CHAPTER 7: LEARNING PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES

“Learning is an active process. We learn by doing. Only knowledge that is used sticks in your
mind.”- Dale Carnegie

INTRODUCTION

https://www.iedunote.com/learning

Learning is described as the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less
permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes. It is
a process by which an activity originates or is changed through responding to a situation.
Learning involves change.

People can learn unfavourable or favourable behaviour. It is the expansion of what one may
already know or perceive. It is the accumulation of knowledge but more importantly the
application of this knowledge.

It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by previous knowledge. To that
end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural
knowledge.

Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent.
If one cannot use newly acquired information for his/her practical use or benefit than it is
doubtful that he/she is engaged in the learning process.

This chapter presents perspectives and concepts about learning and is intended to give the
reader a deeper understanding of why men acquire learning the way they do.
Four (4) topics are presented in this chapter:
Topic 1: Nature and Characteristic of Learning
Topic 2: Theories of Learning
Topic 3: Laws of Learning and Its Educational Implications
Topic 4: Factors Affecting Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to:
a. Evaluate the different theories of learning by identifying the different concepts and
principles involved in the learning process;
b. Identify the different factors that contribute to learning; and
c. Illustrate the different laws of learning by giving concrete examples.

Did You Know???

Drama and comedy in the classroom encourage children to listen and participate
Teachers are constantly thinking about new and innovative ways to encourage active participation with their
students. An engaged child is one who is more likely to absorb information, retain it, and make real-life
associations with the knowledge.
In order to engage students, several activities or processes need to be present. In Beyond the Journal, authors
and educators Judy R. Jablon and Michael Wilkinson outline the following:
 Some prior understanding or knowledge of the material
 An environment that fosters questions and investigation
 The ability to work in a group or collaborative setting
 Offering multiple choices so students can be self-directed
 Independent thinking
 Games, drama, and humor
It might not come as a surprise, but laughter is a great indicator of engagement. Just like tears or anger, it is a
vibrancy of emotion that shows a student’s entire mind and feelings are engaged in the activity.

Topic 1. Nature and Characteristic of Learning

Do people learn in the same way? It’s
generally accepted that they do not, and that
many factors affect learning – hence the
interest in learning ‘styles’.

In this Chapter, we shall give a brief overview

of some of the main theories of learning, and
examine the current thinking on how different
styles should affect teaching.
 Learning is the process by which one acquires, ingests, and stores or accepts
information. Our experiences with learned information compose our bodies of
knowledge. Learning is a process unique to each individual.

Learning as defined by others:

 Steers and Porter defined learning as, “relatively permanent change in behavior
potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience.”

 Hulse, Deese, and Egeth defined learning as, “relatively permanent change in behavior
or potential behavior that results from direct or indirect experience.”

 According to S.P. Robbins, “Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior

that occurs as a result of experience.”

 According to Scott Miller, “Learning is a change that occurs in response to thinking or

other sensual stimuli.”

 According to S. P. Robbins, “Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior

that occurs as a result of experience”.

 According to Biswanath Ghosh, “Learning is the modification of behavior through

experience and training.”

 According to Michele Griffin, “Learning is a stance taken by an individual that allows

for the acquisition of information, attitudes, and practices, through observation, seeking
previous knowledge, searching out guides, and looking within as well as without.”

Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a

result of prior experience. When we observe any change in a person’s behaviour, we can say
that learning has taken place. Learning means the act, process, or experience of gaining
knowledge or skill.

It can change our behaviour. By birth, every people learned from his environment. On the other
hand, knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study is also called learning.

At last, we can say that learning has taken place if individuals behave, reacts, and responds
taken from others as a result of experiences change in behaviour.

There are some characteristics of learning.

1. Learning involves change.

2. All learning involves activities.
3. Learning Requires Interaction.
 4. Constitute Learning.
5. Learning is a Lifelong Process.
6. Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.
7. Learning Involves Problems Solving.
8. Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information.
9. Learning Involves far more than Thinking.
10. Experience is Necessary for Learning.

Topic 2. THEORIES OF LEARNING

  It is confined to observable and measurable behaviour.
 Learning is defined by the outward expression of new
behaviours and context-independent.
 Biological basis for learning.
 Focuses on observable behaviours.
 A theory of human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviours.
 Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the
acquisition of new behaviour

Behaviorism Advocates:
A.John B. Watson (1878-1958)

 Influenced by Pavlov’s classical conditioning model.

 Specific stimuli resulted in certain human behavioural
responses (stimulus-response model).
 Made conclusions about human development by
observing overt behaviour.

B.B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

 Known for the operant conditioning model.

 “Things we call pleasant have an energizing or

strengthening effect on our behaviour.” (Skinner, 1972)
 Humans and animals repeat pleasurable acts and
stop unpleasant ones.
Criticisms of Behaviorism:

 Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of
the mind.
 Behaviorism does not explain some learning--such as the recognition of new language
patterns by young children—for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
 Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information.
For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had
previously mastered through reinforcements

Behaviorism Impact on Learning:

 Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very effective--both in animals,
and in treatments for human disorders such as autism and antisocial behavior.
 Behaviorism often is used by teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors.
SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY
 Constructivism
“a theory about knowledge and learning.” (Fosnot, 1996)
Constructivism – Premises

The Learner
 Learners actively construct their own knowledge by anchoring new information
to pre-existing knowledge.
 Learners interact with knowledge, the learning environment, and with other
learners.

Knowledge
 Knowledge is "temporary, developmental, non-objective, internally constructed,
and socially and culturally mediated."(Fosnot,1996)

Learning
 Learning is a self-regulatory process of struggling with the conflict between
existing personal models of the world and discrepant new insights.
CRITIQUES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute.
• It is often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.
• It does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters.

MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES

Howard Gardner (1943- Present)

• Author of a contemporary theory of multiple

intelligences consisting of eight separate kinds of
intelligence
• Multiple Intelligences – several independent mental
abilities that allow a person to solve problems,
create products that are valued within one’s culture.
• Intelligence defined within the context of culture

• Can’t really measure it using a standard IQ test.

BRAIN-BASED LEARNING
OTHER LEARNINGTHEORIES:
• Andragogy (Knowles)

The Adult Learning Theory – Andragogy

Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913 – 1997) was an American educator well known for the use
of the term Andragogy as synonymous to adult education. According to Malcolm
Knowles, andragogy is the art and science of adult learning, thus andragogy refers to any
form of adult learning. (Kearsley, 2010).

The term andragogy can be supposedly equivalent to the term pedagogy. Andragogy in

Greek means man-leading in comparison to pedagogy, which in Greek means child-leading.
However, it should be noted that the term pedagogy has been used since the Ancient Greek
times, while Alexander Kapp, a German educator, first used the term andragogy in 1833.

Knowles’ 5 Assumptions Of Adult Learners

In 1980, Knowles made 4 assumptions about the characteristics of adult

learners (andragogy) that are different from the assumptions about child learners
(pedagogy). In 1984, Knowles added the 5th assumption.

1. Self-Concept
As a person matures his/her self concept moves from one of being a dependent
personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.
2. Adult Learner Experience
As a person matures he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that
becomes an increasing resource for learning.
3. Readiness to Learn
As a person matures his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the
developmental tasks of his/her social roles.
4. Orientation to Learning
As a person matures his/her time perspective changes from one of postponed
application of knowledge to immediacy of application. As a result his/her orientation
toward learning shifts from one of subject- centeredness to one of problem
centeredness.
5. Motivation to Learn
As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12).
Knowles’ 4 Principles Of Andragogy

In 1984, Knowles suggested 4 principles that are applied to adult learning:

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for the learning activities.
3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance and
impact to their job or personal life.
4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented. (Kearsley, 2010)

• Flow (Czikszentmihalyi)
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi discovered that people find genuine satisfaction during a state of
consciousness called Flow. In this state they are completely absorbed in an activity, especially an
activity which involves their creative abilities.
Flow is an optimal psychological state that people experience when engaged in an activity that is
both appropriately challenging to one's skill level, often resulting in immersion and concentrated focus
on a task. This can result in deep learning and high levels of personal and work satisfaction

What is the concept of flow?

In positive psychology, a flow state, also known colloquially as being in the zone, is the mental state
in which a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full
involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. ... The flow state shares many
characteristics with hyperfocus.

• Situated Learning (Lave)

In contrast with most classroom learning activities that involve abstract knowledge which is and out of
context, Lave argues that learning is situated; that is, as it normally occurs, learning is embedded
within activity, context and culture. It is also usually unintentional rather than deliberate. Lave and
Wenger call this a process of “legitimate peripheral participation” [2].
Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts — settings and situations that would normally
involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated
learning — learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and
behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its
center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the
role of an expert.
Other researchers have further developed Situated Learning theory. Brown, Collins & Duguid
emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship [3]: “Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a
domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity.
Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the
social construction of knowledge.”
Situated learning is related to Vygotsky’s notion of learning through social development.

• Subsumption Theory (Ausubel)

Overview:

Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of
laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate,
representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A
primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the
existing cogn itive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the
residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose
their individual identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:

"These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher
level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given
organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating,
and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as
well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963
, p. 81).

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which
simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the
rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge betw een new learning material and
existing related ideas.

Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve schema (e.g.,
Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner's "spiral learning" model ,
although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive
structures not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest.

Scope/Application:

Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school
settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it
doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materia ls) and the latter because the learner must
discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the
effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).

• Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne)

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The
significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of
instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions
are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned,
there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes,
the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy
according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use
of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The
primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to
facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a le In
addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:

1. Gaining attention (reception)

2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the
basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager,
1992).

Application

While Gagne’s theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is
on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains
(Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was
given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology
in learning.

Example

The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional
events for the objective, recognize an equilateral triangle:

1.Gain attention – show variety of computer generated triangles

2.Identify objective – pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
3.Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles
4.Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
5.Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6.Elicit per formance – ask students to create 5 different examples
7.Provide feedback – check all examples as correct/incorrect
8.Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9.Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify
equilaterals
Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning
outcomes.

Principles

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of
learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each
different type of learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction.

Topic 3. Laws of Learning

 Edward Thorndike's laws of learning and its educational implications

1)      Law of Readiness:-

First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action
Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through
preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not
prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in
order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic &
unprepared manner.
Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to
learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.

2)      Law of Exercise:-

The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice helps in
increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the
connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or
practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and
disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many
examples of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting,
singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of
various movements and actions many times.
• Things most often repeated are best remembered
• Students do not learn complex task in a single session

3)      Law of Effect:-

The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction
stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the
connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the
connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt
and selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be
pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the
satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of
effect’.
• Learning is strengethened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling
• Learning is weakened when associated with unpleasant feeling
• Learning takes place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives
pleasure out of it
      Besides these three basic laws, Thorndike also refer to five subordinate laws which
further help to explain the learning process.

These are:

4)      Law of Multiple – Response-

According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate behaviour is hit upon.
Without varying the responses, the correspondence for the solution might never be elicited. If the
individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than mechanically persisting in
the same way. Thorndike’s cat in the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till
finally it hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.

5)      The Law of Set or Attitude-

Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines not only what the
person will do but what will satisfy or annoy him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to
make a century, he will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly, unless he sets to get first
position and has the attitude of being at the top, would while away the time and would not learn
much. Hence, learning is affected more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.
   
6)      Pre- potency of Elements:-

According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important or essential in the situation and
neglects the other features or elements which may be irrelevant or non- essential. The ability to deal
with the essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes analytical and insightful learning
possible. In this law of pre-potency of elements, Thorndike is really anticipating insight in learning
which was more emphasized by the Gestaltions.

7)      Law of Response by Analogy-

According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or acquisitions while learning a new
situation. There is a tendency to utilise common elements in the new situation as existed in a similar
past situation. The learning of driving a car, for instance, is facilitated by the earlier acquired skill of
driving a motor cycle or even riding a bicycle because the perspective or maintaining a balance and
controlling the handle helps in stearing the car.

8)      The Law of Associative Shifting-

According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is capable, associated with any other
situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand up at
a command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said ‘stand up’. After a number trails by
presenting the fish after uttering the command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish and the overall
command of ‘stand up’ was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her
hind legs.
Topic 4. Factors Affecting Learning

1. Intellectual Factor
2. Environmental Factor
3. Physical Factor
4. Emotional
5. Media Influence
6. Relationship with Teachers, Parents, and Peers

1. Intellectual Factor
Intellectual Ability
- Everyone has different intellectual strengths
and weaknesses.
Prior Knowledge
A student could have the highest IQ
in the room, but if he hasn’t been
exposed to basic information that
relates to the lesson, he will have
difficulty learning.

2. Environmental Factor
Natural Surroundings
It covers the climatic and atmospheric conditions.

Social Surroundings
It includes insufficient ventilation, improper
lighting,noisy environment due to use
of radio, TV, etc.
3. Physical Factor

• Health
Is the student free from illness?
• Physical development
• Are there changes in their body?
• Nutrition
Do they eat nutritious foods?
• Visual and auditory defects
Do they suffer from
physical defects?

4. Emotional Factor

Stress
A little bit of stress can be good as the body releases adrenaline
to address it.
 However, students who are in chronically stressful environment tend
to have lower levels of aptitude. Most students can only do things
when stressed, act out or zone out.

Sleep
It helps the brain to learn and process new information. It also
aids in cell renewal, neural connections, immunity, logical reasoning,
comprehension and fine motor skills.

5. Media Factor
Print Media
It refers to
texts or printed
materials.
It is
economical and
has traditionally
Been used for
pedagogical
purposes.

Non-Print Media
It is also known as modern electronic
media. It has certain unique qualities
which in certain cases facilitates learning
much far faster than the print media.

6. Relationship with Teachers:

a. Teachers’ Factor

The teacher is an important constituent

in the instructional process.
The way we teach and manage
the students has an effect on their
learning.

b. Relationship with Parents:

If the child-parent relationship is

based on mutual respect and faith,
it can facilitate his or her learning.
In contrary, a distorted and unhealthy
environment, adversely
affects the learning of the student.

c. Relationship with Peer:

Student-student relationship in
the classroom, school, society, etc.
creates a particular type of
emotional climate.

d. Relationship with Peer:

A sound environment
provides a tension free environment to
the student
enabling him to learn more and
to complete in the class.

ACTIVITIES:

Learning theories are research-based ideas about how students learn. Theories combine what is known about
genetics, development, environment, motivation, and emotions to explain how students acquire, store, and apply
knowledge. Let's take a look at some learning theories and how to apply them to the classroom.

a. Watch the following videoclips:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KYDYzR-ZWRQ (on Behaviorism)
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xa59prZC5gA (on Constructivism)
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqScOIrHx2A&t=76s (on Social learning Theory)
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FVg9n0l0Gf0 (Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence)

b. Make an individual reflection about the different theories mentioned.

 c. Define and contrast the at least three (3) different laws of learning based on your own
understanding and giving examples of how each can be used in the classroom.
d. Name and discuss at least 5 principles of learning that most learning theorists agree on,
regardless of their theoretical orientation. Give specific examples of how these principles could
be used in the classroom.

Sources

 http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Learning_Styles.html
 http://www.ldpride.net/learningstyles.MI.htm
 http://www.cyg.net/~jblackmo/diglib/styl-a.html
 https://www.teachthought.com/learning/31-facts-about-learning/
 https://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles
 https://www.learning-theories.com/situated-learning-theory-lave.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)
 https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning/

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Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 46, pp. 12-25
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performance in business and management’,
Education + Training, vol. 46 no. 4
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 Knowles, M. S. (1950) Informal Adult Education, New York: Association Press. Guide for educators
based on the writer’s experience as a programme organizer in the YMCA.
 Knowles, M. S. (1962) A History of the Adult Education Movement in the USA, New York: Krieger.
A revised edition was published in 1977.
 Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in Practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
 Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated Learning: Legitimate Periperal Participation. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
 Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, S. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.
Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.