NUMBER THEORY LECTURE 1

May 10, 2020

Contents
1 Greatest integer function
4.2 = 4 + 0.2
2, 3, 4 < 4.2
[4.2] = 4, {4.2} = 0.2
[5.002] = 5, {5.002}=0.002
[66] = 66,{66}=0 1
1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Legendre’s Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Repunit 9

1 Greatest integer function

4.2 = 4 + 0.2
2, 3, 4 < 4.2
[4.2] = 4, {4.2} = 0.2
[5.002] = 5, {5.002}=0.002
[66] = 66,{66}=0
[−7.3] = −8 , −8 < −7.2 < −7
{x} = x − [x] = {−7.3} = −7.3 − (−8) = −7.3 + 8 = 0.7
{−5.2} = −5.2 − (−6) = −5.2 + 6 = 0.8

π = 3 + (π − 3)
{π} = 0.1428
Iff= if and only if
x ∈ I iff [x]=x iff {x} = x − [x] = 0
[x] ≤ x 0 ≤ x − [x] = {x} < 1

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 x = [x] + {x}

Give an example of a number x such that {x} = 1.3

x=5.3=4+1.3 = 5+0.3
{5.9999 · ··} = {6} = 0
x = 0.9999 · ·· = 1
10x = 9.99999 · ··
9x = 9
x=1

1.1 Definition
For a real number x there is a unique integer n such that n ≤ x < n + 1.
We say that n is the greatest integer less than or equal to x, or the floor of
x.
We write n = [x]. The difference x − [x] is called the fractional part of x and
is denoted by {x}.
The least integer greater than or equal to x is called the ceiling of x and is
denoted by dxe.
If x is an integer, then [x] = dxe = x and {x} = 0; if x is not an integer, then
dxe = [x] + 1.

1.2 Properties
1. [x] = x iff x ∈ Z
2. {x} = 0 iff x ∈ Z, {x} = x − [x] = x − x = 0
3. 0 ≤ {x} < 1

4. [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1 ie if, [x] = n, then x = n + f so n ≤ x < n + 1

5. x − 1 ≤ [x] ≤ x and 0 ≤ x − [x] = {x} < 1

6. [x + m] = [x] + m if m is an integer.
for eg : [3.4 + 7] = [10.4] = 10 and [3.4] + 7 = 3 + 7 = 10
7. [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1

(
[x] + [y] if {x} +{y} <1
8. [x + y] =
[x] + [y] + 1 if {x} +{y} ≥1
(
0 if x ∈ Z
9. [x] + [−x] =
−1 otherwise
(
− [x] if x ∈ Z
∴ [−x] =
−1 − [x] otherwise

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 h i
[x] x
10. m = m if m ∈ Z
+
11. For n, a ∈
 Z , the number of integers divisible by a, less than n will be
equal to na .

12. x + 12 rounds x to it’s nearest integer for x ∈

 
/ N.
13. [x] [y] ≤ [xy] for nonnegative real numbers x and y.
14. (Hermit Identity) Let x be areal number and let n be a positive integer.
Then [x] + x + n1 + x + n2 + ... + x + n−1
 
n = [nx].
15. The sum of infinite GP.
S = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · ·, | r |< 1
rS = ra + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + · · ·
S(1 − r) = a
a
S = 1−r

1.3 Legendre’s Function

Let p be a prime. For any positive integer n, let ep (n) be the greatest power
(exponent) of p in the prime factorization of n!. The arithmetic function ep is
called the Legendre function associated with the prime p. The following result
gives a formula for the computation of ep (n).
For any prime p and any positive integer n, the highest power ep (n) of prime
h i h i h i ∞ h i
p that divides n is given by ep (n) = np + pn2 + pn3 + ... = n
P
pi .
. i=1

Symbol : a | b means a divides b . eg 3 | 99 or 5 |100

an || b means n is the largest power of a that divides b
that is an | bbut an+1 - b .
2n || 12 , n = 2

Problems
1. Find the number of zeros at the end of 100! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · · · 100

TPT 10n || 100!

5n || 100!
M5 = 1005 = 20
25 = 5 · 5 , 50 = 2 · 5 · 5 , 75 = 3 · 5 · 5 , 100 = 4 · 5 · 5
The number of zeros at end = M5 + M25 = 20 + 4 = 24.
b) 250!
M5 + M25 + M125 = 250 250
5 + 25 = 50 + 10 + 2 = 62

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 125 = 53 , 250 = 2 · 53
c) 143!
M5 + M25 + M125 = 143
   143   143   143 
5 + 25 + 125 + 625 = 28 + 5 + 1 + 0 = 34

n = 1000! ,
625=54
200 + 40 + 8 + 1 = 249

2. Consider a new symbol an || b , this means n is the largest power of a that

divides b. Find n such that 12n ||533!
12 = 22 ·h3 i h i h i
∞ h i
ep (n) = np + pn2 + pn3 + ... = n
P
pi .
 533   533  i=1
e2 (533) = 2 + 4 + · · ·= 529
2529 || 533!   
e3 (533) = 5333 + 533
9 +···

3. Let s and t be positive integers such that 7s ||400! and 3t ||((3!)!)!. Com-
pute s + t.

4. [HMMT 2003] Find the smallest n such that n! ends in 290 zeros.
As [x] ≤ x
n/5
e5 (n) = n5 + 5n2 + 5n3 +... ≤ n5 + 5n2 + 5n3 +··· = 1−r
a
= n/5 n
     
= 1−1/5 4/5 = 4
n
290 ≤ 4
1160 ≤ n
Trial and error
e5 (1160) = 288
1165,1170
the smallest such n=1170.
All the numbers 1170!, 1171!, · · ·, 1174! will end with 290 zeros.

1171! = (1170!) · 1171

1172! = (1170!) · 1171 · 1172
52 || 1175
but 1175! = (1174!) · 1175 will end with 292 zeros.
There is no number n such that n! ends with 291 zeros.

b) Find the number of n such that n! ends in 89 zeros.

n/5 n/5
89 ≤= n5 + 5n2 + 5n3 +... ≤ n5 + 5n2 + 5n3 +· · · = 1−r
a n
     
= 1−1/5 = 4/5 = 4
356 ≤ n
e5 (356) = 71 + 14 + 2 = 87
e5 (360) = 88
e5 (365) = 89 = e5 (366) = · · · = e5 (369).

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5. Solve the equation [9x] = 9.
[x] ≤ x < [x] + 1
9 ≤ 9x < 10
1 ≤ x < 109

6. Solve the equation 4 [x] = 3x.

x = [x] + {x} = n + f
Let [x] = n and {x} = f
4 [x] = 3x.
4n = 3n + 3f
n = 3f
0≤f <1
0 ≤ 3f = n < 3
n
n f= 3 x=n+f
0 0 0
1 4
1 3 3
2 8
2 3 3

Possible values of x ∈ 0, 43 , 38


b) Solve the equation 7 [x] = 5x.

Can we say that [x] + [y] = [x + y] if {x} + {y} < 1

[x] + [y] = [x + y] + 1 if {x} + {y} ≥ 1
x y [x] [y] [x] + [y] [x + y]
1.2 2.3 1 2 3 = [3.5] = 3

1.9 2.7 1 2 3 6= [4.6] = 4

In second case the {x} + {y} = 0.9 + 0.7 = 1.6 > 1

eg x = 1.1 y = 2.9 , x + y = 4
{x} = 0.1 and {y} = 0.9 {x} + {y} = 1

x x x 31x

7. Find the number of integers 0 < x < 1000 such that 2 + 3 + 5 = 30 .
[x] ≤ x     
31x x x x x x x 31x
30 = 2 + 3 + 5 ≤ 2 + 3 + 5 = 30
∴  x2  = x2 ∈ Z


∴  x3  = x3 ∈ Z
∴ x5 = x5 ∈ Z
[x] = x is x is an integer ie xis divisible by 30 .
Answer is 1000 30 = 33 and x = 30k for k ∈ Z .

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 8. a) Solve the following system of equations:

x + [y] + {z} = 3.4

{x} + y + [z] = 5.3

[x] + {y} + z = 3.6

Add all equations 2(x + y + z) = 12.3

x + y + z = 6.15
x + [y] + {z} = 3.4
{y} + [z] = 2.75 as 0 ≤ {y} < 1
Vimp {y} = 0.75 and [z] = 2
x + y + z = 6.15
{x} + y + [z] = 5.3
[x] + {z} = 0.85 ie [x] = 0 , {z} = 0.85
x + y + z = 6.15
[x] + {y} + z = 3.6
{x} + [y] = 2.55 ie {x} = 0.55, [y] = 2
x = [x] + {x} = 0.55
y = 2.75
z = 2.85
9. b) [Australia 1999] Solve the following system of equations:

x + [y] + {z} = 200.0

{x} + y + [z] = 190.1

[x] + {y} + z = 178.80

10. Find
x
 x number of non-negative integers x which satisfy the condition
 the
5 = 7 .
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16, 17, 18, 19 20 21
x
Proof: 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
x
7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
Proof:
x x
 x5  = n = 7 x
 x5  = n =⇒ n ≤ x5 < n + 1 =⇒ 5n ≤ x < 5n + 5
7 = n =⇒ n ≤ 7 < n + 1 =⇒ 7n ≤ x < 7n + 7

5n ≤ 7n ≤ x < 5n + 5 < 7n + 7
7n < 5n + 5 so 2n < 5 so n = 0, 1, 2
a) n = 0 , 7n ≤ x < 5n + 5 implies 0 ≤ x < 5 , x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
b) n = 1 , 7n ≤ x < 5n + 5 implies 7 ≤ x < 10 , x ∈ {7, 8, 9}

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 c) n = 2, 7n ≤ x < 5n + 5 implies 14 ≤ x < 15 , x ∈ {14}

Case 2] n < 0 , n = −m where m > 0

11. (RMO 2001) Find

 x  the xnumber
 of non-negative integers x which satisfy
the condition 99 = 101 . (Here [z] denotes, for any real z, the largest
integer not exceeding z; e.g. [7/4] = 1.)

12. Vimp : Solve the equation x2 − 6 [x] + 6 = 0.

2
[x] ≤ x so [x] − 6 [x] + 6 ≤ x2 − 6 [x] + 6 = 0
2
∴ [x] − 6√[x] + 6 ≤ 0. √
√ √
p, q = 6± 36−24 = 6±22 3 = 3 ± 3, 3 ≈ 1.7
2 √ √ 2
Let p = 3 + 3 and q = 3 − 3 are the roots of [x] − 6 [x] + 6 =
([x] − p)([x] − q).
∴ ([x] − p)([x] − q) ≤ 0 has two factors one is (+) other is (-)
∴ ([x] − p) ≤ 0 and ([x] − q) ≥ 0
∴ [x] ≤ p and [x] ≥ q
∴ 1.3 ≈ q ≤ [x] ≤ p ≈ 4.7
[x] ∈ {2, 3, 4}

[x] x2 = 6[x] − 6 √x √
2 6 √6 [√ 6] = 2
3 12 √12 [√12] = 3
4 18 18 [ 18] = 4

√ √ √
x∈ 6, 12, 18

13. Solve the equation x2 − 9 [x] + 14 = 0.

14. Prove that x + 12 rounds x to it’s nearest integer for x ∈

 
/ N.

x = 2.3 x ≈ 2 , 2.3 − 2 = 0.3 while 3 − 2.3 = 0.7

Definition:
x = n + f and f < 12 then the nearest integer is n and if f ≥ 1
2 then the
nearest integer is n + 1. (
 1
 n f < 12
TPT if x = n + f , then x + 2 =
n+1 f ≥ 12
1 1
Case 1. f < so f + 2 <1
2

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 So x + 12 = n + f + 12

∴ [x + 12 ] = [n + f + 12 ] = n
1
Case 2. f ≥ so f + 12 ≥ 1
2
eg: x = 2.7 , x + 0.5 =
2 + 0.7 + 0.5 = 2 + 1.2
= 3.2
So x + 12 = n + f + 12 = n + 1 + f + 12 − 1 = (n + 1) + f − 21

∴ [x + 12 ] = [(n + 1) + f − 12 ] = n + 1

15. Solve the equation x + 21 + x − 21 = [2x].

   

1 1
16. (RMO 1997) Solve for real x: [x] + [2x] = (9x) + 1, where [x] is the great-
est integer less than or equal to x and (x) = x − [x], [e.g. [3.4] = 3 and
(3.4) = 0.4].

 
n
17. (RMO2010) For each integer n ≥ 1 define an = √ (where [x] denoted
[ n]
the largest integer not exceeding x, for any real number x). Find the
number of all n in the set {1, 2, 3, · · · , 2010} for which an > an+1

18. (CRMO2015 ,p 1) Find all real numbers a such that 3 < a < 4 and
a(a − 3 {a}) is an integer. (Here {a} denotes the fractional part of a. For
example {1.5} = 0.5; {−3.4} = 0.6.)

19. (CRMO2015 ,p 2) Find all real numbers a such that 4 < a < 5 and
a(a − 3 {a}) is an integer. (Here {a} denotes the fractional part of a. For
example {1.5} = 0.5; {−3.4} = 0.6.)

20. (CRMO2015 ,p 3) Show that there are infinitely many positive real num-
bers a which are not integers such that a(a−3 {a}) is an integer. (Here {a}
denotes the fractional part of a. For example {1.5} = 0.5; {−3.4} = 0.6.)
21. (CRMO 2015 p4) How many √ m satisfy both
integers√  the following prop-
erties: (i)1 ≤ m ≤ 5000; (ii) [ m] = m + 125 ? (Here [x] denotes the
largest integer not exceeding x, for any real number x.)
19 20
   
22. (AIME 1991) Suppose that r ∈ R for which r + 100 + r + 100 + ... +
91

r + 100 = 546. Find [100r]

23. (INMO 89) Determine with proof, all the positive integers n for which:
(a) n
√ is not the square of any integer; and
(b)[ n]3 divides n2 . (Notation : [x] denotes the largest integer that is less
than or equal to x).:

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 24. (INMO 2014)Let n be a natural number. Prove that,
jnk jnk j n k √ 
+ + ··· + + n
1 2 n
is even.

2
25. (INMO 2009)Find all real numbers x such that: [x2 + 2x] = [x] + 2[x]
(Here [x] denotes the largest integer not exceeding x.)

2 Repunit
The number with all its digits are 1 is called repunit and it is denoted by
Rn = 11...1(n times)
1 1
Rn = (99...9) = (10n − 1)
9 9
Properties:
1. Prove that Rn |Rm iff n|m.

2. Prove that if (n, m) = 1, then, (Rn , Rm ) = 1

3. Rmn = Rm · 100 · · · 0100 · · · 01 · · · · · ·100 · · · 01 where in second factor 1
appears n times and between any two one’s m − 1 zero appears .
Rm (10mk + 10m(k−1) + · · · + 10m + 1) = Rm(k+1)
for eg R12 = 111 · 1001001001 = 1111 · 100010001

Problems:
1. Let N be a 50 digit number with all its digits but 26th digit from left is
1. If 13|N , then, find the 26th digit.

2. Find the smallest positive integer n such that 999999n = 111, ..., 1.

3. Find all n such that Rn is a perfect square

4. Show that each term in the following sequence is a perfect square.

a) 16, 1156, 111556, 11115556, ...
b)49, 4489, 444889, 44448889, ...

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 5. If p is any prime other than 2 or 5, prove that p divides infinitely many
terms in the sequence 9, 99, 999, ...

6. Prove that a number with 3n equal digits is divisible by 3n .

7. Let s(n) denotes the sum of the digits of n . If f (x) = 90x2 + 20x + 1 ,
then, find s (f (11111)).

8. Let xn = xx...x(ntimes) Hence it is a n digit number formed with each

√
digit x for all 0 < x ≤ 9. Find all digits x, y, z such that x2n − yn = zn .

9. (a) Prove that any repunit in base 5 with an even number of digits is the
product of two consecutive positive integers.
(b) Prove that any repunit in base 9 is a triangular number.

10. (a) Prove that 111 · · · 1(n times) is divisible by 41 if and only if n is di-
visible by 5.
(b) Prove that 111 · · · 1(n times) is divisible by 91 if and only if n is di-
visible by 6.
Prove that a repunit greater than 1 cannot be the square of any integer.

11. Find the smallest and largest integer using all 10 digit numbers with all
distinct digits divisible by 11111.
Ans: Hence the smallest such number is 1023489765 and the largest such
number is 9876501234

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