6.1.

Building ships
A modern shipyard is designed for building ships as cheaply and quickly as possible.
Ships can be built in about sixteen months and costs can be kept to a minimum. They are
designed by naval architects. The largest shipping companies have their own naval architects.
In Europe and Japan, shipyards employ naval architects to design a ship for a customer, or offer
basic designs, which can be varied to suit the customer’s needs. Ship owners may also go to
independent firms of shipping consultants and ask their naval architects to design a ship for
them.
When ship owners decide to order a new ship, they tell the naval architect:
 the type of cargo they want to carry
 the routes the ship will ply
 the desired speed
 the ship’s dimensions
 the price they are ready to pay
The ship must also comply with the rules of the classification society and international
regulations. Before a shipyard will start the building of a ship, the final construction plan must
be approved by a classification society. The classification will serve as a guide during the whole
period of building. Classification Societies are the authorities with the most profound influence
on shipbuilding, merchant ship design and ship safety.
Among the most important are Lloyd's Register of Shipping, det Norske Veritas, the
American Bureau of Shipping, Bureau Veritas, Registro Italiano, Germanischer Lloyd and
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai. Of all these famous societies Lloyd's of London is the most famous and
respected. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping is concerned with the maintenance of proper technical
standards in ship-construction and the classification of ships, i.e. the record of all relevant
technical details and the assurance that the ship will meet the required standards.
Vessels that are classed with Lloyd's Register are awarded the classification +100 A 1. The
cross (+) indicates that the ship has been built under the supervision of surveyors from Lloyd's
Register, while "100 A" indicates that the vessel has been built in accordance with the
recommended standards. "1" indicates that the safety equipment, anchors and cabins are as
required. Surveys at regular intervals are carried out by the Society's surveyors to ensure that the
vessel is still complying with the standards. The Society is also empowered to allot loadline
certificates to determine and assess tonnage measurements and to ensure compliance with safety
regulations. Surveyors all over the world carry out these required surveys and report to
headquarters in London and other national centres. A ship failing to meet the standards will lose
her classification and become a burden to the owners.
The building of a ship follows a well-ordered sequence of events. After the vessel has
been ordered, the plans are completed in the drawing-office. Next, the final plans must be
approved by a classification society such as Lloyds Register of Shipping. This is necessary if the
owner wants his ship to be classed. While the ship is being built, constant checks are made to
make sure she is being built to the standards of the society. Classification will show that the ship
is seaworthy and able to carry cargo she has been designed to carry.
Nowadays a shipyard is organized so that each stage in the building of a ship is done in a
continuous chain of shops. Conveyor rollers and moving cranes on rails link each shop. First
of all, steel plates and bars are taken from the stockyard to the preparation shop. Here they are
cleaned by shot blasting. Then, they are coated with a primer paint to prevent corrosion. Later,
they are cut and shaped automatically by machines. Cutting is done by gas torches and shaping
by giant presses. After that, the pieces are welded together in prefabrication sheds to form
sections. Welding is now used instead of riveting for joining pieces of metal together. The
prefabricated sections are then transferred to the building berth. Eventually, they are lifted into
position by giant cranes.
When a ship is ready she is launched. Some ships are built on a slipway and slide into
the water. Others are built in a dry dock. The dock is then flooded with water and the ship is
floated out. After launching, the ship is berthed in a fitting-out basin for completion. The main
machinery, together with auxiliaries, piping systems, deck gear, lifeboats, accommodation
equipment, plumbing systems, and rigging are installed on board, along with whatever insulation
and deck coverings are necessary. Fitting out may be a relatively minor undertaking, as with a
tanker or a bulk carrier, but in the case of a passenger vessel, the work will be extensive.
Although fitting-out operations are diverse and complex, as with hull construction there are four
main divisions:
(1) collection and grouping of the specified components,
(2) installation of components according to schedule,
(3) connection of components to appropriate piping and/or wiring systems, and
(4) testing of completed systems.
The tendency in planning has been to divide the ship into sections, listing the quantities
of components required and times of delivery. Drawings necessary for each section are prepared
and these specify the quantities of components required. A master schedule is compiled,
specifying the sequences and target dates for completion and testing of each component system.
This schedule is used to marshal and synchronize fitting work in the different sections and
compartments. A completed ship goes for sea trials before she is handed over to her new
owners. During these the ship and her equipment are thoroughly tested.

6.2. Construction
The designing, construction and fitting out of a vessel are a very complicated matter.
When designing a ship the naval architect must take into consideration not only the purpose for
which the ship will be built, but also the enormous stresses the ship will be exposed to when
sailing in adverse weather and rough seas.
Deformations of the ship’s hull due to hogging and sagging must be avoided by
implementing additional strengthening that will also provide support. These strengthening are
called stiffeners, or stringers. They may consist of beams, girders, keelson and stanchions.

The backbone of a ship is her keel. It is a longitudinal beam located at the very bottom of
the ship and extending from stem to stern. The ship is given her rounded shape by a series of
symmetrically curved frames. Frames can be compared to the ribs in a human body. They are
fastened to the keel, providing support and giving shape to the hull. The frames that are in the
middle are larger than those at the sides and are known as floors. The frames are held in position
by longitudinal stringers. Additional bracing is provided by beams extending across the width of
the ship. Deck-beam brackets serve as joints between deck beams and the transverse frames. The
rows of steel plantings in the metal hull are called strakes.

6.7 Tasks

TASK 1 Study the sentences below which show the sequence of events in the building of ships.
Write them out in a paragraph using the above sequence words to introduce each stage in a
sentence.
1st – plans are completed by naval architects;
2nd – plans are approved by the classification society;
3rd – parts of the ship are prepared;
4th – parts of the ship are put together;
5th – ship is launched;
6th – ship is fitted out and completed;
7th – ship goes for sea trials;
8th – ship is handed over to her new owners.

TASK 2. Study the paragraph "Classification", then match the following parts of sentences
with the sentences in the appropriate categories below; write down each sentence in full.
A - .............. carry out surveys at regular intervals.
B - .............. the vessel has been classed with Lloyd’s Register.
C - .............. standards according to which classification will take place.
D - .............. the required standards.
E - ............... allot load line certificates, assess tonnage and ensure compliance with safety
regulations.
F - .............. the ship has been built under the supervision of surveyors from Lloyd's Register.
G - .............. proper technical standards during the construction.
H - .............. the safety equipment, anchors and cabins are as required.
I - ................ the vessel will comply with the standards.
J - ............... the final construction plan.
K - .............. the vessel will continue to comply with the standards.
L - ............... the vessel has been built in accordance with the recommended standards.

Pre-construction stage
The Society has made up ________________________________________
The Society approves ___________________________________________
The Society ensures that _________________________________________
During construction
The Society checks the maintenance of _____________________________
The Society assures that the ship will meet __________________________
Upon and after completion of construction
The Society awards "+100 A 1" to indicate that _______________________
The Society awards "+" to indicate that _____________________________
The Society awards "1OOA" to indicate that _________________________
The Society awards "1" to indicate that _____________________________
The Society's surveyors _________________________________________
The Society ensures that _________________________________________
The Society is empowered to _____________________________________

TASK 3 Building the ship: matching

Match the parts with the functions - fill in A, B, C, etc, or a combination.
Parts: 1 – Beam; 2 – Bracket; 3 – Brace; 4 – Bulkhead; 5 – Deck;
6 – Floor; 7 – Frame; 8 – Girder; 9 – Keelson; 10 – Shell; 11 – Stanchion;
12 – Stiffener; 13 – Strake; 14 – Stringer
Functions: A – Strengthening; B – Shaping; C – Plating; D – Separation;
E – Support
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14