the surplus money of his treasury he proportioned them to the wants, not the merits of the
applicants. 'God,' said he, 'has bestowed the good things of this world to relieve our necessities,

not to reward our virtues: those will be rewarded in another world.'

In his book The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall Sir William Muir says as follows about
Umar:

Omar's life requires but few lines to sketch. Simplicity and duty were his guiding principles;

impartiality and devotion the leading features of his administration. Responsibility so weighed
upon him that he was heard to exclaim, 'O that my mother had not borne me; would that I had

been this stalk of grass instead!' In early life of a fiery and impatient temper, he was known,

even in the later days of the Prophet, as the stern advocate of vengeance. Ever ready to
unsheathe the sword, it was he that at Bedr advised the prisoners to be all put to death. But
age, as well as office, had now mellowed this asperity. His sense of justice was strong. And

excepting the treatment of Khalid, whom he pursued with an ungenerous resentment, no act of

tyranny or injustice is recorded against him; and even in this matter his enmity took its rise in
Khalid's unscrupulous treatment of a fallen foe. The choice of his captains and governors was
free from favouritism, and (Moghira and Ammar excepted) singularly fortunate. The various
tribes and bodies in the empire, representing interests the most diverse, reposed in his integrity
implicit confidence, and his strong arm maintained the discipline of law and empire. ... Whip in
hand, he would perambulate the streets and markets of Medina, ready to punish slanders on the
spot; and so the proverb,-'Omar's whip more terrible than another's sword.' But with all this he

was tender-hearted, and numberless acts of kindness are recorded of him, such as relieving the

wants of the widow and the fatherless.

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In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Gibbon refers to Umar in the following terms:

Yet the abstinence and humility of Omar were not inferior to the virtues of Abubeker: his food

consisted of barley-bread or dates; his drink was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or

tattered in twelve places; and a Persian satrap, who paid his homage as to the conqueror, found
him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the mosch of Medina. Oeconomy is the source
of liberality, and the increase of the revenue enabled Omar to establish a just and perpetual

reward for the past and present services of the faithful. Careless of his own emolument, he
assigned to Abbas, the uncle of the prophet, the first and most ample allowance of twenty-five
thousand drams or pieces of silver. Five thousand were allotted to each of the aged warriors,

the relics of the field of Beder, and the last and the meanest of the companions of Mahomet was

distinguished by the annual reward of three thousand pieces. ... Under his reign, and that of his
predecessor, the conquerors of the East were the trusty servants of God and the people: the

mass of public treasure was consecrated to the expenses of peace and war; a prudent mixture
of justice and bounty, maintained the discipline of the Saracens, and they united, by a rare

felicity, the dispatch and execution of despotism, with the equal and frugal maxims of a
republican government.

In his book History of the Arabs Professor Philip Khuri Hitti has assessed the achievements of
Umar in the following terms:

Simple and frugal in manner, his energetic and talented successor, 'Umar (634–44), who was of
towering height, strong physique and bald-headed, continued at least for some time after

becoming caliph to support himself by trade and lived throughout his life in a style as
unostentatious as that of a Bedouin sheikh. In fact 'Umar, whose name according to Moslem

tradition is the greatest in early Islam after that of Muhammad, has been idolized by Moslem

writers for his piety, justice and patriarchal simplicity and treated as the personification of all the

virtues a caliph ought to possess. His irreproachable character became an exemplar for all

conscientious successors to follow. He owned, we are told, one shirt and one mantle only, both

conspicuous for their patchwork, slept on a bed of palm leaves and had no concern other than

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the maintenance of the purity of the faith, the upholding of justice and the ascendancy and
security of Islam and the Arabians.

Arabic literature is replete with anecdotes extolling 'Umar's stern character. He is said to have

scourged his own son to death for drunkenness and immorality. Having in a fit of anger inflicted
a number of stripes on a Bedouin who came seeking his succour against an oppressor, the
caliph soon repented and asked the Bedouin to inflict the same number on him. But the latter

refused. So 'Umar retired to his home with the following soliloquy: 'O son of al-Khattab! humble
thou wert and Allah hath elevated thee; astray, and Allah hath guided thee; weak, and Allah
hath strengthened thee. Then He caused thee to rule over the necks of thy people, and when

one of them came seeking thy aid, thou didst strike him! What wilt thou have to say to thy Lord

when thou presentest thyself before Him?' The one who fixed the Hijrah as the commencement
of the Moslem era, presided over the conquest of large portions of the then known world,

instituted the state register and organized the government of the new empire met a tragic and
sudden death at the very zenith of his life when he was struck down (November 3, 644) by the

poisoned dagger of a Christian Persian slave in the midst of his own congregation.

Encyclopedia Britannica remarks about Umar:

To 'Omar's ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part the great conquests. He himself did not
take the field, but remained in Medina; he never, however, suffered the reins to slip from his
grasp, so powerful was the influence of his personality and the Moslem community of feeling.
His political insight is shown by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite extension of

Moslem conquest, and to maintain and strengthen the national Arabian character of the
commonwealth of Islam; also by his making it his foremost task to promote law and order in its

internal affairs. The saying with which he began his reign will never grow antiquated: 'By God,

he that is weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have vindicated for him

his rights; but him that is strongest will I treat as the weakest, until he complies with the laws.' It

would be impossible to give a better general definition of the function of the State.

On the other hand, David Samuel Margoliouth offers this assessment of Umar:

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Yet we have no record of any occasion on which Omar displayed remarkable courage, though
many examples are at hand of his cruelty and bloodthirstiness; at the battle of Hunain he ran

away, and on another occasion owed his life to the good nature of an enemy.

However, in contrast to Margoliouth's assertion, Shahid Ashraf celebrates Umar as amongst the
firmest companions who remained with Muhammad at his most critical juncture during the Battle
of Hunayn when others fled during ther disarray:

Particular letters of Hazrat Umar (R.A) and Hazrat Ali (R.A) to different Authority:

I was stunned to see ignorance of few bloggers about the history and reality on another thread.

Some bloggers knowingly and some deliberately use bad words for great Hazrat Umar R.A. I
therefore decided to start a new thread to provide information for this great genius.

His genius is also acknowledged by christain and non Muslim scholars even people like P K Hitti
praised his reforms. I offer bloggers to read history of well recognized Christian historians and

writers. I offer the names of two books.

 The Arabs by Philip K Hittie

 The 100 by Micheal Hart

Umar (Arabic: ‫ال خ طاب اب ن عمر‬, Transliteration: `Umar ibn Al-Khattāb, Umar Son of Al-Khittab, c.
586–590 CE – 7 November 644), titled Farooq the Great was the most powerful of the four

Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers in history

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Responsibilities of Civil Servants:

Role of Civil Servants:

Civil services play a crucial role in the administration of a country; particularly in a state like
Pakistan it has to play a more important role because it is the duty of civil servants to execute
the policies and the programmes of government. Civil Servants are, therefore, expected to be

effective, independent, dynamic and committed but it is unfortunate that the image that was
portrayed in the minds of general masses has gone down. Today the general impression is that
civil servants have become, political, usable and pliable. Unfortunately this impression is

growing due to the insecure position of civil servants. In fact, they are not insecure, but their

unawareness from law and Constitution has made them so.

Quaid-e-Azam Address:

"You (Civil Officers) should have no hand in supporting this political party or that political party,

this political leader or that political leader this is not your business. Whichever government is
formed according to the constitution, and whoever happens to be the Primr Minister or Minister

coming into power in the ordinary constitutional course, your duty is not only to serve that

Government loyally and faithfully, but at the same time, fearlessly maintaining your high
reputation"

Thursday, July 24, 2014 - PAKISTAN emerged on the world’s map as a sovereign and

independent state on August 14, 1947. It is the outcome of a charismatic leadership of Quaid-i-

Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Allama Muhammad Iqbal and immense sacrifices of the Muslims

of Sub-continent. To make this country a prosperous, peaceful and stable state of the world the

whole responsibility comes on the shoulders of each segment of society including Legislators,
Armed forces, civil servants, educationists, students, business community, workers, lawyers and
the common public. As far as the civil bureaucracy is concerned, the founder of the nation

Quaid-i-Azam gave a roadmap of what he believed was the foremost duty of these bureaucrats.

He mentioned. ‘‘Come forward as servants of Islam, organize people economically, socially,

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educationally and politically and I am sure that you will be a power that will be accepted by
everybody.”

The German sociologist, Max Webber, says: “highly trained bureaucratic experts will prevail

against the less expert Ministers who ostensibly run the administrative units, the Cabinet which
ostensibly guides over any policy and the Legislature which ostensibly makes policy”. It is the
bureaucratic group who has been, along with the military generals, formulating the policies and

form political as well as an ideological framework of Pakistan. The Quaid addressed in April
1944:“These Ministers are, truly speaking; your servants and you are their virtual masters. You
have got the key to remove them from their Ministerial giddy, if they no longer remain alive to

their responsibilities.”

Being permanently in office, unlike the politicians, who come and go at their behest, it is they
who have the power to actually govern the state as an administrative group. The Quaid

addressed to civil officers in April 1948: “The services are the backbone of the state.

Governments are formed. Governments are defeated. Prime Ministers come and go, Ministers
come and go, but you have to stay on. Therefore, there is a very great responsibility placed on
your shoulders. You should have no hand in supporting this political party or that political party,
this political leader or that political leader. This is not your business.”

The golden principles stated above, by the father of the nation, bear witness to the great role of
Civil Bureaucrats in Pakistan. On many occasions he reminded this cadre, the critical role they
have to accomplish. He warned against the ‘‘evils” of bribery, corruption, black-marketing,

nepotism and jobbery which he wanted to be eradicated with an “iron hand”. To grapple with the
modern challenges, they must make major efforts to solve the resultant crisis prudently. Indeed,

civil bureaucracy is the backbone of Pakistan as it runs the affairs of the state. It is such a

pedestal on which the whole edifice of the state rests. To keep the wheels of the country moving

bureaucrats must be bold to counter the existential challenges on every miserable front.

Pakistan has inherited the bureaucratic structure and procedures from the British colonial

master.

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It exists on the basis of rules, regulations and Constitutional provisions. Unfortunately, since
1947, both the civil and military bureaucracies have been taking their turns which has been

detrimental to the interests of the country. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto introduced administrative reforms
in 1973. It was a milestone in the civil services of Pakistan. It is worth mentioning; unless civil

bureaucracy is fully empowered the country cannot progress properly. If the civil bureaucrats
get emancipation of being politicised or militarized by the successive governments, similarly, if

the major decisions like foreign policy, economic development, fiscal arrangement, internal

security etc. are being taken by the civil bureaucrats, then absolutely, they can run the system in

an organized and well considered manner. To cut a long story short, it is now indispensable for
these bureaucrats to abide by the teachings of Quaid-i-Azam and play a creditable role to build

a modern, Islamic, consolidated and democratic Pakistan.

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System of Accountability in Islam:

 Introduction
 Concept of Accountability in Islam

 Model of Accountability in Islam

 Nature of Accountability

 In Quran, Hidiah, In Caliphate

 Institutions of Accountability in Islam

 Spheres of Accountability
 Special Characteristics of Accountability in Islam

 Conclusion

Introduction:

Accountability comes from deep belief or persuasion as moral and ethics. Accounting in the

broad sense is central to Islam, since accountability to God and the community for all activities
is paramount to a Muslim's faith. The word “hesab” which means accountability is repeated
more than eight times in different verses in Quran (Askary and Clarke, 1997)

Religion” deal with three main concepts:

Religion as belief, stresses principles and shapes a state of mind. Identity as identity
emphasizes affiliation with a group, shared history, cultures, ethnicity and traditions”. A way of

life It is a consequence of the existence of a believe. In Islam accountability is in all three Belief,

identity and as way of life

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Concept of Accountabililty:

Islam links accountability, “Hesab” and “Trust”

Accountability (Hesab)

 Individuals have to apply what Shariah determines, ndividuals achievement in the

hereafter depends upon their performance in this world

 Every Muslim has an 'account' with Allah, in which is 'Recorded' all good and all bad
actions, will continue until death

Trust

 Shariah specifies what is being entrusted to individuals who are trustees for what they

have been given by God such as goods, positions and property

 Trustworthiness includes both way and Goals
 The way

 Goal/Intension

Levels of Accountability:

 Muslims are supposed to be self- accountable such as responsiveness, equality, hard

work and virtue which are highlighted in Shariah-Muwakhaza
 Mainstream of accountability in Islam is addressed on two levels
 One level is every individual is accountable for his or her actions

 The second level includes the accountability for individual and objects under their charge

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Nature of Accountability:

The concept of accountability is derived from Al-Quran and is the powerful of Islamic system of

business which means accountability in front of Allah not only in this world but also in the

hereafter

Islam gives great concentration to accountability; it goes beyond actions or thoughts to include
even intension

Accountability in Quran:

Allah (S.W.T.) describes that Day in what could be translated as, "On the Day when every

person will be confronted with all the good he has done, and all the evil he has done, he will
wish that there were a great distance between him and his evil." ( Surat Al-Imran, Verse 30)

Then shall anyone who has done an atom's weight of good, see it !! And anyone who has done
an atom's weight of evil shall see it (Al-Quran,Zalzala99:7-8)

PICKTHALL

And no burdened soul can bear another's burden, and if one heavy laden crieth for (help with)

his load, naught of it will be lifted even though he (unto whom he crieth) be of kin. Thou warnest
only those who fear their Lord in secret, and have established worship. He who groweth (in
goodness), groweth only for himself, (he cannot by his merit redeem others). Unto Allah is the
journeying.

URDU

‫ب وجھ اپ نا ہ وا دب ا م یں ب وجھ ک وئ ی اور ۔گ ا اٹ ھائ ے ن ہ ب وجھ ک ا دو سرے وا ال اٹ ھان ے ک وئ ی اور‬

‫۔ہ و ہ ی دار ق راب ت اگ رچہ گ ا اٹ ھائ ے ن ہ ک چھ سے م یں اس ک وئ ی ت و ب الئ ے ک و ک سی ک و ب ٹان ے‬

(‫سے پ روردگ ار اپ نے دی کھے ب ن جو ہ و ک ر س ک تے ن ص یحت ک و ل وگ وں ان ہی ت م )پ یغم بر اے‬
‫تزام ن ماز اور ڈرت ے‬ ‫اور ۔ہ ے ہ وت ا پ اک ل ئے ہ ی اپ نے ہ ے ہ وت ا پ اک شخص جو اور ۔ہ یں پ ڑھ تے ب االل‬

(‫ہ ے جان ا ک ر ل وٹ طرف ک ی ہ ی خدا )ک و سب‬

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Accountability of intension:

God will not call you to account for thoughtlessness in your oaths, but for the intention in your

hearts; and he is Of-forgiving, Most-Forbearing” (Al-Quran, 1: 225)

To God belongs all that is in the heaven and on earth. Whether you show what is in your minds
or conceal it. God call you to account for it. He forgives whom He pleases, and punishes whom
he pleases, for God has power over all things” (Al-Quran, 1:284

Accountability of Senses:

Allah (S.W.T.) will also ask us in the Day of Judgment about our hearing, our vision, and our

hearts. He will ask us about how we utilized each of them

“Verily! The hearing, and the sight, and the heart, of each of those, you will be questioned (by
Allah) ” ( Surat Al-Israa, Verse 36

Accountability of Blessing of Allah:

We will be asked in the Day of Judgment about all of the blessings and bounties that Allah gave
us in this life. Some of these blessings may include our good health, our wealth, our food and

drink, our ride and our home, etc.

Then, on that Day, you shall be asked about the delight (You indulged in, in this world). ” ( Surat
Al-Takathir, Verse 8)

Quran Ayat:

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Nature of Accountability:

 Accountability of Minor things

 Accountability of Intension

 Accountability of Senses
 Accountability is not transferable_ personal Accountability of all deeds
 Accountability of Blessings bestowed by Allah

In Hadiah:

 He said that: “Beware that every one of you is a shepherd and every one of you is

shepherd and everyone is answerable with regard to his folk. The caliph is a shepherd
over the people and shall be questioned about them. A woman is a guardian over the
house hold of her husband and his children and has to be questioned about them. A

slave is a shepherd over the property of his master and shall be questioned about it”

 Then he, may peace be upon him, adds: “beware that every one of you is a guardian
and every one of you shall be questioned with regard to his trust
 Prayer will be the first thing a person will be questioned about on the Day of Judgment.
 Prayer is a right of Allah (S.W.T), and people will be questioned about it. They will be

asked if their prayers were done completely and with good quality.
 If a person performs prayers with the utmost of quality, then the person will be saved. If
the prayers were done incompletely or half-heartedly, then his voluntary prayers will
suffice for the shortcomings

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Hadiah by Imam At-Tirmithi

We will be asked in the Day of Judgment about five things.

The prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) said: The son of Adam will not pass away from Allah until he
is asked about five things:

 How he lived his life,

 How he utilized his youth,

 With what means did he earn his wealth,

 How did he spend his wealth,

 What did he do with his knowledge

Accountability in Caliphate:

'If a dog dies hungry on the banks of the River Euphrates, Umar Ibn al Khattab RA will be
responsible for dereliction of duty.'' Source:Al Farooq (RA) by Shibli Nomani

Symbolism

 Dog Anyone who cant tell one’s needs

 Hunger Known Need

 River Euphrates Abundance
 Bank Reach /Access
 Death Deprivation

 Responsibility Rulers

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Islamic Code of Life:

Salient Features of Islamic Systems:

CURRENTLY there is a great deal of misunderstanding and misinterpretation by the orientalists

and western thinkers about the teachings and ideals of Islam. Therefore, it seems imperative to
define the concept of our Deen (Religion) and the significance of the word "Islam."

Etymologically the word "Islam" is derived from the Arabic root Salama, which signifies to be
tranquil, at rest, to have done one's duty, to have paid up, to be at perfect peace, and finally to

strive after righteousness with one's own strength. In Islamic phraseology this implies absolute

submission to the will of Allah, which leads to a state of peace - the ultimate aim of all human
endeavour.

To a historian the word "Islam" suggests more than a system of theology. It stands for a
distinctive civilization and a socio-political-cum-economic order, based on a form of practical

theology. It has been envolving as such since the days of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) whilst
spreading into countries around Arabia, on the shore of the Arabian Sea and beyond.

To an ordinary Muslim, the word "Islam" is the name of the religion (Deen) which defines a way

of life, guiding its followers individually and socially, whilst bringing its members into a fraternity

transcending the boundaries of state, race, colour, language and traditions.

The glorious Quran teaches that all bonafide religions teach true communication with Allah,
which is the essence of Islam. "This day I have perfected for you your religion, and completed

My favour on you, and chosen for you Islam as a religion" (95:3). The Divine Book also

emphasises: The truth is that whoever submits himself completely to the will of Allah and acts
righteously, shall have his reward with his Lord. No fear shall come upon them, nor shall they

grieve." (2:112).

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Every Muslim must submit to the Divine Commands and seek guidance and enlightenment from
His fountain (Samaddiyat). All his actions are disciplined by the laws of the Quran which enjoins

ceaseless endeavour, righteous action ('Amal-e-Saleh'), creative thinking, commonsense,

discernment, deep mental discipline and balanced judgment, which in the terminology of the

Quran is Furqan - the fundamental principle on which man should base his whole edifice of
purposive activity and his forward movement.

The remarkable commandments of the Quran for the beneficence of human beings are clearly
stated: 1. "Worship none save Allah (only), and be good to parents and to kindred and to
orphans and the needy, and speak kindly to mankind, and observe prayer and pay the poor -

due (Zakat)" (2:83). 2. "Give the kinsman his due, and the needy, and the wayfarer, and

squander not thy wealth in wantonness" (17:26). 3. "give full measure when you measure, and
weigh out with a right balance and justice" (17:35). 4. "Help one another in noble actions and

pious duty. Help not one another in sin and transgression." (5:2).

"Come not near adultery; verily it is foul thing and an evil way" (17:32). 6. "He is the most violent
of adversaries who runs along in the land to create disorder and destroy the tieth and the stock
and Allah does not love mischief-making: (2:205). 7. "But the chosen of Allah is he who so fulfils
his pledge and is mindful of his duty to Allah, Allah loves those who are righteous." (3:76). 8. "O
ye who believe! Be ye staunch in observing justice, and bear witness for Allah, even though it
be against yourselves or your parents or your kindered. Whether the person be rich or poor, in
either case Allah is nearer unto both (then ye are). So follow not vain desires lest ye lapse (from

truth) and if ye lapse or fall away, then verily! Allah is ever aware of what ye do." (4:135).

"Allah is He who has subjected the sea to you that ships may sail thereon by His command, and

that you may seek of His bounty and that you may be grateful. He has subjected to you

whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever in the earth; it is all from Him. Verily herein are

signs for people who reflect." (45:12:13).

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The Divine Book states: "We have sent our Messengers with manifest signs and revealed with
them the Scripture and the Balance, that mankind act with justice; and He sent down iron

wherein is mighty power and many benefits for mankind and that Allah may make known him
who helpeth Him and His Messengers, out of faith. Verily Allah is Strong and Almighty." (57:25).

In Islam, the entire humankind is one vast brotherhood, with Allah as their Creator and Master
who looks upon them all as equal. All the barriers, racial and others raised against it by the self-

interest of man are destroyed. "O mankind! Verily, We have created you male and female, and
have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. But verily the noblest of you,
in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. Verily Allah is Knower, Aware." (49:13).

"But those who divide their religion and break up into sects, thou hast no concern at all with
them. their case will go to Allah, Who then will tell them what they used to do." (6:160).

There is no denying that none of the moral creeds could afford to oppose a most rational and

convincing Deen (religion) such as it is; though degraded humanity often followed the baser
instinct; these were regarded as 'going astray" - their religion not being held responsible for their
character. In the Quran such people are called as "unjust people" and "transgressors." Those
who are unjust follow their own lust in their ignorance; "Nay but those who do wrong follow their

own lust without knowledge. Who is able to guide him whom Allah hath sent astray. For such
there are no helpers. So set thy purpose (O Muhammad) for religion as a man by nature upright
- the nature (framed) of Allah, in which He hath created man. There is no altering (the laws of)
Allah's creation. That is the right religion, but most men know not." (30:29-30).

Addressing the humanity at large, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) appealed to them,

in the words of the Quran, to sink their petty differences: "Unto each nature have We given

sacred rites which they are to perform; so let them not dispute with thee of the matter, but

summon thou unto thy Lord". "And unto thee have We revealed the Scripture with the truth,

confirming whatever Scripture was before it, and a guardian over it. So judge between them by
that which Allah has revealed, and follow not their vain desires in preference to the truth which

has come unto thee. For each of you we have appointed a divine law and a traced-out way. Had

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Allah willed He could have made you one community. But that he wishes to try you by that
which He hath given you. Then try to outstrip each other in the pursuit of good works. Unto Allah

you will all return, then He will inform you of that wherein ye differ." (5:48).

The life of the believer, in Islam, is a severe trial: "Do men imagine that they will be left (at ease)
because they say, we believe, and will not be tested with affliction." (29:2). "You will not attain
unto piety until you spend of that which you love most. And whatsoever you spend, Allah is

aware thereof." (3:92).

The greatest emphasis has been laid on human rights and tolerance by the Prophet Muhammad

(SAW) and the Quran. How with clarity this has been stated in Surah "Al-Kafirun": "Say thou, O

ye believe not! I worship not what ye worship, and ye worship not what I worship; nor will ye
worship what I worship, you have your religion and I have my religion" (109). "Revile not those
unto whom they pray beside Allah, lest they wrongfully revile Allah through ignorance" (6:109).

"There is no compulsion in religion. The right direction is henceforth distinct from error." (2:256).

The first Surah of the Quran, "Al-Alaq" revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in the cave Al-Hira
pertained to learning and knowledge. "Read in the name of they Lord (Allah) who createth man
from a clot, Read: and thy Lord is Most Bountiful Who teacheth the use of the pen, Teacheth

man that which he knew not," (96:1:5). This Iqra implies reading, writing, books, study,,
research, knowledge including science and technology and observation of nature and
promulgation and wide dissemination of the commandments of the Divine Book and gives a
universal direction. It also enlightens the righteous in adoration of Allah and imbues him to draw

closer to the Creator and Cherisher.

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Social System:

In the world, today, the importance of economics cannot be denied. The basis of its importance

is not on a common feeling that one'spolitical and social freedom is of no value without

economic freedom and similarly the achievement of solidarity, integrity and contentment is
impossible without there being economic justice. But it is important due to certain questions in
the human mind regarding poverty, unemployment and indigence causing socio-economic

injustice in spite of unlimited wealth and surprising progress in the productive resources of the
world. Why is it that about 60% of the people even today are without food, clothing and shelter?
Why are we not having collective welfare? This is how the Quaid-i Azam, while addressing the

officers and men of the Ack Ack Regiments at Malir on 21 February 1948, expressed his

feelings:

“Now you have to stand guard over the development and maintenance of Islamic democracy,

Islamic social justice and the equality of manhood in your native soil.”

He had, also, earlier expressed the same kind of sentiments at Sibi on 14 February 1948 when
he said:

“It is my belief that our salvation lies in following the golden rules of conduct set for us by our

great law-giver, the Prophet of Islam. Let us lay the foundations of our democracy on the basis

of truly Islamic ideals and principles.”

On the occasion of the opening ceremony of the State Bank of Pakistan on 1 July 1948, he said:

“We must work our destiny in our own way and present to the world an economic system based

on true Islamic concepts of equality of manhood and social justice.”

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Mr Justice (Retd.Hamood-ur-Rahman, has expressed that :

“Islam is our guide and a complete code of life for us. It is the source not only of our spiritual and

moral values but also of our temporal values and as long as Islam remains the basis of our

thought and activities, there is a chance of survival for us. It is the most comprehensive,
dynamic and progressive way of life in the world providing guidance and instructions for every
aspect of life.”

For the creation of a just and prosperous society and formation of healthy trends in civic life,
Islam sets forth a comprehensive programme of moral rearmament for the citizens of an Islamic

State. Life, from Islamic standpoint, is a unity. In Islam, religion pervades and determines all of

its aspects.

The Islamic code of ethics presents a combination of lofty ideals with rationalistic practicability,

while retaining at the same time a consistency with human nature. They have full capability of

commanding the highest degree of obedience by virtue of their Divine source. All the human
activity is conducted according to the will of the Almighty God. There is to be no violation of
rules set in the Holy Qur'an under any circumstances.

The Holy Prophet has the unique distinction of being a three‑fold founder of the most perfect

religion in the world, of an ideal nation and of the largest empire then known to history. Hence

his many-fold contributions in each field have to be taken into account to appreciate the
magnitude. His contributions, in the field of religion, apart from the laws of the Holy Qur'ān, i.e.
the high principles, which he set for himself were as follows:

 He took the world as merely a place of temporary abode or as a preparation for the next.

 He, therefore, by justice and fairness in his dealings, sought to acquire as much religious
merit as possible.
 He took upon himself the role of a mere servant of the people and a trustee for their

welfare.
 He loved for his people what he loved for himself.

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 His doors always remained open for the hearing of grievances and redress of the
wrongs.

 Justice coupled with mercy was the keynote of his policies.

 He kept a strict eye on his officials, their honesty and activities.

 He dispensed prompt and speedy juctice.

 He maintained that a just ruler is the shadow of Allah on the earth.

 He believed that Allah is kind to a ruler who is kind to his people.

There lies a guarantee in the social system of Islam for the welfare of orphans, widows and the
poor.

Islam believes in the goodness of human nature. It expects all human beings to be well-wishers
of their fellow-citizens, a contradiction and contrast to Marxism which presupposes—as implied
in the philosophy of Dialectical Materialism—a perpetual conflict in the antagonistic interests of

society. A Marxian holds that the modes of production in the material life determine the

superstructure of society in relation to spiritual, moral, social, economic and political process of
life. Morality is subservient to and derivative from material factors leading to an undirected
expediency, without principles in the socio-economic life. The result is that the society falls.

Hegel has also confused himself while giving a new set of laws —dialectic forces. A critic points
out the hollowness of the dictum in these words:

“The dialectic implied a moral attitude which is at once completely rigid and completely flexible
and it offered no criteria of tightness except the success of the outcome.”

The writer is not going away from the topic, but, in view of the current ideological debates, it,

would be better to have a glance upon other economic systems also, so as to reach the correct
point.

Human nature is a whole of various component parts inter-dependent and overlapping, and
morality is the great influencing part of life. But the importance of moral aspect of life was under-

estimated by Hobbes and Machiavelli, who presented a very dark picture of human nature. The

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creation of a just society remains a forlorn hope if these views regarding human nature are
taken for granted. Islam, on the other hand, declares mankind as the best of the creatures,

where individuals are held together by bonds of love, sympathy and compassion. We may, in
this context, refer to verse 109 of Sarah Āl-i `Imrān (iii.) of the Holy Qur'an, which reads as

follows :

`You are the best nation sent forth for men. You enjoin good and forbid evil and you believe in

God.”

But the Communists present outwardly a very attractive picture of their system. They say that

the capitalist market system is a source of exploitation, and in the Communist society of the

future, poverty, disease, hunger and pestile ice would be completely eliminated. As such the
doctrine had a tremendous appeal to the suffering humanity of the world. There are certain
practical aspects of Communism, in the field of economics, which, in the opinion of certain

Muslim scholars, has a close similarity to the Islamic system of economics. But there are a

number of fundamental principles which are most damaging to human society.

Basically, Socialism is a philosophy of life and a great movement which favours collective
ownership of all sources and means of production, a system which claims to cover and provide

guidance in every aspect of life. But it interprets history, under the influence of the philosophy of
Dialectical Materialism, in a way that the only determining factor of life, in its social, economic,
political and cultural aspects, is the economy. It brought about only a few good results, which
are accompanied with its own serious evils in society. Moreover, Marx and Engels adopted an

extremist attitude while discussing the evils of Capitalism. Their focus is labour only and all
other factors of economic activity are ignored.

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In the “Communist Manifesto” Marx and Engels have pointed out that, in advanced countries,
the following ten measures will be adopted to establish a socialist society:

 Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.

 A heavy progressive or graduated income-tax.

 Abolition of all rights of inheritance.
 Confiscation of the property of all immigrants and rebels.

 Centralization of credit in the hands of the State by means of a national bank with State
capital and an exclusive property.
 Centralisation of the means of communication and trans-port in the hands of the State.

 Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing

into cultivation of waste-lands, and their improvement generally in accordance with a

common plan.

 Equal liability of all to labour. Establishment of in­dustrial armies, especially for

agriculture.

 Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries, gradual abolition of the

distinction between town and country, by a more equitable distribution of the population
over the country.

 Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children’s factory labour in
its present form.

Socialism talks of the classless society which is not only impracticable but also illogical and

ridiculous. This would be a society based on so many illogical ideas, where a person would be

rewarded for his working capacity. The logical result of this principle would be that an unfit
person will never try to improve himself, because he will be getting full reward for his being unfit.

Whereas a fit and capable person will lose his ability, capability and qualifications due to non-

recognition of his efforts and qualifications (qualities). Morality is put to its lowest ebb and the

doctrine of “end justifies the means” is acted upon. The output is use of violence and class war.

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Friedrich Engels says:

“The whole history of mankind (since the dissolution of primitive tribal society, holding land in

common ownership) has been a history of class struggles, contests between exploiting and

exploited, subbing and oppressed classes.”

Its whole approach to life and its problems is negative. The Godlessness of the Communist
doctrine infuriates every Muslim, as the Muslims believe that faith in God and the message of

the Holy Prophet is the only way to rescue humanity from failure and weaknesses of the
present-day civilisation.

From the above discussion it becomes evident that the Communist doctrine was a reaction
against the evils of Capitalism. In Capitalism a capitalist attains the position of a governor, but in
the conduct of affairs he continues to retain the mentality of a business man. He pretends to

speak the truth, but his heart is full of mischief and vice. A system based on injustice and

corruption would disappear with the realisation that there is something higher in human values
than the naked lust for political and material gains.

‘Allamah Iqbal felt that Capitalism was oppressive in nature, and imposed immeasurable
hardships on millions of people all over the world. It is completely uninvited for the emerging

nations of Asia. In his Presidential Address to the Annual Session of the A11-India Muslim

League on 21 March 1932, he explained his point of view in the following words:

“This is the inevitable outcome of a wholly political civilization which has looked upon men as a

thing to be exploited and not as a personality to be developed and enlarged by purely cultural

forces. The people of Asia are bound to rise against the acquisitive economy which the West

has developed and imposed on the nations of the East. Asia cannot comprehend modern
Western Capitalism with its undisciplined individualism. The faith which you represent
recognizes the worth of the individual and disciplines him to give away his all to the service of

God and Man.”

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On another occasion, in a letter to the Quaid-i Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, dated 28 May
1937, Iqbal wrote:

“The problem of bread is becoming more and more acute. The Muslim has begun to feel that he

has been going down and down during the last 200 years. Ordinarily he believes that his
poverty is due to Hindu money-lending or capitalism. The perception that it is equally due to
foreign rule has not yet fully come to him. But it is bound to come. The atheistic socialism of

Jawaharlal is not likely to receive much response from the Muslims. The ques­tion therefore is :
how is it possible to solve the problem of Muslim poverty ? And the whole future of League
depends on the League's ability to solve this question. If the League can give no such promises

I am sure that Muslim masses will remain indifferent to it as before. Happily there is a solution in

the enforcement of the Law of Islam and its further development in the light of modern ideas.
After a long and careful study of Islamic Law I have come to the conclusion that if this system of

Law is properly understood and applied, at least the right to subsistence is secured to
everybody.”

The Capitalists misuse the right of private ownership. There are minimum restrictions on
economic activities and control of business vests almost directly in the owners. Although there is
a spirit of competition and attempts are made to increase production, its evils are as glaring that
Communists have come with charming slogans against Capitalism. Its glaring evils are injustice
in the shape of low wages, monopolies, slavery and nationalist imperialism.

All its edifice is based on interest which is a curse according to the faith of the Muslims.

Capitalists always do their level best to keep the wages low and get more work from the

workmen. This thing causes class war. Karl Marx derived his theory of surplus value from the

primitive theories of classical economists. Capitalism always proved as a forerunner of

Colonialism. The Super Powers always try to create their influence zones to get markets for

their products in developing nations. The Super Powers, to protect their interests, do not
hesitate from suppression and aggression. The Viet Nam and Middle East problems are of the

same nature. The history of the past two centuries is full of examples of capitalistic and

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colonialistic system. No doubt, the strategy and tactics do change with the changing
circumstances. At one time the Capitalist Western nations sucked the blood of poor people of

Afro-Asia by establishing colonies and dominions. And at present the developing countries are
subjected to political conditions when getting economic aids and loans.

In such a society there are slogans of freedom and liberty, but in fact all is usurped by the rich,
and the common man is with-out even the essentials of life. Democracy is a game of money. No

poor person can think 'of luxury of the elections. Words like legal equality, civil rights, political
freedom and autonomy are nothing but golden traps of the Capitalists. Getting scared from the
Socialist bloc the West has modified their systems. Uncontrolled economy enables them to

enter hoarding, dumping and monopolies. These evils are practised to grab high prices.

Sometimes products are even thrown in the sea so that prices should not come down.

Interest (usury=riba') is the blood circulating in the body of Capitalism. Originally the word

“usury” meant the act or practice of lending money on interest. It came to mean, in later use, the

practice of charging, taking, or contracting to receive excessive or illegal rates of interest for
money upon loan.

Those engaged in the accumulation of wealth through usury are referred to in the Qur'an as

people who are “touched by Satan” (ii. 275). These people end up by losing all respect for
human values. They convince themselves that usury and trade are the same thing. The
question is that while people, who devote their labour and talent to the project in which they
have invested funds, carry the entire risk of loss, the one who has loaned the capital will receive

the agreed amount of interest regardless of the success or failure of the venture. This does not
conform to any rational or equitable principle of economics.

In trade there is a reasonable division of the profit between the buyer and the seller. The seller

receives a value equitable to the time, material, Iabour and talent which has gone into

production and the buyer derives benefit for himself from the goods or services which he
receives. There is no such division or exchange between the borrower and the lender of money.

The lender receives an agreed amount of money for a fixed period.

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Usury appears to add to one's resources and charity subtracts from them. In fact, usury
obstructs moral, spiritual and economic growth and brings about social decline, whereas charity

(and this includes loans without interest) helps in the economic and social development of
society. Usury encourages selfishness, miserliness, narrow-mindedness and hard-heartedness

and, as one pursues usury, these qualities become more profound. Charity results in
broadmindedness, sympathy and generosity and the more one practises charity, the more these

qualities are developed.[

Ingratitude on the part of man is looked upon with disapproval. Only those persons can indulge
in money-lending who have acquired more wealth than their real needs. Such a situation should

be regarded by them as a favour of God and, in recognition of this favour, they should adopt an

attitude of generosity towards their fellow-beings. If they refuse to do so and part with their
surplus funds only to exact whatever they can from those placed less favourably, they are being

guilty of ingratitude and their conduct amounts to transgression.

There are two types of people: those who are interested only in adding to their wealth
regardless of the rights of others and those who fear God and have a sympathetic and generous
attitude towards others. They earn righteously with due regard to the rights of others and act
generously not only by helping those who are in need but also by putting funds into projects
which are meant for the good of the community. Those belonging to the first category have been
condemned because no society can progress with such people. Those in the second category
are approved and blessed. They are the ones who help build a progressive society and for

whom there is hope and happiness in the Hereafter.

The warning that people who do not give up usury will be treated as “in open hostility to God

and to His Prophet” was administered after the conquest of Mecca, but it has been placed in

Sūrah Baqarah because of its relevance to the subject. Prior to the revelation of this verse,

usury was disapproved but had not been declared unlawful, but with the revelation of this verse,

usury became a criminal offence in the Islamic State. The Prophet, through his functionaries,

conveyed to those tribes in Arabia that practised usury that if they did not give up this practice
they would be treated as at war with the State. The Christians of Najrān were granted complete

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cultural autonomy within the Islamic State but it was specified in the agreement that if they
indulged in usury the agreement would become null and void and they would be considered to

be hostile to the government. The last words of this verse persuaded Ibn `Abbās, Ḥasan Baṣri,
Ibn Sīrīn and Rabīd' b. Anas to conclude that “in an Islamic State a person who practises usury

should first be compelled to abandon it and if he refuses to do so he should be executed. Other

jurists, however, believe that such a person should be imprisoned and kept in detention till he

undertakes to give up usury.”[

Finally there is the advice that if a debtor is in difficulties he should be given time' to repay the
loan. It has been inferred from this verse that an Islamic court will come to the aid of a person

who is unable to repay his loans and will require his creditors to give him more time. In certain

circumstances, the courts would be entitled to remit the whole or part of the loan. It is reported
that a person who had incurred loss in business and was heavily under debt came to the

Prophet for help. A number of people gave him monetary assistance at the instance of the
Prophet, but even then the amount was not enough to clear his liability. The Prophet told his

creditors that they should take whatever was available and forget the rest. Scholars have
suggested that a house in which a person resides, cooking utensils, personal clothing and such
instruments as a person needs in his profession must under no circumstances be confiscated

towards the repayment of loan.

Poverty has been one of the primary concerns of the Islamic social system. Leaving aside the
personal humanitarianism of some Muslim rulers, which is legendary in cases, there are certain

fundamental principles of the Sharī'ah which are basically concerned with this problem. A

research scholar in her doctoral thesis has summarized the economic and social principles of
Islam as follows:

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 It is the duty of the State to provide every individual with the necessities of life, which
include food, clothing, housing, education and medical assistance. In providing these

necessities individual taste and aptitude should be given due consideration instead of
uniformity.

 The State can fulfil this huge obligation only if the means of production are in its custody.
 Every individual should be given an assignment in life according to his capability and the

opportunities available in society.

 Strictly from the Islamic point of view reward for work belongs to the labour and not to

capital.

The above characteristics of the socio-economic system of Islam are based on the interpretation

of the Qur'an and Traditions of the Holy Prophet.

“Islam has often been described as a doctrine of Duties, but, more correctly described, the

Sharī'ah is law in terms of eternal transcendental norms to which mankind is necessari,y

required al-ways to conform. Must of this law to be found in the Holy Qur'an itself, e.g. those
relating to ritual, purity, prayer, fasting, alms-giving, pilgrimage, marriage, divorce, paternity,
guardianship, succession and even laws of contract, civil wrongs, crimes, evidence and
procedure. Islam being a Din projects life as a whole and the economic system cannot be
discussed separately. The contribution of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) himself in this
field has by no means been insignificant.”

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Summary of the Salient Principles and Features of Islamic Economic System. The economic
system in Islam is based on certain golden principles. Included among these are:

 Circulation of Wealth. The principle of circulation of wealth has not only been accepted,

but such ways and means have been devised through which wealth continues circulating
and does not accumulate. It has adopted all such measures which are helpful in creating
an equitable society in which the principle of social justice is implemented and it has

closed the doors of all sorts of human and economic exploitation.

 Selflessness and Service to the Community. One really appre­ciable aspect of Islamic
system and way of life is that it infuses amongst it adherents the spirit of selflessness

and service to humanity. It very clearly lays before it that one cannot be a real Muslim

unless one loves for all Muslims what one loves for one-self. The Holy Qur'an
appreciates the quality of the Muslims by saying that they are those who give preference

to others over their own needs. So, an Islamic society prepares selfless human beings
as against the selfish ones created by Western civilisation as declared by a philosopher

no less than Schopenhauer who says: “a man is wolf to a man,” which is a true picture of
the man produced by Western civilisation.
 Ethical and Human Values. The economic system of Islam is based on ethical and

human values. This system emanates from God. The Muslims are enjoined upon to
implement this system and act in accordance with it, wherein, when a Muslim spends for
the welfare of the society, he spends in the way of God, and for seeking His pleasure.
 Welfare of the Entire Humanity. This system has been organised keeping in view the

welfare of the entire humanity.

 A Just, Equitable, Workable and Progressive System. All necessary steps have been
suggested to establish this system as a just, equitable, workable and progressive

economic system. It has been provided in Islam that adequate means of livelihood for all
citizens be provided and in this respect all opportunities should be equally open to all
citizens.

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 Freedom from Exploitation. The doors of all sorts of human exploitation have been
closed altogether, thereby freeing a man from the exploitation of any other man.

 Limited Ownership. It permits limited ownership and places effective checks on unlimited

accumulation of wealth in anybody's hands.

 Dignity of Work and Labour. Dignity of work and labour is an established fact in the

economic system of Islam.

The following steps have been suggested in order to achieve these principles, under the

economic system of Islam:

 System of Zakāt. The paying of Zakāt is a compulsory duty of all the wealthy Muslims.
The Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him) very truly remarked that Zakāt is the treasure

of Islam, through which the welfare of the commnuity is achieved Zakāt is an institution

which embodies in it the purpose of narrowing clown the gulf between the rich and the
poor, encouraging social co-operation and stabilising the society. Zakāt is a special
characteristic of Islam which encourages social co-operation, helps to balance the rich
and stabilises the society.
 Other Sources of Revenue. Islam has suggested other sources of revenue, included
among which are: Jizyah (a tax levied upon non-Muslims), Kharāj (a tax on agricultural
lands belonging to Dhimmīs), Zariab (a tax levied on the rich people in extraordinary

circumstances), Kura al-Arḍ (a tax levied in lieu of land), and `Ushr (Zakāt levied an

agricultural produce).
 Voluntary Spending for the Welfare of Human Beings. Infāq fī sabilillah is important to
such an extent that the Holy Qur'ān instructs its followers again and again to do this

good action and there is no limit to spending in the way of Allah. In one of the verses of
the Holy Qur'ān, it has been clearly stated that “What-ever you have in excess of your

basic needs, spend it in the way of Allah for the welfare of the society.” The Holy Prophet

(peace be upon him) has remarked that “if in a locality a man remains hungry during the

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night, such a locality for its right to be under the protection of Allah”. It is a wonderful fact
that such a society was created by the Holy Prophet (pace be upon him), whose

members were always willing to spend their wealth for the cause and welfare of needy
and poor members of the society.

 The institution of Qarḍ Ḥasanah. Loaning money without interest (Qarḍ Ḥasanah) has
been sanctified by Allah the Merciful to such a degree that giving such loans to the

needy persons amounts to giving these to Allah.

 Prohibition of Concentration of Wealth. In one of the verses, Allah has warned those who

hoard capital for personal use. “They who hoard up gold and silver spend it not in the
way of Allah, give unto them tidings (O Muhammad) of a pailful doom,” mean­ing thereby

that unrestricted accumulation of wealth has been prohibited by Allah. Similarly, other

malpractices of concentrating wealth, like speculation, hoarding of commodities, games

of chance, theft, robbery, adulteration, under-weighing and all such other illegal and

malpractices have been strictly prohibited.

 Prohibition of All Illegal Gratifications. Illegal gratifications of all sorts and other practices
of earning wealth by foul means have been strictly prohibited by Islam.
 Prohibition of Other Malpractices. Other malpractices, such as extravagance, luxurious

living as well as miserliness, have been prohibited and a middle course has been

suggested by Islam.
 Prohibition of Usury. Usury which sucks the blood of the economy and poor people has

been totally banned in Islam, and taking of usury amounts to fighting with the Creator of
the uni­verses (Allah), the Prophet (Muḥammed) the State.

 Obligations of the State. The social and economic principles of Islam embody that it is

the duty of the State to provide every individual with the necessities of life (food, clothing,
housing, education and medical assistance), and to give assignment to every individual

according to his capabilities and the opportunities available based on the principle that

the reward for work belongs to labour, not to capital. All the sources of the State must be
harnessed to the task of providing adequate means of livelihood for all its citizens. All the

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opportunities in this respect should be open to all citizens equally so that no person
should enjoy a high standard of living at the expense of another.

Thus we see that the economic system of Islam is a middle course and a golden mean amongst

the two extreme economic systems of the world, namely, Communism and Capitalism. The
Islamic system is the only system which guarantees the true welfare of humanity, as has been
expressed by `Allamah Iqbal in his letter dated 28 May 1937 addressed to the Quaid-i Azam,

quoted above.

Political System

The political system of Islam is based on three principles; Tawhid (unity of God), Risalat
(prophethood) and Khilafat (vicegerency). It is difficult to appreciate the different aspects of
Islamic politics without fully understanding these three principles. I will therefore begin with a

brief exposition of what they are.

Tawhid means that only God is the Creator, Sustainer and Master of the universe and of all that
exists in it - organic or inorganic. The sovereignty of this kingdom is vested only in Him. He

alone has the right to command or forbid. Worship and obedience are due to Him alone, no one

and nothing else shares it in any way. Life, in all its forms, our physical organs and faculties, the
apparent control which we have over nearly everything in our lives and the things themselves -

none of them has been created or acquired by us in our own right. They have been bestowed
on us entirely by God. Hence, it is not for us to decide the aim and purpose of our existence or
to set the limits of our authority; nor is anyone else entitled to make these decisions for us. This
right rests only with God, who has created us, endowed us with mental and physical faculties,

and provided material things for our use.

This principle of the unity of God totally negates the concept of the legal and political
independence of human beings, individually or collectively. No individual, family, class or race

can set themselves above God. God alone is the Ruler and His commandments are the Law.

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The medium through which we receive the law of God is known as Risalat. We have received
two things from this source: the Book in which God had set out His law, and the authoritative

interpretation and exemplification of the Book by the Prophet, blessisngs and peace be on him,
through word and deed, in his capacity as the representative of God. The Prophet, blessings

and peace be on him, has also, in accordance with the intention of the Divine Book, given us a
model for the Islamic way of life by himself implementing the law and providing necessary

details where required. The combination of these two elements is called the Shari ‘ah.

Now consider Khilafat. According to the Arabic lexicon, it means ‘representation’. Man,
according to Islam, is the representative of God on earth, His vicegerent. That is to say, by

virtue of the powers delegated to him by God, he is required to exercise his God-given authority

in this world within the limits prescribed by God.

Take, for example, the case of an estate which someone has been appointed to administration

on your behalf. You will see that four conditions are invariably met. First, the real ownership of

the estate remains vested in you and not in the administrator; second, he administers your
property only in accordance with your instructions; third, he exercises his authority within the
limits prescribed by you; and fourth, in the adminstration of the trust he executes your will and
not his own. These four conditions are so inherent in the concept or ‘representation’ that if any
representative fails to observe them he will rightly be blamed for breaking the covenant which
was implied in the concept of ‘representation’. This is exactly what Islam means when it affirms
that man is the vicegerent of God on earth. Hence, these four conditions are also involved in the

concept of Khilafat.

A state that is established in accordance with this political theory will in fact be a human

caliphate under the sovereignty of God and will do God’s will by working within the limits

prescribed by Him and in accordance with His instructions and injunctions.

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Democracy in Islam

The above explanation of the term Khilafat also makes it abundantly clear that no individual or

dynasty or class can be Khalifah, but that the authority of caliphate is bestowed on any

community which accepts the principles of Tawhid and Risalat. In such a society, each
individual shares the God given caliphate. This is the point where democracy begins in Islam.

Every person in an Islamic society enjoys the rights and powers of the caliphate of God and in

this respect all individuals are equal. No one can deprive anyone of his rights and powers. The
agency for running the affairs of the state will be established in accordance with the will of these

individuals, and the authority of the state will only be an extension of the powers of the

individuals delegated to it. Their opinion will be decisive in the formation of the Government,
which will be run with their advice and in accordance with their wishes. Whoever gains their
confidence will carry out the duties of the calilphate on their behalf; and when he loses this

confidence he will have to relinquish his office. In this respect the political system in Islam as

perfect a democracy as ever can be.

What distinguishes Islamic democracy from Western democracy is that while the latter is based
on the concept of popular sovereignty the former rests on the principle of popular Khilafat. In

Western democracy the people are sovereign, in Islam sovereignty is vested in God and the
people are His caliphs or representatives. In the former the people make their own laws; in the
latter they have to follow and obey the laws(Shari ‘ah) given by God through His Prophet. In one
the Government undertakes to fulfil the will of the people; in the other the Government and the

people alike have to do the will of God. Western democracy is a kind of absolute authority which
exercises its powers in a free and uncontrolled manner, whereas Islamic democracy is a kind of

absolute authority which exercises its powers in a free and uncontrolled manner, whereas

Islamic democracy is sub-servient to the Divine Law and exercises its authority in accordance

with the injunctions of God and within the limits prescribed by Him.

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Purpose of the Islamic State:

The Holy Qur’an clearly states that the aim and purpose of this state, built on the foundation of

Tawhid, Risalat and Khilafat, is the establishment, maintenance and development of those

virtues which the Creator of the universe wishes human life to be enriched by, and the
prevention and eradication of those evils which are abhorrent to God. The state in Islam is not
intended for political administration only nor for the fulfillment through it of the collective will of

any particular set of people. Rather, Islam places a high ideal before the state for the
achievement of which it must use all the means at its disposal. The aim is to encourage the
qualities of purity, beauty, goodness, virtue, success and prosperity which God wants to flourish

in the life of His people and to suppress all kinds of exploitation and injustice. As well as placing

before us this high idel. Islam clearly states the desired virtues and the undesirable evils. The
Islamic state can thus plan its welfare programmes in every age and in any environment.

The constant demand made by Islam is that the principles of morality must be observed at all

costs and in all walks of life. Hence, it lays down an unalterable requirement for the state to
base its politics on justice, truth and honesty. It is not prepared, under any circumstances, to
tolerate fraud, falsehood and injustice for the sake of political, administrative or national
expediency. Whether it be relations between the rulers and the ruled within the state, or
relations of the state with other states, precedence must always be given to truth, honesty and
justice. It imposes obligations on the state similar to those it imposes on the individual: to fulfil all
contracts and obligations; to have consistent standards in all dealings; to remember obligations

as well as rights and not to forget the rights of others when expecting them to fulfil their

obligations; to use power and authority for the establishment of justice and not for the
perpetration of injustice; to look on duty as a sacred obligation; and to regard power as a trust
from God to be used in the belief that one has to render an account of one’s actions to Him in

the Hereafter.

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Although an Islamic state may be set up anywhere on earth, Islam does not seek to restrict
human rights or privileges to the geographical limits of its own state. Islam has laid down

universal fundamentals rights for humanity as a whole, which are to be observed and respected
in all circumstances irrespective of whether a person lives on the territory of the Islamic state or

outside it and whether he is at peace with the state or at war. For example, human blood is
sacred and may not be spilled without justification; it is not permissible to oppress women,

children, old people, the sick or the wounded: woman’s honour and chastity must be respected

in all circumstances; and the humgry must be fed, the naked clothed, and the wounded or

diseased treated medically.

These, and a few other provisions, have been laid down by Islam as fundamental rights for

every man by virtue of his status as a human being, to be enjoyed under the constitution of an
Islamic state.

The rights of citizenship in Islam, however, are not confined to persons born within the limits of

its state but are granted to every Muslim irrespective of his place of birth. A Muslim ipso facto
becomes the citizen of an Islamic state as soon as he sets foot on its territory with the intention
of living there; he thus enjoys equal rights of citizenship with those who are its citizens by birth.
Citizenship must therefore be common to all the citizens of all the Islamic states that exist in the
world; a Muslim will not need a passport for entry or exit from any of them. And every Muslim
must be regarded as eligible for positions of the highest responsibility in an Islamic state without
distinction of race, colour or class.

Islam has also laid down certain rights for non-Muslims who may be living within the boundaries
of an Islamic state, and these rights must necessarily form part of the Islamic constitution.

According to Islamic terminology such non-Muslims are called dhimmis (the covenanted),

implying that the Islamic state has entered into a covenant with them and guaranteed their

rights.

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The life, property and honour of a dhimmi is to be respected and protected in exactly the same
way as that of a Muslim citizen. There is no difference between Muslim and Non-Muslim citizens

in respect of civil or criminal law; and the Islamic state shall not interfere with the personal law of
non-Muslims. They will have full freedom of conscience and belief and will be entitled to perform

their religious rites and ceremonies. As well as being able to practise their religion, they are
entitled to criticise Islam. However the rights given in this respect are not unlimited: the civil law

of the country has to be fully respected and all criticism has to be made within its framework.

These rights are irrevocable and non-Muslims can only be deprived of them if they renounce the
covenant which grants them citizens, it is not permissible for an Islamic state to retaliate against

its non-Muslim subjects. This injunction holds good even if all the Muslims outside the

boundaries of an Islamic state are massacred.

Executive and Legislature

The responsibility for the administration of the Government in an Islamic state is entrusted to an
Amir (leader) who may be likened to the President or the Prime Minister in a Western
democratic state. All adult men and women who accept the fundamentals of the constitution are
entitled to vote in the election for the leader.

The basic qualifications for the election of an Amir are that he should command the confidence

of the largest number of people in respect of his knowledge and grasp of the spirit of Islam; he
should possess the Islamic attribute of fear of God; he should be endowed with the quality of
statemanship. In short, he should be both able and virtuous.

A Shura (consultative council), elected by the people, will assist and guide the Amir. It is

obligatory for the Amir to administer the country with the advice of his Shura. The Amir can
retain office only so long as he enjoys the confidence of the people, and must resign when he
loses this confidence. Every citizen has the right to criticise the Amir and his Government, and

all reasonable means for the expression of public opinion should be available.

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Legislation in an Islamic state should be within the limits prescribed by the Shari ‘ah. The
injunctions of God and His Prophet are to be accepted and obeyed and no legislative body can

alter or modify them or make any new laws which are contrary to their spirit. The duty of
ascertaining the real intent of those commandments which are open to more than one

interpretation should devolve on people possessing a specialised knowledge of the law of Shari
‘ah. Hence, such matters may have to be referred to a sub-committee of the Shura comprising

men learned in Islamic law. Great scope would still be available for legislation on questions not

covered be any specific injunctions of the Shari ‘ah, and the advisory council or legislature is

free to legislate in regard to these matters.

In Islam the judiciary is not placed under the control of the executive. It derives its authority

directly from the Shari ‘ah and is answerable to God. The judges will obviously be appointed by
the Government but, once appointed, will have to administer justice impartially according to the

law of God. All the organs and functionaries of the Government should come within their
jurisdiction: even the highest executive authority of the Government will be liable to be called

upon to appear in a court of law as a plaintiff or defendant. Rulers and ruled are subject to the
same law and there can be no discrimination on the basis of position, power or privilege. Islam
stands for equality and scrupulously adheres to this principle in the social, economic and

political realms alike..

Conclusion

An Islamic Setup provides a graceful economic and social life. it distribute the wealth in all

family. Comparison of Islamic Economic System with other Economic System. Islamic
Economic System possesses the character of both capitalism and socialism and it is free from

their evils. Following are the comparison of Islamic state with others.

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Judicial System

AW has existed in human society from time immemorial. Every race, every region, and every

group of men has made some contribution in this sphere. The contribution made by Muslims is
as rich as it is worthy and valuable.

Science of Law:

301. The ancients have all had their particular laws, yet a science of law, abstract in existence

and distinct from laws and codes, does not seem to have ever been thought of before Shafi'i (1)
(150-204 A.H./767-820 C.E.). The work of this jurist (Risalah) designates this science under the

expressive name of usal al-fiqh (Roots of Law) from which shoot the branches of the rules of

human conduct. Since then, this science which was called Usul al-Fiqh among the Muslims,
treats together with the philosophy of law, sources of rules, and principles of legislation,
interpretation and application of legal texts. These latter, i.e., laws and rules are called furu'

(branches) of this tree. Apparently these authors were inspired in the choice of the terms by the

Quranic verse (14:24-25): "the example of a goodly word is like a goodly tree: its roots set firm,
its branches reaching into heaven, giving its fruit at every season by permission of its Lord."

Intention in Act:

302. Among the novelties in the domain of fundamental notions of law, it may be pointed out
that the importance given to the conception of motive and intention (niyah) in acts. This notion is
based on the celebrated saying of the Prophet of Islam (d. 632 of Christian era): "The acts are
not (to be judged) except by motives." Ever since, an intentional tort or crime, and one caused
involuntarily, have not been treated alike by Muslim tribunals.

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Written Constitution of State

303. It is interesting as well as inspiring to note that the very first revelation (Qur'an 96:1-5)

received by the Prophet of Islam, who was an unlettered person himself, was the praise of the

pen as a means of learning unknown things, and as a grace of God. It is not surprising that,
when the Prophet Muhammad endowed his people with a unique form of state, created out of
nothing, he promulgated a written constitution for this State, which was a city-state at first, but

only ten years later, at the moment of the demise of its founder, extended over the whole of the
big Arabian Peninsula, and the southern portions of Iraq and Palestine.(2) After another fifteen
years, during the caliphate of 'Uthman, there was an astonishing penetration of Muslim armies

to Andalusia (Spain) on the one hand, and the Chinese Turkestan(3) on the other, they having

already occupied the countries that lay in between. This written constitution, prepared by
Prophet Muhammad, which consists of 52 clauses, has come down to us in toto (cf. Ibn Hisham,

for instance). It addresses a variety of questions, such as the respective rights and duties of the
ruler and the ruled, legislation, administration of justice, organization of defence, treatment of

non-Muslim subjects, social insurance on the basis of mutualism and other requirements of that
age. The Act dates from 622 of the Christian era [C.E.] (the first year of the Hijrah).

Universal International Law

304. War, which unfortunately has always been very frequent among the members of the
human family, is a time when one is least disposed to behave reasonably and do justice against
one's own self, and in favour of one's adversary. As it is really a question of life and death, and

a struggle for very existence, in which the least mistake or error would lead to dangerous
consequences, the sovereigns and heads of States have always claimed the privilege to decide,

at their discretion, the measures they take in regard to the enemy. The science relating to such

behaviour of independent sovereigns has existed from very old times, but it nevertheless formed

a part of politics and mere discretion and was, at the most, guided by experience. The Muslims

seem to have been the first to separate this science of public international law from the

changing whims and fancies of the rulers of the State, and to place it on a purely legal basis.
Moreover, it is they who have left to posterity the oldest extant works on international law,

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developed as an independent science. Among authors of such treatises, we find names of such
eminent personalities as Abu Hanifah, Malik, al-Auza'i, Abu Yousuf, Muhammad ash-Shaibani,

Zufar, al-Waqidi, etc. They all called the subject siyar (conduct, i.e., of the sovereign). Further, in
the ordinary codes of law (the oldest extant work hails from Zaid ibn 'Ali who died in 120 or 122

A.H., and also by every subsequent author) one speaks of this subject as forming part of the law
of the land. In fact one speaks of it immediately after the question of highway robbery, as if war

could be justified for the same reason as police action against highwaymen. The result is that

belligerents have both rights and obligations, cognizable by Muslim courts.

General Characteristics of the Muslim Law Code:

305. The first thing which strikes the imagination of the reader of a manual on Islamic law is that
this law seeks to regulate the entire field of human life, in its material aspect as well as the
spiritual one. Such manuals begin usually with the rites and practices of cult, and discuss under

this rubric also the constitutional question of sovereignty, since the imam, i.e., the head of the

State is ex officio leader of the service of worship in the mosque (cf. Kitab al-Umm of Shafi'i, ch.
salat). One should not therefore be astonished that this part of law books deal also with the
subject of the payment of taxes. Since the Qur'an has often spoken of worship and the zakat-tax
in the same breath, worship being bodily service and the tax the service of God by means of
money. Thereafter the law manual discusses contractual relations of all sorts; then the crimes
and penalties, which include laws of war and peace with foreign countries, i.e., international law
and diplomacy also; and finally the rules governing heritage and wills. Man is composed of both

body and soul, and if the government, with its enormous resources at its disposal, attends

exclusively to material affairs, the soul would be famished, being left to its own private resources
(very meagre in comparison with those available in temporal affairs.) The unequal
developments of body and soul will lead to a lack of equilibrium in man, the consequences of

which will in the long run be disastrous to civilization. This treatment of the whole, of both body
and soul, does not imply that the uninitiated should venture in the domain of religion, just like a

poet should not be allowed to perform surgical operations for instance. Every branch of human

activity must have its own specialists and experts.

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306. Another feature of the Islamic law seems to be the emphasis laid on the correlativity of

right and obligation. Not only the mutual relations of men among themselves, but even those of

men with their Creator are based on the same principle; and cult is nothing but the performance
of the duty of man corresponding to the rights to the usufruct of worldly things that Providence
has accorded him. To speak only of the "rights of man," without simultaneously bringing into

relief his duties would be transforming him into a rapacious beast, a wolf or a devil.

Philosophy of Law

307. The classical jurists, among Muslims, place laws on the duality of good and evil. One
should do what is good and abstain from what is evil. Good and evil are sometimes absolute
and self-evident, yet at other times merely relative and partial. This leads us to the five-fold

division of all judicial rules, both orders and injunctions. Thus, all that is absolutely good would

be an absolute duty, and one must do that. Everything which has a preponderant good would be
recommended and considered meritorious. Things where both these aspects, of good and evil,
are equal, or which have neither of them, would be left to the discretion of the individual to do or
abstain from, at will, and even to change the practice from time to time. This category would be

a matter of indifference to law. Things absolutely evil would be objects of complete prohibition,
and, finally, things which have a preponderance of evil would be reprehensible and
discouraged. This basic division of acts or rules into five categories may have other subdivisions
with minute nuances like the directions on a compass in addition to the four cardinal points of

north, south, east and west.

308. It remains to define and distinguish between things good and the evil. The Qur'an, which is

the Word of God and a revered Book by Muslims, speaks of these on many occasions, and

says that one must do the ma'ruf and abstain from the munkar. Now, ma'ruf means a good

which is recognized as such by everybody and which is considered by reason to be good, and
therefore is commanded. Munkr means a thing which is denounced by everyone as having no

good whatsoever and is an evil which is recognized as such by everybody, and that which is

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considered by reason to be evil would be forbidden. A very great part of Islamic morality
belongs to this domain, and the cases are very rare where the Qur'an forbids a thing in which

there is a divergence of human opinion, such as the prohibition of alcoholic drinks, or games of
chance. But to tell the truth, the raison-d'etre of law even in such cases is not concealed from

thoughtful, mature minds. In practice, this is a question of confidence in the wisdom and
intelligence of the Legislator, whose directions in all the other cases have occasioned nothing

but universal approbation.

The Sanctions

309. One meets among the members of the human race a most varied temperament, and these

could be divided into three big categories: (1) those who are good and resist all temptations of
evil, with- out in the least being compelled by anybody thereto, (2) those who are bad, and seek,
in every way to escape even from the most strict supervision, and finally (3) those who behave

in a suitable manner as long as they fear reprisal, but who would also permit themselves

injustice when there are temptations with a chance of escaping detection. Unfortunately the
number of individuals of the first category is very restricted; they need neither guides, nor
sanctions in the interest of society. The disposition of the spirit to do harm to others may be a
sickness, a remnant of the criminal animality, a result of bad education, or due to other causes.
An attempt will be made to control and counteract the possible harm done by men of the second
category, whose number, fortunately, is also not very great. There remains the third or the
intermediate category which is the very vast majority of men. They require sanctions, but of

what kind?

310. It goes without saying that if a chieftain himself has a bad conscience, having committed a

prohibited thing, he would have little courage to reproach others about that thing. Therefore

Islam has struck at the root and the source of this kind of evil, and declared that nobody is

exempt from obligations, not even the sovereign, and not even the Prophet. The teaching as

well as the practice of the Prophet Muhammad, followed by his successors, requires that the

head of the State should be capable of being cited before the tribunals of the country, without

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the least restriction. The Islamic tradition has been that judges never hesitated in practice to
decide even against their sovereigns in cases of default.

311. It is needless to mention in detail the material sanctions which exist in Islam just like in all

other civilizations. Thus there are services which are charged with the maintenance of law and
order, watch and ward, peace and tranquillity in the mutual relations of the inhabitants of the
country. And if anybody is victim of violence he can complain before the tribunals, and the police

would drag the accused to appear before the judges, whose decision is finally executed.

312. But the conception of society, as envisaged by the Prophet of Islam, has added another

sanction, perhaps more efficacious than the material one, and that is the spiritual sanction.

Maintaining all the administrative paraphernalia of justice, Islam has inculcated in the minds of
its adherents the notion of resurrection after death, of Divine Judgement and salvation or
condemnation in the Hereafter. It is thus that the believer accomplishes his obligations even

when he has the opportunity of violating them with impunity, and he abstains from doing harm to

others in spite of all the temptations and the enjoyment of security against the risk of retaliation.

313. This triple sanction - of rulers being equally subject to the general law, material sanctions
and spiritual sanctions, each element of which strengthens the efficacy of the other - tries to

secure in Islam the maximum observance of laws and the realization of the rights and
obligations of all. It is more efficacious than a system in which only one of these sanctions are
acquired.

The Legislation:

314. In order to better understand the implication of the affirmation that God is the supreme

Legislator, we have to think about different aspects of the question.

315. Islam believes in One God, Who is not only the Creator of all, but also the Sustainer, the

sine qua non of the very existence of the universe. He is not "placed on the retired list" after
having created what He has created. Furthermore, Islam believes that God is transcendent and

beyond all physical perception of man, and that He is omnipresent [present everywhere],

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omnipotent [All-powerful] just and merciful. Moreover, in His great mercy, He has given man not
only reason but also guides, chosen from among men themselves, instructed in the directions

which are most wise and most useful to human society. God being transcendent [beyond reach
or grasp of human experience], He sends His messages to His chosen men by means of

intermediate celestial message-bearers.

316. God is perfect and eternal. Among men, on the contrary, there is constant evolution. God

does not change His opinions, but He exacts from men only that which accords with their
individual capacities. That is why there are divergences, at least in certain details, among
various legislation, each of which claims to be based on Divine revelations. In legislative

matters, the latest law abrogates and replaces all the former ones; the same is true of Divine

revelations.

317. Among Muslims, the Qur'an, which is a book in the Arabic language, is the Word of God, a

Divine revelation received by the Prophet Muhammad and destined for his adherents.

Moreover, in his quality of being the messenger of God, Muhammad, of the holy memory, has
explained the sacred text, and given further directions; and these are recorded in the Hadith, or
the collection of the reports on the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad.

318. It goes without saying that the laws promulgated by an authority can only be abrogated by
itself or by a superior authority, but not by an inferior one. So a Divine revelation can be
abrogated only by another posterior Divine revelation. Similarly the directions of the Prophet can
only be modified by himself or by God, but not by any of his disciples or an other person. In

practice, in Islam this theoretical aspect of rigidity becomes quite elastic in order to permit men
to adapt themselves to exigencies and circumstances:

 The laws, even those of Divine origin or emanating from the Prophet, are not all of the

same range. We have just seen that only some of these are obligatory, whereas others

are only recommended, while in the rest of the cases, the law allows great latitude to
individuals. A study of the sources shows that the rules of the first category, i.e., the

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obligatory ones, are very few in number. Those rules which are recommended are more
numerous and cases where the text is silent are innumerable.

 An inferior authority will not change the law, yet it may interpret it. The power of
interpretation is not the monopoly of any person in Islam because every man who makes

a special study of the subject has the right to do that. A sick man would never consult a
poet, or even a laureate who has gained a Nobel prize . . . to con- struct a house, one

does not consult a surgeon, but instead consults an engineer. In the same way, for legal

questions, one must study law and perfect one's knowledge of the subject for the opinion

of persons outside the profession will only be speculative. The interpretations of the
specialists show the possibility of adapting even the Divine law to circumstances. Since

Muhammad (being the last of the prophets) has left this world (as all mortals must), there

is no more possibility of receiving a new revelation from God to decide problems in the
case of divergence of interpretations. Inevitably there must be a divergence of opinion

on matters, since all men do not think in the same manner. It may be pointed out that

judges, jurisconsults or other experts of law are all human beings, and if they differ
among themselves, the public will follow the one who appears to be more authoritative.
In a judicial litigation, the judge is obeyed, whereas in other cases, the schools of law

obtain priority in the eyes of the adherents of their respective schools.

 Prophet Muhammad has enunciated the rule. "My people shall never be unanimous in
an error," (reported by Ibn Hanbal, Tirmidhi, lbn Majah and others). Such a negative

consensus has great possibilities of developing Islamic law and adopting it to changing
circumstances. The spirit of investigation is never strangled. On the contrary, this Hadith

seems to lay down that every opinion which is not rejected unanimously will not involve

excommunication.
 A celebrated incident of the life of the Prophet Muhammad reported by a large number of

sources, deserves mention:

Mu'adh ibn Jabal, a judge-designate of Yeman, paid a visit to the Prophet to take his leave

before departure to take up office. The following conversation took place: "On what basis shalt

thou decide litigation? - According to the provisions in the Book of God (the Qur'an)! - And if

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thou dost not find any provision therein? - Then according to the conduct of the Messenger of
God (i.e., Muhammad)! - And if thou dost not find a provision even therein? - Well, then, I shall

make an effort with my own opinion!" The Prophet was so delighted at this reply, that far from
reproaching him, he exclaimed, "Praise be to God Who hath guided the envoy of His envoy to

what pleaseth the envoy of God!"

This individual effort of opinion and common sense on the part of an honest and conscientious

man is not only a means of developing the law, but also a recipient of the benediction of the
Prophet.

 It may be remembered that in legislation on a new problem, in the interpretation of a

sacred text, or in any other case of development of the Islamic law, even when it is
occasioned on the basis of a consensus, there is always the possibility that one rule
adopted by a process would later be replaced by another rule, by later jurists using the

same process. Opinion of an individual by the opinion of another individual, a consensus

by another consensus (cf. al-Pazdawi, Usul). (This refers to opinions of jurists only, and
has nothing to do with the Qur'an or the authentic Hadith. For God's order can only be
abrogated by God Himself, and by no-one else; a Prophet's order by a Prophet or by
God, and not by an inferior authority of a jurist or a parliament).

319. History has shown that the power of "legislation" has been vested in Islam in private
savants, who are outside official interference. Such legislation would neither suffer from the
influence of daily politics, nor serve the interests of particular persons, even if they were heads

of State. Each of the jurists, being all equal, them can freely criticise the opinion of the other,
thus providing the possibility of bringing into relief all the aspects of a problem, either

immediately or in the course of future generations, and so arrive at the best solution.

320. Thus one sees that the Divine origin of legislation in Islam does not render it rigid out of all

proportion. What is more important still is that this quality of the Divine origin of law inspires in
the believers an awe for the law, in order that it may be observed conscientiously and

scrupulously. It may be added that the jurists of classical times have unanimously declared that,

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"All that the Muslims consider good, is good in the eyes of God" - even if it does not concern a
saying of the Prophet himself. (To Sarakhsi it is a Hadith of the Prophet; Ibn Hanbal has known

it as a saying of lbn Mas'ud, the Companion of the-Prophet). The consensus, in the light of this
interpretation, implies that even the deduction of lay savants, entails Divine approval, a fact

which adds to the respect of law in the eyes of men.

Administration of Injustice

321. A characteristic feature of the Quranic legislation in this respect is the judicial autonomy
accorded to different communities comprised of subjects. Far from imposing the Quranic law on

everyone, Islam welcomes and even encourages every group, Christian, Jewish, Magian or

other to have its own tribunals presided over by its own judges, in order to have its own laws
applied in all branches of human affairs, civil as well as criminal. If the parties to a dispute
belong to different communities, a kind of private international law decides the conflict of laws.

Instead of seeking the absorption and assimilation of everybody in the "ruling" community, Islam

protects the interests of all its subjects, (see paragraph 293).

322. As for the administration of justice among Muslims, apart from its simplicity and
expediency, the institution of the "purification of witnesses" is worth mentioning. In fact, in every

locality, tribunals organize archives regarding the conduct and habits of its inhabitants, in order
to know, when necessary, whether a witness is trustworthy. It is not left only to the opposite
party to weaken the value of an evidence. The Qur'an (24:4) has said that, if someone accuses
the chastity of a woman and does not prove it according to the judicial exigencies, not only is he

punished, but is also rendered, forever after to be unworthy of testimony before tribunals.

Origin and Development of Law

323. Prophet Muhammad taught theological and eschatological dogmas to his adherents. He
also gave them laws concerning all activities of life, individual as well as collective, temporal as

well as spiritual. In addition, he created a State out of nothing, which he administered, built up
armies which he commanded, set up a system of diplomacy and foreign relations which he

controlled; and if there were litigations, it was he who decided them among his "subjects." So, it

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is to him rather than anyone else that one should turn in order to study the origin of the Islamic
law. He was born into a family of merchants and caravan-leaders, who inhabited Mecca. In his

youth he had visited the fairs and markets of Yemen and of Eastern Arabia, (i.e., 'Uman, cf. Ibn
Hanbal IV, 206) as well as of Palestine. His fellow-citizens used to go also to Iraq, Egypt and

Abyssinia with the object of trade. When he began his missionary life, the violent reaction of his
compatriots obliged him to go into exile and settle down in another town, Madinah, where

agriculture was the principal means of livelihood of its inhabitants. There he organised a type of

state, the first a city-state was established, which was gradually transformed into a State which

extended, at the time of his death, over the entire Arabian Peninsula together with some parts of
Southern-Iraq and Palestine. International caravans traversed Arabia. It is well known that the

Sassanians and the Byzantines had occupied certain regions of Arabia, and established

colonies or protectorates. In some fairs, particularly of Eastern Arabia, merchants were attracted
every year as far away as India, China, and "from the East and from the West" as Ibn al-Kalbi

and al-Mas'udi have described. There were not only nomads in Arabia, but also settled people,

of whom the Yemenites and Lihyanites had developed a civilization dating from before the
foundation of the cities of Athens and Rome.

324. The customary laws of the country were transformed, when Islam came, into statal acts of

legislation. And the Prophet had, for his adherents and subjects, the prerogative not only of
modifying the old customs, but of also promulgating entirely new laws. His status as the
messenger of God was responsible for the exceptional prestige he held. So much so that not
only his words, but even his acts also constituted law for the Muslims in all walks of life. Even

his very silence implied that he did not oppose a custom which was practised around him by his

adherents. This triple source of legislation, viz., his words, which are all based on Divine
revelation, his deeds, and his tacit approval of the practices and customs of his adherents, has

been preserved for us in the Qur'an and the Hadith. While he was still alive, another source
began to germinate, viz., the deduction and elaboration of rules, in cases where legislation was
silent, and this was done by jurists other than the head of the State. In fact there were judges

and jurisconsults, in the time of the Prophet, even in the metropolis, not to speak of provincial

administrative centres. We have already mentioned the instructions given to Mu'adh when he

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was sent to Yemen as Judge. There were cases when the provincial functionaries demanded
instructions from the central government, which also took the initiative and intervened in cases

of incorrect decisions of the subordinates, if and when they came to the notice of the higher
authority. The order to change or modify the ancient customs and practices, or the Islamisation

of the law of the whole country, could only take place gradually, because the judges did not
intervene except in cases brought to their attention. Cases not brought to their attention, in

which the parties acted in ignorance of the law, according to their convenience, must have been

numerous. For instance, a Muslim had been married to his own German sister; when the case

was brought to the caliph 'Umar and he asked the explanation from the person concerned, this
latter replied that he did not know that it was prohibited. The caliph separated them and

demanded the man to pay damages to his sister, yet he did not inflict punishment on account of

fornication or incest.

325. The death of the Prophet marks the cessation of the Divine revelations which had the force
of ordering every law, abrogating or modifying every old custom or practice. Thereafter the

Muslim community was obligated to be content with the legislation already accomplished by the
Prophet, and with the means of the development of law authorized by this same legislation.
"Development" does not mean abrogation of what the Prophet had legislated, but to know the

law in case of the law being silent.

326. Of these, the most important were perhaps the following: on several occasions, the Qur'an
(4:24, 5:1) has, after instituting certain prohibitions, expressly added that all the rest was lawful

(in the domain concerned). So, all that does not go against the legislation emanating from the

Prophet is permissible, and constitutes good law. The laws and even customs of foreign
countries have always served as raw material for the Muslim jurists, in order to detach from
them those that were incompatible with Islam, the rest being lawful. This source is continuous.

327. Another source, surprising perhaps, is the direction given by the Qur'an (6:90) that the

Divine revelations received by the former prophets (and it has named almost a score of them,

such as Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, Jesus, John the Baptist) are equally
valid for Muslims. But its range and scope was limited only to revelations, the authenticity of

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which was proved beyond doubt, that is, those recognized expressly by the Qur'an or the Hadith
to be so. The law of retaliation of Pentateuch is an instance mentioned in the Qur'an (5:45),

when it is precisely said: "God has prescribed that on Jews", without adding "and on you".

328. Only fifteen years after the death of the Prophet, we see the Muslims ruling over three
continents, over vast territories in Asia and Africa and in Andalusia in Europe. Caliph 'Umar had
judged the Sassanian fiscal measures to be good enough to be continued in the provinces of

Iraq and Iran; the Byzantine fiscal measures he found oppressive, and changed it in Syria and
Egypt; and so on and so forth. The whole of the first century of the Hijrah was a period of
adaptation, consolidation and transformation. The documents on papyrus, discovered in Egypt,

inform us of many aspects of Egyptian administration. From the beginning of the second century

of the Hijrah, we possess codes of law, compiled by private jurists, one of the earliest of them
being Zaid ibn 'Ali, who died in 120 A.H.

329. The ancients called Yemen "Arabia Felix," (as distinct from Arabia Petra and Arabia

Deserta) and not without reason. The physical and other conditions had given it in pre-Christian
antiquity an incomparable superiority over other regions of Arabia, as regards culture and
civilization. Its wealth, as attested by the Bible, was legendary, and its kingdoms were mighty. At
the beginning of the Christian era, a wave of emigration had led certain Yemenite tribes to Iraq,
where they founded the Kingdom of Hirah, which was celebrated for its patronage of letters, and
which continued to exist until the dawn of Islam. In the meanwhile, Yemen knew Jewish rule
(under Dhu-Nuwas); Christian domination (under the Abyssinians) followed by the Magian or

Parsi occupation of the Iranians, who in their turn yielded place to Islam. The Yemenites

influenced by all these successive interactions and strains, were persuaded once again under
Caliph 'Umar to emigrate to Iraq and populate it, particularly Kufah, which was a new town
raised beside the old city of Hirah. 'Umar sent Ibn Mus'ud, one of the most eminent jurists from

among the companions of the Prophet, to conduct a school there. His successors at the school,
'Alqamah an-Nakha'i, Ibrahim an-Nakha'i. Hammad, and Abu Hanifah were all, by providential

chance, specialists in law. In the meantime, 'Ali, another great jurist among the companions of

the Prophet, transferred the seat of the caliphate from Madinah to Kufah. Therefore it is not

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surprising that this town became the seat of uninterrupted traditions, and gained an ever-
increasing reputation in matters of law.

330. The absence of all interference from the governmental authority in the liberty of the

opinions of the judges and jurists proved greatly favourable for the rapid progress of this
science; but it suffered from certain inconveniences too. In fact an experienced and high ranking
administrator as Ibn-al-Muqaffa' complained in his Kitab as-Sahabah in the course of the

second century of the Hijrah, of the enormous quantity of divergences in the Muslim case law,
be that penal law, the law of personal status or any other branches of law, particularly in Basrah
and Kufah: and he suggested to the caliph the creation of a supreme institution for the revision

of the decisions of the judiciary and the imposition of a single, uniform law in all parts of the

realm. The suggestion proved abortive. His contemporary, Abu-Hanifah, was jealous of the
liberty of science, and solicitous of keeping it aloof from the turmoil of ever-changing politics. He

created, instead, an academy of law. With its forty members, of whom each one was a specialist
in a science auxiliary to law - such as the exegesis of the Qur'an, Hadith, logic, lexicology, etc. -

this academy undertook the task of evaluating the case law of the time, and of codifying the
laws: it tried also to fill up the gaps in Muslim law on points on which neither the text nor the
precedents of the case law had pronounced any opinion. One of his biographers states that

Abu- Hanifah (d. 150 H.) "had promulgated half a million rules" (cf al-Muwaffaq, 2/137) Malik at
Madinah, and al-Auza'i in Syria, undertook at the same time a similar task, but they depended
on their own solitary knowledge and personal resources. If Abu Hanifah laid an emphasis on
reasoning (notwithstanding the recourse to the Qur'an and the Hadith as the basis of all law)

Malik preferred the usage of the population of Madinah (a town impregnated with the traditions

of the Prophet) to deduction or logical interpretation.

331. The Qur'an was "published" only a few months after the death of the Prophet. The task of

collecting the data on the sayings and doings of the Prophet, as well as his tacit approval of the
conduct of his companions (a material which is called Hadith) was undertaken by some persons

in the life-time of the Prophet, and later by many others after the Prophet's death. More than a

hundred thousand of the companions of the Prophet have left to posterity valuable traditions,

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based on whatever they remembered on the subject. Some put them down in writing (over fifty,
according to the latest research) and others conveyed them orally. These materials of very high

legal value were naturally dispersed in the three continents where the companions of the
Prophet had gone and settled in the time of the caliphs 'Umar and 'Uthman. In the following

generations, the researchers compiled treatises, even more comprehensive based on and
amalgamating the collections of individual memoirs of the companions of the Prophet.

332. The evaluation of the case law and the codification of the Hadith were completed as
parallel works at the same time, yet each ignored and was suspicious of the other. Ash-Shafi'i
was born in the year in which Abu-Hanifah died. Mutual differences or disputes led the jurists to

take greater cognizance of the Hadith; and the specialists of Hadith to put in order the data on

the sayings and doings of the Prophet, to evaluate the individual merits of the sources of
transmission, and determine the context and time of the different sayings of the Prophet, for

purposes of deducing the law therefrom. Ash-Shafi'i specialised simultaneously in law and in
Hadith and thanks to his high intellectual qualities and his efforts, a synthesis was discovered

between the two disciplines. Ash-Shafi'i is the first in world history to create an abstract science
of law distinct from laws in the sense of rules applied in a country.

333. Another big school (or tradition) of law was founded by Ja'far as-Sadiq, a descendant of 'Ali
and a contemporary of Abu Hanifah. Reasons of a political kind were responsible for the
development of the law of inheritance in this school in a special manner. Abu Hanifah, Malik,
ash-Shafi'i, Ja'far as-Sadiq and several other jurists each has left his school of law. The

adherents of these schools form sub-communities of Islam in our age, yet the differences

among them have an influence even less than that of the philosophic schools. With the passage
of centuries, it has become a common experience to find that some Shafi'ites differ from ash-
Shafi'i on certain points and hold the same opinion as Malik or Abu-Hanifah, and vice versa.

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334. As we have just seen, the Muslim "empire" extended very early over immense territories,
which were formerly governed by different legal systems, like the Iranian, Chinese, Indian,

Byzantine, Gothic, and others, and to these were added the local contributions of the very first
Muslims of Arabia. The possibility of any single foreign legal system having the monopoly of

influencing Muslim law is therefore excluded. Among the founders of schools also we find that
Abu-Hanifah was of Persian origin and Malik, ash-Shafi'i and Ja'far as-Sadiq were Arabs. The

biographer adh-Dhababi reports that al-Auza'i was originally of Sindh. And in the subsequent

generations there emerged Muslim jurists from all races. The development of Muslim law was

therefore an "international" enterprise, in which Muslim jurists of very diverse ethnic origins,
speaking different languages, and following different customs, have taken part. There were

European Muslims from Spain, Portugal and Sicily, there were Chinese, Abyssinians, Indians,

Persians, Turks and many others besides Arabs.

335. It is a phenomenon observed in all countries that certain extremists and those lacking in
independent thought wish to sacrifice the spirit to the letter of the teaching of an old master,

while others adventure into non-conformism. But it is the golden means that should always
prevail! A spirit without an inferiority complex, but equipped with the necessary preparation in
data, and endowed at the same time with the piety of a practising believer, will never encounter

difficulty in finding interpretation practical, as well as reasonable, such as would even modify the
opinion held by the ancients. With what confidence and assurance does the great jurist Pazdawi
tell us that not only individual opinions, but even the consensus of former times can be replaced
by a later consensus!

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Conclusion:

336. Muslim law began as the law of a State and of a ruling community and served the

purposes of the community when the Muslim rule grew in dimension and extended from the

Atlantic to the Pacific. It had an inherent capacity to develop and to adapt itself to the exigencies
of time and clime. It has not lost its dynamism even today, in fact it is obtaining more and more
recognition as an agency for good, by Muslim countries which were formerly under foreign

political - and therefore juridical - domination, and are trying to reintroduce the Shar'iah in all
walks of life.

Procedure of Ijmah and Ijtehad

Ijmaa:

Ijmaa is the term used for a opinion or command of Islam where all the good and respected

scholars of Islam are unanimous in their ruling.

For example, there is Ijmaa amongst the scholars that there are five obligatory prayers, or that
adhaan must be given before the prayers, or that a funeral prayer must be read over a

deceased believer, or that swine is prohibited in Islam, etc.

Ijtehaad:

The literal meaning of Ijtehaad is derived from the root word jehad or striving, to find a solution
in light of the guidance of the Quran and Sunnah.

Ijtehaad is the process where the scholars of Islam strive to find a solution to an issue on which
the Quran and Sunnah are silent. For example an issue of the modern times is : is it legal to pull

off the life-support system of a brain-dead declared person?.

Because it is a new development of modern technology, the Quran and Sunnah are obviously
silent on the issue. Thus the respected scholars of Islam must do ijtehaad and derive a ruling

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whether such a thing is permissible or impermissible in Islam, in light of the guidance of the
Quran and Sunnah.

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