TOPIC

Prepared by Tendai Mathews Zimba

(BSc. University of Zambia.), Dip.Sci. (Kwame Nkrumah University)

WILLOWS SECONDARY SCHOOL

@ Eden University-Lusaka

CHEMISTRY Grade 11

(5124/5070)

THE PERIODIC TABLE

CONTENTS

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Groups and Periods

6.3. Sections of the Periodic Table

6.4. General Trends in the Periodic Table

6.5. Group I elements

6.6. Group II elements

6.7. Transition Metals

6.8. Group VII

6.9. Group VIII

6.10. The position of hydrogen in the periodic table

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6.1. INTRODUCTION

➢ The Periodic Table is a well tabulated chart showing the classification and arrangement
of elements according to:
1. increasing atomic numbers
2. chemical properties
➢ The main features in the periodic table are the Groups and the Periods.

6.2. GROUPS AND PERIODS

Groups

➢ Groups also known as families are vertical rows.

➢ The number of electrons in the last shell (valence shell) indicates the Group number
of an element. For example Calcium 40
20 Ca has the electronic configuration of 2, 8, 8, 2. It

has 2 electrons in the last shell hence calcium is in group II. If an element has 7 electrons
in its last shell then it belongs to Group VII. Therefore, it follows that group I elements
have 1 electron in the outer shell. The elements in group II have 2 electrons in the outer
shell.
➢ Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties due to the same number of
electrons in the outermost shell.
➢ The electrons in the outer most shell are called valence electrons.
➢ There are 8 groups in the periodic table since the outer most shell can only have a
maximum of 8 electrons.

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Period

➢ These are horizontal rows.

➢ The number of shells an atom has shows the period it belongs to. If an atom has 2 shells,
it is in period 2. For example Nitrogen 147 N, has an electronic configuration of 2, 5; it has
39
2 shells hence it is in period 2. Potassium 19 K is in period 4 because it has 4 shells (2, 8,
8, 1). But the shell structure gets more complex from period 4 onwards.
➢ There are 7 periods in the periodic table.

Valence

➢ As stated before, a valence is the combining power of an element. There is a relationship

between group number and valence.
➢ For elements in group I to group IV, the valence is indicated by the group number (or
number of electrons in the last shell). For example, calcium has a valence 2 because it is
in group II. Elements in group I have a valence of 1. The elements in group III have a
valence of 3 while those in group IV, have a valence of 4.
➢ For elements in group V up to group VIII, the valence is found by subtracting the group
number from 8. For example oxygen is in group VI. So the valence of oxygen is found by
subtracting 6 from 8 (8-6=2). Therefore oxygen has a valence of 2. Elements in group VIII
have a valence of 0 (8-8=0). Elements in group VII have a valence of 1 (8-7=1).
Elements in group V have a valence of 3 (8-5=3).
➢ Elements in the transitional section of the periodic table have variable valences. For
example copper (I) has a valence of 1 while copper (II) has a valence of 2.

6.3. SECTIONS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Some groups and sections of the periodic table have got names.

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Metalloids

➢ The elements near the diagonal zig-zag line which consist of Boron, Silicon, Arsenic,
Tellurium and other elements along the same diagonal zig-zag line are called metalloids.
➢ These metalloids separate the metals from non - metals. The metals are found on the left
side of the zig-zag diagonal line while the non metals are found on the right.
➢ Metalloids are semi metals. They have characteristics of both metals and non - metals.

6.4. GENERAL TRENDS AND PATTERNS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

➢ Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outermost shells.
Hence they have similar chemical and physical properties.
➢ Elements in the same group form ions with same charge.
➢ The number of outermost electrons increases across a period from left to right.
➢ Elements in the same period have the same number of shells.
➢ Going down a group from top to bottom, the number of shells increases by one. Metallic
elements become more metallic in character, i.e they lose valence electrons more easily.
➢ From left to right, metallic behaviour reduces while non - metallic behaviour increases.
➢ As you go down the group electronegativity decreases. Electronegativity is the ability
of atoms to gain electrons.

QUICK CHECK

1. Define the following terms

(a) Group
(b) Period
(c) Metalloids
2. List four general trends of the periodic table.
3. Below is the list of atoms with their electronic configuration;

Atom Electronic configuration

A: 2, 8, 7
B: 2, 8, 8, 2
C: 2, 8, 1
D: 2, 8

Using the letters A, B, C and D answer the following question;

(a) Which of these elements is found in period 3?
(b) Which of these elements is found in group II
(c) Write down the valence of element A and B. Hence work out the formula of a
compound formed between A and B.
(d) What type of a bond is formed when A and C react?
(e) Which of these elements is in group VIII of the periodic table?
4. Name the properties that determine the order of elements in the periodic table?

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6.5. GROUP I – ALKALI METALS

➢ The elements in group I of the periodic table are called alkali metals. Alkali metals include
Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and Francium (radioactive).
➢ They are known as Alkali Metals because they form alkaline solutions when they react
with water.
➢ All the elements in group I have one electron in their outer most shells.

Element Electronic
configuration
7
3 Li
2, 1
23
11 Na 2, 8, 1
39
19 K 2, 8, 8, 1
85
37 Rb 2, 8, 18, 8, 1
133
55 Cs 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1
223
87 Fr 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1

➢ Group I elements are the most reactive elements in the periodic table.
➢ These elements are stored under oil or in a vacuum to prevent them from reacting with
water or oxygen in the air.
➢ Group I elements are not typical metals. They are soft metals with low boiling points and
low densities.

Physical Properties of Group I metals

1. They are soft. They can easily be cut with a knife or razor blade.
2. They are silvery.
3. They are light and have low densities. Lithium, sodium and potassium float on water.
4. They have low melting and boiling points compared with other metals.
5. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

Metal Symbol Description Density Melting Boiling point

g/cm3 Points °C °C
Lithium Li Hardest of group I 0.53 181 1342
metals
Sodium Na Soft 0.97 98 883
Potassium K Softer than sodium 0.86 63 760
Rubidium Rb Softer than sodium 1.53 39 686
and potassium
Caesium Cs Softest of group I 1.88 29 669
metals

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Chemical Properties of Group I Metals

➢ They react violently with water forming an alkaline solution. Group I elements react
with cold water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Group I Metal + water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen gas

For example;

Lithium floats and fizzes when placed in water.

Li(s) + 2H2O(s) 2LiOH (aq) + H2(s)

When placed in water, sodium shoots vigorously across the water

2Na(s) + 2H 2 O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H 2 (g)

Potassium melts with the heat of the reaction, and the hydrogen catches fire.

The heat can ignite with hydrogen gas creating a small explosion.

2K(s) + 2H 2 O (l) 2KOH (aq) + H 2 (g)

➢ Group I elements are strong reducing agents.

➢ All Group I metals form positively charged ions. When they react, they donate one
electron from the last shell forming a positively – charged ion with a charge of +1.
For example
−
Li Li + + e
−
Na Na + + e
−
K K+ + e

➢ All group I metals react with halogens (group VIII elements) forming halides (salts).
Most of the salts formed are white in colour.

For example;

Sodium + Chlorine Sodium Chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

➢ They react with oxygen forming white solids called oxides. The types of oxides
formed are basic oxides.

Lithium + Oxygen Lithium Oxide

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 4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li 2 O (s)

Sodium + Oxygen Sodium Oxide

4Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O(s)

➢ All alkali metals have similar chemical properties because they all have the same number
of electrons in the outer most shell.

General Trends in Group I

➢ The decrease or increase for each property as you go down the group forms a pattern
which is called a trend.
➢ The trend in group I is as follows; as you go down the group:
▪ The elements become increasingly softer.
▪ The densities of the elements increase – the first 3 elements can float on water.
▪ The melting points of the elements decrease (Lithium has the highest boiling and
melting point while francium has the least).
▪ The boiling points of the elements decrease.
▪ The atomic radius increases (atoms become bigger).
➢ Reactivity increases as you go down the group.
▪ Comparing the reaction of alkali metals with water in terms of energy and vigour.

Trend Metal Observations

Least Lithium A lot of fizzing is observed as the metal floats
Reactive on water
Sodium Shouts around on the surface of water
Potassium Melts and hydrogen ignites causing fire
Rubidium Sparks fly everywhere
Most Caesium A violent explosion is observed
Reactive

▪ Francium Fr is the most reactive metal in Group I while Lithium Li is the least reactive
metal.
▪ Reactivity increases as you go down the group because the size of atoms
increases and outer electrons are further away from the nucleus and thus less
attracted – so it’s easier to lose them.
▪ Potassium is more reactive than lithium. Let us compare the shells in lithium and
potassium atom.

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 ▪ Note that what keeps the electrons around the nucleus is the electrostatic force of
attraction between the positive nucleus and the negative electrons. Electrons that
are close to the nucleus receive more attraction and cannot be easily lost compared
to electrons which are farther from the nucleus.

QUICK CHECK

1. Why are group I elements called alkali metals?

2. Explain why group I elements have similar chemical properties.
3. How are group I elements stored? Explain your answer.
4. Explain why caesium is more reactive than sodium.
5. Write the equation for the reaction between rubidium and oxygen.
6. What forms when sodium reacts with chlorine? What is the colour of this compound?
What is observed when this compound is dissolved in water?

6.6. GROUP II ELEMENTS -ALKALI ‘EARTH’ METALS

➢ Group II elements are also known as Alkali ‘Earth’ Metals. They all react with cold water
to form alkalis apart from Beryllium Be and Magnesium Mg.
➢ They are more metallic in nature than group I elements.
➢ Most of them are found in the earth’s crust, hence the term Alkali ‘Earth’ Metals. All Group
II metals have 2 electrons in their last shell. Hence they all have a valance of 2.
➢ They react by donating the 2 electrons from their valence shell forming positive ions with
a charge of 2+.

Element Symbol Electronic

configuration
Beryllium 9
4 Be
2, 2
Magnesium 24
12 Mg
2, 8, 2
Calcium 40
20 Ca 2, 8, 8, 2
Strontium 88
38 Sr 2, 8, 18, 8, 2

➢ Group 2 elements react with water producing hydrogen and an alkaline solution (metal
hydroxide). They react with oxygen to form oxides. They react with halogens to form salts
called halides.
➢ Reactivity increases down the group.

6.7. THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS (METALS)

➢ Transition elements are a group of metals found between group II and group III of the
periodic table. Some of them are very common like copper, zinc and iron.

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➢ These elements have unusual characteristics because when reacting, some elements in
this family lose electrons even from the second last shell. The electronic configuration is
unusual also.

Physical Properties of Transition Metals

➢ Transition metals are hard, tough and strong.

➢ They are in solid state at room temperature and pressure except for mercury which is in
liquid state and is the only liquid metal.
➢ They have high melting points for example iron has the melting point of 1535 °C while
copper has the melting point of 1083 °C.
➢ They have very high boiling points.
➢ Transition metals have high densities. Nickel has the density of 8.9 g/cm3 while iron has
the density of 7.9 g/cm3.
➢ They are ductile (can be drawn into wires) and malleable (can be made into different
shapes).
➢ They are good conductors of heat and electricity. Silver is the best in terms of conduction
of electricity, while copper is the second best.

Chemical Properties of Transition Metals

➢ They are not as reactive as group I or group II elements. For example copper and silver
do not react with water.
➢ Transition elements form coloured compounds in solution.

Compound Colour
Iron (II) Sulphate solution FeSO4(aq) green
Copper (II) Sulphate solution CuSO4 (aq) Blue
Potassium manganate (VII) solution Purple
Potassium dichromate (VI) solution orange
Nickel (III) chloride solution Ni2(SO4)3 (aq) green

➢ They do not show any clear cut trend in terms of reactivity.

➢ They have variable valencies. Copper (I) has a valence of 1 while copper (II) has a
valence of 2.
➢ They form ions with variable charges e.g. Iron: Fe2+, Fe3+.
➢ Transition metals form complex ions. A solution of copper (II) ions forms a complex ion
with a formula [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ when four molecules of ammonia and two water
molecules are added to it.
➢ The oxides and hydroxides of transition metals are basic in nature.
➢ Most transition elements are good catalysts. Iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber
process in the production of ammonia. Nickel is used as a catalyst in the manufacturing
of margarine from vegetable oils. Vanadium (V) oxide is an essential catalyst in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid from sulphur dioxide and oxygen.

Uses of Transition Metals

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➢ Iron is a strong and hard metal which is alloyed to make steel. Steel is used to make
bridges, car bodies, rail tracks, buildings etc.
➢ Tungsten has the highest melting point (3410 °C) among the transition metals. It is
therefore used to make filaments for light bulbs.
➢ Chromium and nickel are used in the manufacture of alloys. Chromium and nickel can be
alloyed with iron to make stainless steel.
➢ Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Steel is used for radiators while copper
is used to make electric cables.
➢ Due to its high resistance to corrosion, strength and lightness, Titanium is use to make
watches, spectacle frames and is used in aircraft, armor plating, spacecraft, missiles and
navy ships.

QUICK CHECK
1. List 5 physical properties of transition metals.
2. In what 3 ways do group I metals differ from transition metals?
3. Why is tungsten used to make the filament for the bulb?
4. Why is copper used to make electric cables?
5. Why are transition elements used as catalysts?

6.8. GROUP VII – THE HALOGENS

➢ Group VII consist of non - metals. It contains the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine and
iodine.
➢ The Group VII elements are also known as the Halogens. Halogen Is a Greek word
meaning ‘salt former’. Group VII elements have a great tendency of forming salts when
they react with metals e.g MgCl2, Kl, FeCl3 etc.
➢ Elements in group VII have similar chemical properties due to the same number of
electrons in the outer most shell.

Physical Properties of Group VII Elements

➢ Halogens have 7 valence electrons. They have a valence of 1.

Element Symbol Electronic configuration

Fluorine 19
9F
2, 7
Chlorine 35.5
17 Cl 2, 8, 7
Bromine 80
35 Br 2, 8, 18, 7
Iodine 127
53 I 2, 8, 18, 18, 7
Astatine 210
85 At 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7

➢ Group VII elements have low melting and boiling points.

➢ They do not conduct electricity.
➢ They are coloured non - metals. For example fluorine is a pale yellow gas while chlorine
is a green gas.
➢ They are poisonous.

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Chemical Properties of Group VII Elements

➢ All Group VII elements form diatomic molecules. Each molecule is made up 2 atoms.
For example, Cl2, F2 and Br2.
➢ When reacting with metals, they form negatively - charged ions by accepting one
electron in their valence shell forming an ion with a charge of -1.

Cl + e- Cl-
F + e- F-

➢ Halogens react with metals to form halides (salts). The salts formed with metals are ionic
in nature.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Ca(s) + F2(g) CaF2(s)

➢ They react with non - metals to form covalent compounds.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

➢ Halogens are strong oxidising agents.

Trends in group VII

➢ The trend in group VII is as follows; as you go down the group:

▪ Atomic radius increases

▪ Density increases
▪ The boiling points and melting points increase due to increasingly strong
intermolecular forces.
▪ Physical state changes from gas to solid. Fluorine, and chlorine are gases, bromine
is a liquid while iodine is a solid.
▪ The intensity of the colour increases, that is, the colour of the elements become
darker.

The table below shows some physical properties of the Halogens

Element Molecular Melting Boiling Point Physical Colour

Formula Point (°C) (°C) state under
Room
Conditions
Fluorine F2 -220 -188 Gas Pale yellow
Chlorine Cl2 -101 -35 Gas Yellowish
green
Bromine Br2 -7 59 Liquid Reddish
brown
Iodine I2 144 184 solid Black solid

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 ▪ Group VII elements become less reactive as you go down the group. Fluorine is
the most reactive while Astatine is the least reactive.

Most reactive Fluorine

Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine

Least reactive Astatine

Reactivity decreases down the group, that is, Fluorine is the most reactive because it has a
shorter atomic radius hence can attract an electron into the last shell easily. Astatine At, is
the least reactive because the atomic radius is bigger making it difficult to attract electrons
into the last shell. Group VII elements react with metals by gaining one electron. The smaller
the atom, the easier it is to attract this electron.

Displacement reactions of Group VII elements

➢ In a displacement reaction, a more reactive halogen displaces the less reactive halogen
from its aqueous salt solution.
➢ For instance, if fluorine is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide, the less reactive
halogen, bromine, is displaced by the more reactive halogen, fluorine. The reddish brown
solution of bromine water is formed.

Potassium bromide + Fluorine Potassium fluoride + bromine gas (reddish

brown)

2KBr(aq) + F2(g) 2KF(aq) + Br 2 (aq)

Fluorine is more reactive than bromine.

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Uses of Halogens

➢ Fluorine is used in fluoride toothpaste and drinking water to help prevent tooth decay.
➢ Chlorine is used to kill bacteria and other harmful micro-organisms in the water
purification process. It is also used to make PVC plastic.
➢ Bromine is used to make disinfectants, medicine and fire retardants.
➢ Iodine is used in medicines and disinfectants and also as a photographic chemical.
Iodine is also used by human bodies for proper thyroid gland formation.

QUICK CHECK

1. Why group VII elements are called halogens?

2. List four chemical properties of the halogens.
3. Explain why chlorine is more reactive than iodine.
4. What would you observe
(a) When chlorine is bubbled into potassium fluoride KF solution?
(b) When chlorine is bubbled into potassium bromide KBr solution?
Explain your observation in (a) and (b).
5. Why do you think group VII elements have similar chemical properties?
6. What are the uses of fluorine and chlorine?

6.9. GROUP VIII ELEMENTS– NOBLE GASES

➢ Group VIII elements are sometimes called rare gases, noble gases or inert gases. The
elements in group VIII include helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon.
➢ Apart from Helium, they all have 8 electrons in the outermost shell hence they are very
stable.
➢ In other words, their outermost shells are completely filled up and because of that they
do not gain, lose or share electrons. Therefore, do not form compounds.

Element Symbol Electronic

configuration
Helium 4
2 He
2
Neon 20
10 Ne
2, 8
Argon 40
18 Ar 2, 8, 8
Krypton 84
36 Kr 2, 8, 18, 8
Xenon 131
54 Xe 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
Radon 222
86 Rn 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

General Characteristics of Group VIII elements

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➢ They all have 8 electrons (octet) in the outer shell except for helium which has 2 electrons
(duplet).
➢ They are non - metals which exist in gaseous form.
➢ They have low melting and boiling point.
➢ Group VIII elements are monatomic gases.
➢ They do not react. That is why they are called noble (inert). They are very stable due to
the fact that their outermost shells are completely filled up.
➢ As you go down the group,
▪ The atomic radius increase
▪ Density increases
▪ Boiling points and melting points increases

Uses of Noble Gases

➢ Helium is used to fill weather balloons because it is lighter than air. The most suitable
gas for filling balloons was supposed to be hydrogen, the lightest gas, but hydrogen
explodes easily so the next lightest gas is helium. Helium cannot explode or catch fire
because it uncreative.
➢ Neon is used in advertising signs and laser beams. It is used to fill coloured glowing tubes
and signs in advertising because it glows red when electricity is passed through it.
➢ Argon is used to fill light bulbs because it provides an inert atmosphere (it’s unreactive).
Argon does not react with the filament making the bulb last longer. If the bulbs were filled
with the air, oxygen would react with the filament and burn it away. Argon is also used in
welding. Metals that are being welded are protected since argon will not react with the hot
metal.
➢ Krypton is used in lasers. For example in eye surgery and in car head lamps.
➢ Xenon produces bright light which is used in operating theatres, and head car lights.

6.10. POSITION OF HYDROGEN ON THE PERIODIC TABLE

➢ Hydrogen stands alone on top of the periodic table. It does not belong to any group but it
is in the first period together with helium.
➢ Hydrogen has one electron in the outer shell just like elements in group I. It can lose the
single electron in the last shell to form a positive ion with a charge of +1 (H+).
➢ Hydrogen can gain one electron from a metal to form an ionic compound. When it gains
one electron, it forms a negative ion with a charge of -1 (H-) just like group VII elements
such as Chlorine (Cl-) and Bromine (Br-). For example in ionic compounds like KH and
NaH, hydrogen assumes a negative charge.
➢ Hydrogen on the other hand exists in gaseous state as a diatomic element. It reacts just
like other non - metals. It forms covalent bonds with non - metals.
➢ From the above information, it is very clear that hydrogen cannot be placed in a specific
group. That is why it is placed in the middle on top.
➢

QUICK CHECK

1. Explain why group VIII elements are known as noble gases.

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2. Explain why the group VIII elements do not react.
3. Helium is preferred in weather balloons than hydrogen despite the fact that hydrogen is
lighter than helium. Explain why?
4. Why are light bulbs not filled with ordinary air instead of argon?
5. What is neon used for?
6. Why are noble gases safe to use?
7. How is hydrogen similar to group I elements and group VII elements?

PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTION

1. The Periodic Table is arranged in groups.

(a) Rubidium, Rb, is in Group I of the Periodic Table. It reacts with water according to the
equation below.
2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2RbOH(aq) + H2(g)
Predict what you would see when a small piece of rubidium is added to cold water.
[3]
(b) Chlorine is in Group VII of the Periodic Table. Chlorine, Cl2, reacts with aqueous
sodium bromide.
i. Predict what you would see in this reaction.
ii. Write a balanced ionic equation for this reaction. [2]
(c) Lithium reacts with fluorine to form lithium fluoride.
i. Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show the bonding in lithium fluoride. You
should show all the electrons.
ii. Explain why lithium fluoride conducts electricity when molten but not as a solid.
iii. State one other physical property of lithium fluoride. [5]
2. Caesium, lithium, potassium and sodium are all in Group I of the Periodic Table.
(a) Place these metals in order of reactivity with water, most reactive metal first.
[1]
(b) Name the chemical products of the reactions between lithium and water and between
sodium and water.
[3]
(c) (i) What would you expect to see if small pieces of caesium were dropped onto water?
How would the pH of the resulting solution be different from the pH of water?
(ii) Write the full chemical equation for the reaction of caesium with water. Include state
symbols.
[6]

3. Use the Periodic Table on page 12 to help answer this question.

(a) State one way in which the elements in Group I differ from the elements in Group VII.

[1]
(b) Which Group contains only
i. relatively soft metals, [1]
ii. Diatomic non-metals? [1]
(c) Which element
i. is in Group V and in period 3, [1]
ii. Has a proton number of 79? [1]

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 Tendai Mathews Zimba

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