Alan G Young PE, M ASCE

Started Pioneering Journey in 1946

Helped develop
technical practices in:
• Offshore engineering
geology
• Site investigation methods
• Laboratory testing
methods
• Analytical foundation
design methods
 McClelland’s First Offshore Paper
Foundation Investigations for Offshore Structures in the Gulf
of Mexico (McClelland, 1952)

Paper described Quaternary Geology of the

Continental Shelf in the Gulf of Mexico and the
physical properties of the Recent and Pleistocene
soil.

Building Blocks of an Integrated Geoscience Study still

Applicable Today
Lessons Learned from Bram McClelland
1. Employ an interdisciplinary team of experts to understand the
regional processes and geology structure.

2. Use high-resolution geophysical equipment to thoroughly

investigate seafloor and stratigraphic features over an
extensive seafloor region.

3. Conduct the geotechnical investigation with equipment

capable of performing in situ testing accompanied with high
quality undisturbed samples.
 Lessons Learned (cont.)
4. Rely heavily on the in situ testing data to interpret the
undrained strength profile and, in particular, to identify the
disturbance effects of sampling on laboratory test data.

5. Rely on experimental testing and case studies to calibrate the

empirical foundation design methods.

6. Develop an integrated geologic geotechnical model to assess

risks and define constraints to site development.
Phases of an Integrated Study
 Objectives of an Integrated
Geoscience Study
Provide a clear picture and understanding of:
1. Seafloor conditions
2. Shallow subsurface stratigraphy
3. Variability of soil conditions
4. Potential geo-constraints (geohazards), and
5. Impact of all these factors upon selection and
placement of seafloor supported infrastructure.
Defining the 4D Geo-Site Model
(aka Ground Model)
 4D Geo-Site Model
Ordinate for x, y, and z Coordinates
Sea-Level

Seafloor
Youngest Sediments
t (time and z Marker
age) increases increasing Horizon
with depth depth
Oldest Sediments
Fault

Note: GIS database

stores all geophysical,
geotechnical, and Note: Model allows construction of seismic section, fence
geologic data. diagrams, bathymetric maps, and isopach/soil province maps.
Components of 4D Geo-Site Model

• Physiographic and Geomorphic Conditions

• Structural Framework
• Stratigraphic Framework and Definition
• Geotechnical Stratigraphy and
• Geochronologic Sequence.
 Regional Desktop Study
• Conducted first to understand regional geologic
conditions and plan the scope of the geophysical
program.

• Provides a framework for collecting other forms of

in situ data and sediment samples, understanding
environmental processes, and for achieving an
optimal engineering design.
3D Enhanced Seafloor Rendering
Shell Auger Development

(Doyle et al., 1996)

 Large Fault Possible
at Seabed Small Pressure Ridges Fan-shaped Mud
Ring Faults Flow Deposits
Large Scale Slope Failure Mud diapir
and Slumping Mud diapir around Caldera
Shelf Edge Slumps
and Faults at Seabed
Possible Recent
Debris Flows at
Seabed Recent
Debris
Flow at
Seabed

Multi-phase Complex Very soft to

Channeling Unconformity
Buried Debris firm CLAY
Predominantly CLAYS
Flows Predominantly CLAYSTONES Unconformity
Predominantly CLAYS with occasional Sand
with occasional SANDSTONES, stringers and Debris Flows
with occasional SANDS
DOLOMITES and LIMESTONES
(Horsnell et al., 2009)
Seismic Profile-Salt/Fault Interaction
Sigsbee Escarpment 1,000

SEAFLOOR
SEAFLOOR
ROLLOVER
FAULTS SIGSBEE
KEYSTONE
DEPTH BELOW SEALEVEL (METERS)

1,500 ESCARPMENT
FAULT FAMILY
PLANAR
NORMAL FAULT

ABYSSAL
2,000 PLAIN

DOMINO
FAULT FAMILY
SALT
TRUST FAULT
FAMILY
RAMPS AND FLATS
V.E. = 2.5x IN SALT BASE REFLECT
2,500 TRUST GEOMETRY
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (METERS)
(Young and Kasch, 2011)
Site Favorability Assessment Criteria
Seafloor Shallow
Geologic Process or Lineaments Foundation Deep Foundation
Condition (Pipelines, mooring (Mudmats, suction (Driven piles, Geophysical Data
(Geo-Constraint) lines, etc.) piles, etc) conductors, etc.) Required
Multi-Beam
Steep Slope Gradients Medium High Low
Bathymetry

Slope Reversal
Multi-Beam
(Irregular Seafloor High High none
Bathymetry
Topography

Fault Displacement/ Side Scan Sonar &

Low Medium High
Offsets Sub-bottom Profiler

Shallow/Deep-Seated Side Scan Sonar &

High High Medium
Slope Instability Sub-bottom Profiler

Debris/ Turbidity Side Scan Sonar &

High Medium Low
Flows Sub-bottom Profiler

Side Scan Sonar &

Spatial Soil Variability High High Low
Sub-bottom Profiler
Multi-Beam
Bathymetry, Side
Currents and Erosion High Medium Low
Scan Sonar &
Sub-bottom Profiler
Gas/Fluid Expulsion 3D Seismic & 2D
Low Medium High
Shallow Water Flow High Resolution

(Young and Kasch, 2011)

Integrated Geoscience Study Characterizes the
Range of Geologic/Geotechnical Site Conditions
Study provides a reliable understanding of
subsurface conditions important to achieve:

1. Realistic geohazard risk assessment

2. Reliable site selection of all facilities
3. Successful foundation design and installation
 Critical Interactions of the Integrated
Geoscience Team
• Integration is not a stand-alone task; rather, integration is a way
of thinking and questioning adopted by all team members.

• Iterative process of analyzing the data sets to define the state of

knowledge, uncertainty, consequences, and risks associated with
the development of offshore facilities.

• Communication is especially important when more information

is needed or when unfavorable conditions present obstacles.
 Key Considerations of an Integrated
Geoscience Study
• We must understand the natural processes that formed
the soil deposits if we want to understand their
inherent variability.

• Geology plays an essential and significant role and

should guide all data acquisition activities.

• The credibility of the integrated assessment depends

upon the resolution and quality of the geophysical and
geotechnical data.
Importance of Stratigraphic
Interpretation
 Dr. Ralph Peck (1962)
Subsurface engineering is an art; soil mechanics is an
engineering science. This distinction, often expressed but
seldom fully appreciated, must be understood if we are to
achieve progress and proficiency in both fields of endeavor.

Whether we realise it or not, every interpretation of the

results of a test boring and every interpolation between two
borings is an exercise in geology.
 Role of Stratigraphy
• Stratigraphy defines the lateral and vertical
relationship of various sediment units.
• Defines the temporal framework of the continuum of
processes and features defined in space over time.

“Stratigraphy is the great unifying agency of geology

that makes possible the synthesis of a unified geological
science from its component parts.” – Weller 1947
Geophysical High-Resolution Data
a) High-Resolution 3D Data

b) Exploration 3D Data
Methods Used to Ground-Truth
Stratigraphic Interpretation
Jumbo Piston Coring Operation

Courtesy of TDI-Brooks International

Photo of Split Jumbo Piston Core
 PROD System
Seafloor Sampling and In Situ Testing

Courtesy of Mr. Alan Foley with the Benthic Group

 Critical Sample Quality Factors
— Weather conditions that induce motion of the drill-string during
drilling and sampling;
— Sampling procedure and size of sampling tube;
— Stress relief during sampling recovery;
— Sample extrusion procedure;
— Sample handling, packaging, transportation processes;
— Sample storage methods;
— Adherence to laboratory testing standards;
— Unusual geologic and physio-chemical properties of sediment; and
— Gas expansion.
 Reliable
versus
Disturbed
Data

Note: Red strength

data are 10 percent
less than Su line
based on CPT.
Lunne (2012) – 4th James K Mitchell Lecture

“It is of vital importance that the quality of the

samples is good from a geotechnical viewpoint,
otherwise the results of laboratory tests on the
samples will not be representative for the in situ
conditions”.
Overview of TDI-Brooks CPT Stinger System
Overlapping Data
JPC Short CPT Long CPT
Dynamic (free fall)

Seafloor
JPC 20m

CPT Data

CPT-cone (housing
removed) at end
of JPC barrel

Data
Overlap 18 m BML
Area
Static (2 cm/s)
CPT Data

Courtesy of TDI-Brooks International

Lunne (2012) – 4th James K Mitchell Lecture

“…in most parts of the world it is hardly possible

to consider an offshore soil investigation without
the use of the CPT, and the results are essential
input in establishing the soil profile and soil
parameters for foundation design.”
 Advantages of Continuous Core and CPT
Data Compared to Discontinuous Sampling
— Continuous core can be logged and compared to sub-bottom
profiler data,
— Continuous CPT can be correlated with sub-bottom profiler
data,
— Continuous core can be split and photographed to identify
depositional changes,
— Effort and time for site investigations may be reduced, and
— Entire foundation design process is conducted with less
uncertainty and fewer risks.
Extrapolation of Spatial
Strength Properties
McClelland Paper - Types of Strength Profiles
Seafloor su, kPa su, kPa Seafloor su, kPa
50 100 50 100 50 100
-0

Preconsolidation
Seafloor Datum
10
200 kPa
psf 19
400 kPa
psf 19
400 kPa
psf

- 25

Depth, m
m
Depth, ft

Depth,
0.63 kPa/m 1.25 kPa/m
Strength Strength
Profile Profile - 50

1.25 kPa/m
Strength
Profile
- 75

UNDER-CONSOLIDATED OVER-CONSOLIDATED NORMALLY

RAPID DEPOSITION CONSOLIDATED
SLOW DEPOSITION
Gulf of Mexico Continental Shelf Atlas

(Parker et al., 1979)

Wroth (1984) - 24th Rankine Lecture

The effect of different loading mechanisms means…

“Consequently, there cannot be a unique undrained

shear strength of a soil, and different values will be
observed in different tests.”
 Geology Defines Spatial Variability
Baecher and Christian (2003) indicate that measured
soil properties are often treated as if they are
independent samplings of a random variable.
Offshore soils are frequently deposited in a uniform
physical process over time, so their spatial variability is
often not random. The uncertainty is frequently in the
model or error in soil measurements and not in the soil
deposit.
Interpretation of Undrained Shear Strength
— Traditional practice relies upon laboratory strength
data instead of CPT data,
— Large scatter in laboratory data due to soil
anisotropy, strain rate, stress history, and different
loading mechanisms,
— CPT data is more consistent and representative
measure of depositional nature of marine
sediments and avoids other effects, and
— CPT is a great tool for obtaining continuous rapid
and reliable soil profile.
qnet = Nkt su

(Aas et al., 1986)

 SHANSEP Method
Stress History and Normalized Soil Engineering Parameters
 SPW Method
s'vc, kPa
10 100 1000
0.5
cu/s’vc=0.294(s’vc)-0.113
0.4 R2=0.65

0.3
cu/s'vc

0.2 Ip=14
Ip=20 to 39
Ip=30 to 39
Ip=40 to 49
0.1 Ip=50 to 59
Ip=60 to 69
Ip=70 to 101
0.0
0.1 1 s'vc, ksf 10 100

(Quiros et al., 2000)

 Site Location Map
2011 Site Investigation
2012 Site Investigation
2011 PCPT
2011 Soil Boring
2012 PCPT
2012 Soil Boring
Subbottom Profile Line

MC723 MC724

MC767 MC768

Miles

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5

Comparison of CPT Data from Different
PCPT Systems 0

2012 PCPT - Seafloor

5- 2012 PCPT - Short
2012 PCPT - Long
2011 PCPT - Seafloor
2011 PCPT - Downhole
10 -

15 -

Penetration below Mudline m

20 -

25 -

30 -

35 -

40 -

45 - (Caruthers et al., 2014)

Laboratory and In Situ Strength Data
for Two Investigations
0

5-

10 -
Penetration below Mudline m

15 -

20 -

25 -

30 -

35 -

40 -

45 -
Data Comparison–Undrained Shear Strength
Mad Dog SPAR Mooring Spread
with 11 Suction Piles
4.8 km

Clus te r 1

GC782

Clus te r 3

Clus te r 2
CPT
Bo rings
Mad Dog Slump 8 – Cluster 2
Geotechnical Work Scope
All the anchors were successfully
installed to their target depths with
appropriate sampling or
extrapolation of data.

1 boring and CPT

at each anchor
location

Anchor 6 Anchor locations projected

Anchor 7 onto AUV SBP

Anchor 5 Anchor 4
Uniform Soil Stratigraphy between
Pile Clusters 1 and 3
Arbitrary Qnet Cluster 1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
0
10 1
20 2
30 3
40
50 4
60
70
80
90
Cluster 3 5
100
Arbitrary Depth

110 6
120 CPT-3B
130 1
140
150
2 7
160 3
170 4
180
4.8 km
190
Prognosis
200 Cluster 1 CPT1-A
210 CPT-3B
220
6 CPT-3A
GC782
230
240 7
250 Cluster 3

260
270 Cluster 2
CPT
280 Borings

290
300
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Comparison of 7 Mad Dog Soundings
Qnet (ksf, kPa)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
00 20
20 40
40 60
60 8080
0 0

10
5
20

30 10
40

50 15

60

Depth (m)
Depth (ft)
(ft)

20
Depth

70
c
80
25
90

100 CPT3-A 30
CPT1-A
110
CPT3-B 35
120 CPT-2D
CPT-2C
130 40
CPT-2B
140 CPT-2A
Radiocarbon Analysis for Atlantis
Reference Core CSS-1
 Objectives of Age Dating
— Provides understanding of spatial and temporal
distribution of sediment stratigraphic units,

— Correlates sediment properties and lithologies to

regionally persistent seismic reflectors, and

— Constrains past geological events (timing and

frequency).
Ambiguous Regulatory Requirements
Minerals Management Service (MMS) Section
250.915b (2005) states…..

A boring must be taken at the most heavily loaded

anchor location and at anchor points approximately
120° and 240° around the anchor pattern from the
boring, and as necessary to establish a suitable soil
profile.
Panel of Geotechnical Engineer Experts
— Regulations are prescriptive in nature and do not
take into consideration the site geology and the
influence of site variability upon the required scope
of the geotechnical investigation.

— Regulations should allow experienced engineers

and geologists to serve their critical role in
planning the scope of the site investigation.
Proper Reference Datum
 Erosion

Current Su, kPa

Seafloor 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 0

5 5

Depth Referenced to Seafloor at CPT-6, m

10 Su = Su = 16.0 to 21.0 kPa 10
13.1 kPa (22 to 60% greater)
Depth Below Seafloor, m

15 15

20 Su = 27.5 kPa Su = 30.2 to 35.1 kPa 20

(10 to 28% greater)

25 CPT-6 and -9 CPT-1 25

CPT-6
will be same for all CPT’s
CPT-2
adjusted to marker horizon CPT-3 & 8

30 30

CPT-7
CPT-5
35 CPT-4 35

40 40
Benefits of Integrated Geoscience Approach
— Existing data is used to maximum extent possible

— Provides information for design at an early stage

— Limits amounts of additional geophysical/

geotechnical data

— Decreases field acquisition time, thereby reducing

field costs
 Change Our Way of Thinking
— Geotechnical engineers often concentrate on
defining engineering properties for a single site
using widely scattered laboratory test data.

— Marine geologists focus on mapping “geohazards”

and identifying seafloor constraints.

— When we change our way of collectively studying

the seafloor; then an integrated study will reduce
uncertainty in the overall design process.
“If you change the way you look at things, the
things you look at change.”
Anonymous

“We must integrate the science of geology and

geotechnics to master the art of seafloor
engineering.
Young
 Conclusions:
— Employ an interdisciplinary team of experts who
understand the regional processes and geology structure.
— Use high-resolution geophysical data to develop 4D Geo-
Site Model and reduce the scope of the geotechnical
investigation.
— Perform age dating to constrain the timing of different
depositional systems, establish sedimentation rates, and
determine the timing and frequency of past geologic
events.
— Conduct more CPT testing and less sampling and testing on
samples in a soil boring.
 Conclusions (cont.)
— Consider using Nkt of 17.5 to correlate with
Quiros/SHANSEP DSS data to interpret Su in normally
consolidated clays.
— The CPT, SHANSEP, and Quiros data should be used to
select the design strength profile instead of relying upon
widely scattered laboratory test data.
— Confirm regulations are not too prescriptive and allow
experienced engineers and geologists to plan the scope of
the site investigations.
The paper is dedicated to Bram McClelland and Melinda Young – two
special people that strongly influenced my life since 1971.

Ms. Jill Rivette motivated me and assisted with the text, figures,
references, and other details of the paper.

My special thanks to some special mentors for helping to review and

edit the text that included Dr. Don Murff, Dr. Philippe Jeanjean, Dr. Niall
Slowey, Dr. Bernie Bernard, and Mr. Earl Doyle.