IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)

ISSN : 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 01-09

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Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis

Pradeep Kumar 1, Niranjan Kumar 2 & A.K.Akella 3
123
Deptt. of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur
Jharkhand (INDIA)

Abstract: A Static Compensator (STATCOM) is a flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) controller, which
can either absorb or deliver reactive power to a power system. Distribution STATic COMpensator (D-
STATCOM) is proposed for compensation of reactive power and unbalance caused by various loads in
distribution system. Distribution static compensator is based on the VSC principle. A D-STATCOM injects a
current into the system to correct the voltage sag, swell and power factor. Distribution Static Synchronous
Compensator (D-STATCOM) is an effective measure to maintain voltage stability and improve power quality of
distribution grid. This paper deals with the modeling and control scheme of D-STATCOM. A stability analysis
of D-STATCOM is obtained by bode plot approach. The theoretical analysis and design are verified by the
results.

Keywords: Distribution System, Power Quality, Custom Power Device, Shunt Compensation Device,
Distribution Static Compensator (D-STATCOM).

I. INTRODUCTION
The high power quality is requested by manufacturing factories and commercial buildings dealing
with information. This circumstance is caused by the fact that poor power quality gives the bad effects to the
quality of products and therefore, results in financial losses. According to EPRI report (1995), the revenue
losses due to poor power quality to U.S. business alone were $400 billion per year . Power quality problems
are caused by dynamic or non-linear loads and interaction between the load and network. Outage, voltage sag
and swell, voltage flicker, harmonic interference, and unbalance are some of the most common problems
encountered.
Today, new technologies known as Custom Power [1], using power electronics-based concepts, have
been developed to provide protection from power quality problems. Generally, Custom Power equipments are
divided by series-connected compensator like DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer), shunt-connected
compensator like D-STATCOM (Distribution Static Compensator), and series and shunt compensator like
UPQC (Unified Power Quality Compensator).
In many instances, the use of Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator (D-STATCOM) can be
some of the most cost-effective solutions for these types of power quality problems.
When a fault happens in a distribution network, sudden voltage sag will appear on adjacent loads.
D-STATCOM installed on a sensitive load, restores the line voltage to its nominal value within the response
time of a few milliseconds thus avoiding any power disruption to the load. Currently, most of the STATCOM
design studies are based on the assumption of the balanced three-phase system. And almost all researches are
based on the three-phase three-wire systems Moreover this paper presents the D-STATCOM using IGBT
voltage source inverter with 10 kHz switching frequency PWM operation for reactive power compensation in
distribution system. AC voltage directs control has the advantages of improved harmonic performance, and sag
voltage.

II. STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is a voltage source converter based FACTS controller.
It is a shunt controller mainly used to regulate voltage by generating/absorbing reactive power. The schematic
diagram of STATCOM is shown in Fig. 1. STATCOM has no long term energy support in the DC Side and
cannot exchange real power with the ac system ; however it can exchange reactive power. The reactive power is
varied by varying the magnitude of the converter output voltage. A small phase difference exists between the
converter output voltage and STATCOM bus voltage so that real power is drawn from the lines to compensate
for the losses. STATCOMs are employed at distribution and transmission levels – though for different purposes.

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 Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis

III. VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS (VSC)

In recent years, voltage source converter technology has made a great progress through the development of
high power self-turnoff type semiconductor devices. The rating for converter of this type in practical application
has already reached as high . Because of its advantage over the line commutated type in performance
characteristics and compactness, various applications of the voltage source converter have been developed and
researched.
Three phase Voltage Source Converter (VSC) is heart of most new FACTS and custom power
equipments. It may be employed as a series or shunt element or combination of both, as in case of Unified
Power Flow Controller (UPFC). Multilevel Voltage Source Converter topology is superior alternative to multi-
pulse arrangement for high power applications like STATCOM.
Voltage source converters (VSC) are commonly used to transfer power between a dc system and an ac
system or back to back connection for ac systems with different frequencies, such as variable speed wind turbine
systems[2]. A basic VSC structure is shown in Fig. 2 where Rs and Ls represent the resistance and inductance
between the converter ac voltage (VC) and the ac system voltage (Vs) and Is is the current injected into the grid.
A dc capacitor is connected on the dc side to produce a smooth dc voltage. The switches in the circuit represent
controllable semiconductors, such as IGBT or power transistors. 6-pulse D-STATCOM configuration with the
IGBT’s used as power devices. The IGBTs are connected anti parallel with diodes for commutation purposes
and charging of the DC capacitor .For converter the most important part is the sequences of operation of the
IGBTs. The IGBTs signals are referred to the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) that will generate the pulses for
the firing of the IGBTs. IGBTs are used in this simulation because it is easy to control the switch on and off of
their gates and suitable for the D-STATCOM.

Fig. 2. Voltage source converter (VSC)

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 Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis

Fig.3.Simulink Model of Voltage Source Converter

Fig.4. Waveform of Inverter and Load voltage

IV. BASIC CONFIGURATION AND OPERATION OF DSTATCOM

When a STATCOM is employed at the distribution level or at the load end for power factor
improvement and voltage regulation alone it is called D-STATCOM.
Fig.5 shows a basic configuration diagram of the D-STATCOM. The D-STATCOM mainly consists of
DC voltage source behind self-commutated inverters using IGBT and coupling transformer. The IGBT inverter
with a DC voltage source can be modeled as a variable voltage source. The distribution power system can also
be modeled as a voltage source.

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 Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis
Two voltage sources are connected by a reactor representing the leakage reactance of the transformer. The
principle operation modes of the D-STATCOM output current, I which varies depending upon Vo

I  (V  Vo ) / X (1)

Fig.5.Single-line diagram of D-STATCOM

Where V, Vo, X are the system voltage, output voltage of the IGBT-based inverter, the total ckt reactance
respectively.
If 𝑉𝑜 is equal to V, then no reactive power is delivered to the system.
If 𝑉𝑜 is greater than V, the phase angle of I is leading with respect to the phase angle of V by 90 degrees. Thus,
a leading reactive power flows in the Capacitive Mode of the D-STATCOM. If 𝑉𝑂 is lower than V, the phase
angle of I is lagging with respect to the phase angle of V by 90 degrees. Thus, a lagging reactive power flows in
the Inductive Mode of the D-STATCOM. The quantity of the reactive power flow is proportional to the
difference between V and 𝑉𝑂 .

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 Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis

Fig.6. Operation modes of D-STATCOM

V. MODELING AND CONTROL SCHEME OF D-STATCOM

A. Principle Of proposed control scheme-:

A simplified block diagram of the internal control for a converter with internal voltage control is capability is
shown in Fig.7 . The input signals are the bus voltage V, the converter output current io and the reactive current
reference, IQ Ref plus the dc voltage reference, Vdc . This dc voltage reference determines the real power. As the
block diagram illustrates, the converter output current is decomposed to the external reactive current component
These components are compared to the external reactive current reference determined from compensation
requirements and the internal real current reference derived from the dc voltage regulation loop. After suitable
amplification, the real and reactive current error signals are converted into the magnitude and angle of the
wanted converter output voltage from which the appropriate gate drive signals, in proper relationship with the
phase-locked loop provided phase reference, are derived.

Fig .7.Control scheme for D-STATCOM

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 Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis

The desired terminal voltage versus output current characteristic of the compensator can be established by minor
control loop as shown schematically in Fig.8 .

Fig .8. Control model considering implementation of the V-I slope.

A signal proportional to the amplitude of the compensating current k𝐼𝑄 with an ordered polarity is
∗
derived and summed to the reference 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 . The effective reference 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 controlling the terminal voltage thus
becomes

∗
𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 = 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 +𝑘𝐼𝑄 (2)

B. Transfer Function and Dynamic Performance:

Fig. 9.Basic transfer function block diagram

The basic transfer function block diagram shown in Fig. 9 can characterize the dynamic behavior of the
compensator in the normal compensating range. This block diagram is derived directly from the basic control
scheme shown in Fig.8.

In the linear operating range of the compensator, the terminal voltage VT can be expressed from Fig.8 in terms of
the internal voltage V and the reference voltage VRef as follows:

1 G1G2 X
VT  V  VRe f (3)
1  G1G2 HX 1  G1G2 HX

Since the objective is to establish how well terminal voltage is regulated against the system voltage,

𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 = 0
1
So VT  V (4)
1  G1G2 HX

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 Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis
Consider small variation only. Then amplitude variation of terminal voltage and system voltage can be
expressed in following form:
VT 1
 (5)
V 1  G1G2 HX

Where
1/ k
G1 
1  T1 s

Td s
G2  e

1
H
1  T2 s

Table1: Parameter of D-STATCOM

Parameter Value
Main time constant of PI controller T1 = 10 (ms)

Amplitude measuring circuit time T2 = 8 (ms)

constant
Transport lag of D-STATCOM Td = 0.2 (ms)

Reactive part of system impedence X = 9.522

Regulation slope K = 0.03

33.33
G1 
1  10s

0.2 S 1 1
G2  e = = (neglecting higher order term)
e
0 .2 s
1  0.2 s
1
H=
1  8s

317.37
G1G2 HX  (6)
16 s  83.6 s  18.2s  1
3 2

From relation (5) and (6) we get

16 s  83.6 s  18.2s  1
3 2
VT

V 16 s3  83.6 s2  18.2s  318.37

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 Review of D-STATCOM for Stability Analysis

C. Bode-plot command when D-STATCOM regulate voltage

>> num=[16 83.6 18.2 1];

>> den=[16 83.6 18.2 318.37 ];
>> bode(num,den)
>> sys=tf(num,den)

Transfer function:
16 s^3 + 83.6 s^2 + 18.2 s + 1
----------------------------------
16 s^3 + 83.6 s^2 + 18.2 s + 318.4

>> margin(sys)

VI. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The Bode plot is an important tool for stability analysis of closed-loop systems. Gain and Phase margin can be
determined from the bode diagram. Relative stability can be determined from the bode diagram using margin
function. The margin function is invoked in conjunction with bode function to compute the gain and phase
margin.
Here treating MATLAB as one of the tool to design and analyze control system. From Fig. 10 it is clear that
both Phase margin and Gain margin have positive value so the D-STATCOM system is stable.

Bode Diagram
Gm = 7.51 dB (at 1.07 rad/sec) , Pm = 12.3 deg (at 1.38 rad/sec)
20

0
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-60
0

-90
Phase (deg)

-180

-270

-360
-3 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Fig .10. Bode-plot to demonstrate the stability of D-STATCOM

VII. CONCLUSION
Custom power devices like DVR, D-STATCOM, and UPQC can enhance power quality in the
distribution system. Based on the power quality problem at the load or at the distribution system, there is a
choice to choose particular custom power device with specific compensation. The working principle of D-
STATCOM is explained in two modes (capacitive and inductive) of operation. Modeling and control scheme of
D-STATCOM is done with the help of transfer function block diagram and stability analysis is investigated
using bode plot with observing gain margin and phase margin of a system transfer function.

Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to Government of India. One of the authors Mr. Pradeep Kumar is thankful to
All India council of Technical Education (AICTE), Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD), Govt.
of India for providing financial assistants to do the research work under Technical Quality Improvement
Programme (TEQIP).

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References
[1] John J. Paserba, Gregory F. Reed, Masatoshi Takeda & Tomohiko Aritsuka ,” FACTS and Custom Power Equipment for the
Enhancement of Power Transmission System Performance and Power Quality”, Symposium of Specialists in Electric
Operational and Expansion Planning (VII SEPOPE) Curitiba, Brazil, May 21-26, 2000.
[2] Y. HU Member, IEEE, Zhe CHEN, Senior Member, IEEE, and H. McKenzie “Voltage Source Converters in Distributed
Generation Systems “ DRPT2008 6-9 April 2008 Nanjing China.
[3] Hendri Masdi, Norman Mariun S.M. Bashi &Azah Mohamed, Construction of a Prototype D-Statcom for Voltage Sag
Mitigation, European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.30 No.1 (2009), pp.112-127.
[4] Soo-Young Jung, Tae-Hyun Kim, Seung-Il Moon, Byung-Moon Han, “analysis and control of D-STATCOM for a line voltage
regulation”. Member, IEEE,pp. 729-734.
[5] N.G.Hingorani “Introducing custom power”, IEEE spectrum, vol.32, June 1995, PP.41-48.
[6] N.G.Hingorani and L.Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of flexible ac transmission systems, IEEE
Press, New York, 1999.
[7] K. R. Padiyar Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Science Bangalore-560 012 ,India. FACTS
CONTROLLERS IN POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION.
[8] Anaya-Lara Olimpo, E.Acha “Modeling and Analysis of custom power systems by PSCAD/EMTDC”,IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, Volume: 17, Issue: 1, Jan 2002 pp: 266-272.
[9] Robert H Bishop, The University of texas at austin ,”Modern Control System Analysis and Design using MATLAB” ADDISON-
WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY.

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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)
ISSN : 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 10-14
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Energy Values and Technologies for Non woody Biomass: as a

clean source of Energy

Sonia Grover1, Rupinderjit Singh Kathuria2, Maninder Kaur3

1
Department of Electrical Engineering
Guru Nanak dev Engineering College Ludhiana, Punjab, India
2
Department of Electrical Engineering
Guru Nanak dev Engineering College Ludhiana, Punjab, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering
Guru Nanak dev Engineering College Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Abstract: Energy is the basic requirement for a developing country like India. Due to continuous development
the energy demand is increasing more tremendously than the increase in population. To meet this energy
demand the fossil fuels reserves are continuously depleting. The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, gas etc. are
used for power generation. Any other solution for power generation is required to save reserves and
environment. The renewable energy sources are the best solution for this problem.
This paper reveals the main renewable energy for power generation and its availability in different
states of Punjab. We discuss the various technologies that can be used to use dry or wet biomass for power
generation. In view of high energy potential in agricultural potential, proximate analysis, gross calorific value
and ultimate analysis is done for different crop samples collected from Punjab state.
Keywords – Biomass, Potential, Power, Renewable Energy, Technologies.

I. Introduction
The overall energy demand of world is increasing at faster rate than the increase in population. The
overall generation in the country has increased from 771.551 during 2009-10 to 811.143 during the year 2010-
11. [1] To meet the increasing demand renewable energy sources are the best method for power generation.
Many areas of our country are still without any access to any form of electricity. Electrification of these areas
can be done by distributed generation using renewable energy sources. Renewable form of energy mean a lot for
India due to two reasons, Firstly, it is available in abundance, secondly it enhance energy security and reduce
environmental impacts. The main renewable sources available in our country are biomass, solar, wind and hydro
power. As hydro power generation is possible only if the area has plenty of water, wind energy is usually
restricted to coastal areas and solar energy has high initial capital investment cost. So theserenewable energy
sources are restricted to particular region. As in India most of the people has agriculture as their occupation, the
agri-waste residue is the major source for power generation. Biomass available in plenty in most of the parts
of India can be utilized for energy generation. The total biomass available in India with energy potential
estimation is shown in the Table 1.1

TABLE 1.1- Total Potential Estimation of Biomass

S. No. Item Estimated
Potential
1 Bio-power (Agri-residue 16881 MW
and Plantation)
2 Co-generation (Bagasse) 5000 MW
3 Waste to Energy (Urban 2700 MW
and Industrial)
4 Total 24581 MW
Source: MNRE website

Renewable sources of energy have attracted global attention and evoked interest among planners, policy makers,
economists and environmental activists as a viable option to achieve the goal of sustainable development. If the
current interest in renewable source of energy gets concretized into projects to tap their enormous potential, the
energy generation in 21st century can be expected to move away from fossil fuel.

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 Energy Values and Technologies for Non woody Biomass: as a clean source of Energy
In view of high energy potential in agricultural waste an attempt has been made to calculate the
proximate analysis and energy content (GCV) of different types of biomass, so that proper utilization can be
made for power generation using agricultural waste.

II. Biomass And Bioenergy

Biomass is an organic matter and the energy released from biomass when it is burnt is called biomass energy. In
India biomass is predominate for generation due to its properties like: renewable, widely available and carbon
neutral.
Biomass contains stored energy from Sun. Plants absorbs CO 2 from the atmosphere while
photosynthesis and releases the same CO2 while burning. Biomass has one more advantage that it can be used
for power generation with the same equipments which are used for fossil fuel generation. Biomass used as
energy feedstock is environment friendly because biomass recycles the carbon in the environment and does not
add CO2 in atmosphere. [4]
Biomass basically is classified in two categories: woody and non woody. Woody biomass consist of
high bulk density, less void age, low ash content, low moisture content, high calorific value like forest based
residue and agro industrial residue. Non woody biomass characterized as lower bulk density, higher void age,
higher ash content, higher moisture content and lower calorific value like agriculture residue, animal waste,
urban and industrial solid waste.
III. Biomass Availability
Different types of biomass are available in different areas. The northern states of Punjab and Haryana
are rich due to multi cropping practices. The main biomass is wheat and rice straw. Some amount of cotton
stalks is also available in the western part of Punjab. Agro industrial residue like rice husk, sugarcane bagasse,
ground nut and soya shells are also available in commercial market and almost the entire quantity of generated
waste is efficiently used. In Rajasthan main source of biomass is mustard residue. In Maharashtra cotton stalks
are available in large amount and Madhya Pradesh has soya residue.

IV. Technologies For Bio-Power

Biomass power can be generated by using two technologies one is thermo-chemical and other is bio-
chemical. In thermo-chemical: direct firing, co-firing, gasification and pyrolysis techniques can be used for
woody biomass, while in bio-chemical anaerobic digestion and fermentation techniques can be used for non
woody biomass. [2]
4.1 Direct combustion
Direct combustion is similar to thermal power generation, in which biomass is burnt in the boiler and produce
steam to run the turbine to produce electricity. It is based on rankine steam cycle. The chemical reaction is:
CxHyO + O2 CO2 + H2O +Heat
The capacity range of these plants is ranges from 0.5 MW to 10 MW and the efficiency range of these plants are
15-25%.
This technology disposes of large amount of residue and wastes. The block diagram of direct firing is shown in
Fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1 block diagram of direct firing

4.2 Co-firing
Co-firing is mixing of a percentage of biomass with the coal in coal fired stations. Co-firing can also be used to
improve the combustion of fuels with low energy content. The different options for co-firing:-
4.2.1 Biomass blending with coal or Direct firing – It is simple and least cost approach. Biomass fuels are
blended with coal and blend is sent to the firing system.
4.2.2 Separate Injection or Indirect firing – In this approach the biomass is separately injected into the boiler
without impacting the coal delivery process. This method involves more equipment than the first approach.
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 Energy Values and Technologies for Non woody Biomass: as a clean source of Energy
4.2.3 Gasification based Co-firing – In this approach, biomass is first fed to gasifier to generate producer gas
and then it is fired in boiler.
4.3 Gasification
Gasification is a technique in which thermo chemical conversion of solid biomass into highly
combustible gas for burning is obtained by partial oxidation under high temperature. [3] The gas obtained from
the gasification process is a mixture of CO, H2 and CH4 with CO2 andN2. The gas can be used in internal
combustion engine or in gas turbine.
4.4 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is biomass conversion technique, through which biomass is converted to liquid, solid and gaseous
fractions by heating the biomass in the absence of air or oxygen. In this volatile component of the waste are
vaporized by heating, leaving residue consist of char and ash.
4.5 Anaerobic Digestion
In anaerobic digestion, organic material is broken down by bacteria in the absence of oxygen, to produce
methane rich biogas. The solid waste left can be used as compost in fields. There are four biological and
chemical stages of anaerobic digestion shown in Fig 4.2.

Figure 4.2 four stages of anaerobic digestion

4.6 Fermentation
Fermentation is a technique in which a mixture of 60% methane and 40% CO2 produced through
anaerobic fermentation of material like plants vegetable waste and animal waste etc. This method requires large
installation cost, longer reaction time, high amount of water and large area for installation of plant. Production
of ethanol and methanol:
4.6.1 Ethanol – Ethanol is produced from the biomass like sugarcane, starches and cellulose i.e. wood and
agricultural residues
4.6.2 Methanol – High cellulose content materials such as wood and agricultural residues are suitable for
methanol production.
V. Proximate and Ultimate Analysis
In this paper proximate and ultimate analysis of some of the samples of biomass is carried out. For this
study only crop residue generated by agricultural productions is considered. The crop residue selected for
analysis are rice straw, wheat straw, cotton stalk, mustard straw, mungi and groundnut straw etc.
Proximate analysis gives the fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash content of biomass and
gross calorific value or higher calorific value is the heat liberated by the combustion of one Kg of fuel at 0°C
and under 760mm of mercury. GCV is measures with the aid of the Mahler bomb calorimeter. The Table 1.2
shows the results of proximate analysis and gross calorific value of different crop samples.
Ultimate analysis gives the composition of the biomass in weight % of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, as
well as sulphur and nitrogen. The results of ultimate analysis is shown in Table 1.3

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 Energy Values and Technologies for Non woody Biomass: as a clean source of Energy
Table 5.1 proximate analysis of different samples
Proximate analysis
Bulk
S. Volatile Fixed GCV
Commodity Moisture Ash Density
No. Matter Carbon kcal/kg
% % Kg/m³
% %
Wheat
1 4.99 7.58 71.41 16.02 4010 47
Straw
Mustard
2 7.64 6.34 68.36 17.66 4074 94
Straw
3 Rice Wapsi 4.58 17.39 60.82 17.21 3429 192
Channa
4 6.19 8.01 70.59 15.21 3726 262
Straw
5 Leaves 5.76 7.15 67.17 19.92 4625 254
6 Chip Cotton 6.74 4.55 67.73 20.98 4580 155
Mungi
7 6.8 11.58 66.33 15.29 3782 272
Straw
Mungfali
8 5.89 16.32 61.41 16.38 3949 171
Straw
Paddy
9 4.3 20.49 61.2 14.01 3309 142
Straw
Table 5.2 ultimate analysis of different samples

Ultimate analysis
S.
Commodity H N
No. C% S% O%
% %
Wheat
1 46.46 5.12 0.47 0.18 35.2
Straw
Mustard
2 46.48 5.08 0.74 0.36 33.36
Straw
3 Rice Wapsi 45.4 4.18 0.87 0.14 31.44
Channa
4 44.6 4.79 0.77 0.1 35.54
Straw
5 Leaves 52.42 4.72 1.1 0.17 28.68
Chip
6 48.91 4.9 1.09 0.16 33.65
Cotton
Mungi
7 44.62 4.36 1.6 0.38 30.66
Straw
Mungfali
8 46.02 3.98 1.2 0.26 26.33
Straw
Paddy
9 39.99 3.97 0.79 0.2 30.26
Straw

VI. Conclusion
From all the technologies it is concluded that there are mainly two types of biomass conversion
technique: thermo-chemical and bio-chemical conversion. Thermo-chemical conversion techniques are direct
firing, co-firing, gasification and pyrolysis. Anaerobic digestion and fermentation are bio-chemical conversion
techniques. Biomass to electricity conversion techniques are used in many parts of the world for small to
medium scale decentralized or grid connected plants of number of sizes. The values for moisture content, ash
content, fixed carbon and GCV are calculated and shown in table 5.1. The value of percentage of composition of
different components is shown in table 5.2. We can conclude that biomass has the same potential to generate
electricity, so we have to use it for generation purpose, as it is a clean source of energy.

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 Energy Values and Technologies for Non woody Biomass: as a clean source of Energy

REFERENCES
[1] Ministry of power, government of India, available: http://www.powermin.nic.in
[2] Mathias Loeser and Miles Alexander Redfern, Overview of Biomass Conversion and Generation Technologies, International
Universities Power Engineering Conference, Padova, Italy, Sept 2008, 1–4.
[3] Shouyu Zhang, Dingmao Peng and Fengbao Huang, Effect of Mineral Matter on the Reactivity of the Char from Agricultural
Waste, International Conference on Energy and Environment Technology, 2009, 286-289.
[4] S. Murali, Rajnish Shrivastava, Mohini Saxena, Quantification of agricultural residues for energy generation –A Case Study
Journal of the IPHE 3, India, 2007-08.
[5] Richard L .Bain, An Overview of Biomass Combined Heat and Power Technologies, Power Engineering Society General
Meeting, IEEE, Denver, CO, 2004, 1657 - 1659.
[6] Amit Jain, Sustainable Energy Plan for an Indian Village International Conference on Power System Technology, Hangzhou,
2010, 1-8
[7] Ravindranath N.H. and Balachandra P., Sustainable bioenergy for India technical, economic and policy analysis, Energy 34,
2009, 1003–1013.[8] M. Kumar and S. K. Patel, Energy Values and Estimation of Power Generation Potentials of Some Non-
woody Biomass Species, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects 30(8), 2008, 765 – 773.
[9] I. R. Pillai, and R. Banerjee, Renewable energy in India: Status and potential, Energy 34, 2009, 970–980.
[10] N.H. Ravindranath, P. Balachandra, S. Dasappa and Usha K. Rao, Bioenergy technologies for carbon abatement, Biomass and
Bioenergy 30, 2006 826–837.

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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)
ISSN : 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 15-21
www.iosrjournals.org

An Artificial-Intelligence Based Induction Motor Speed

control and Estimation using conventional MRAS with
dynamic reference modal
Challa Sekhar1, N.Ravisankar Reddy2
1
(PG Student Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, G.Pullareddy Engineering College,
Andhrapradesh, India
2
(Associate professor, Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, G.Pullareddy Engineering College,
Andhrapradesh, India

Abstract : The Model Reference Adaptive System (MRAS) is probably the most widely applied speed sensor less
drive control scheme. This paper proposes induction motor speed estimation using conventional MRAS and AI-
based MRAS with stator resistance compensation. A conventional mathematical model based MRAS speed
estimation scheme can give a relatively precise speed estimation result, but errors will occur during low
frequency operation. Furthermore, it is also very sensitive to machine parameter variations. However, an AI-
based MRAS system with a Stator Resistance Co mpensation model can improve the speed estimation
accuracy and is relatively robust to parameter variations even at an extremely low frequency. These
are verified by simulation results.
Keywords - Dynamic Reference Model, Model Reference Adaptive System (MRAS), Neural Networks,
Induction Motor Control.
I. Introduction
Much effort has been devoted to speed-sensor less induction machine drive schemes, with Model
Reference Adaptive System (MRAS) being the most popular [1]. In a conventional mathematical-model-based
MRAS, some state variables are estimated in a reference model, (e.g. rotor flux linkage components, ψrd, ψrq,
or back e.m.f. components, ed, eq, etc.) Of the induction machine obtained by using measured quantities, (e.g.
stator currents and perhaps voltages). These reference model components are then compared with state
Variables estimated using an adaptive model. The difference between these state variables is then used in an
adaptation mechanism, which, for example, outputs the estimated value of the rotor speed (ωr) and adjusts the
adaptive model until satisfactory performance is obtained [2-6]. Nevertheless, greater accuracy and robustness
can be achieved, if the mathematical model is not used at all and instead, an AI-based non-linear adaptive model
is employed. It is then also possible to eliminate the need of the separate PI controller, since this can be
integrated into the tuning mechanism of the AI-based model [7]. However, both the conventional MRAS and
AI-based MRAS scheme are easily affected by machine parameter variations, which happen during practical
operation [8-9]. In this case, an online stator resistance estimator is applied to the AI-based MRAS scheme
which makes the whole scheme more robust during computer simulation and could possible make the scheme
usable for practical operation [10-11]. The comparison of schemes presented here is felt to be valuable since
much of the literature presents results for the novel approach alone [1].

II. Speed Estimation Using Conventional Model Reference Adaptive System

In MRAS, there are two models, which work parallel to estimate flux-linkage of induction motor, first
model name reference, and input is current and voltage, the output flux linkage of this model is to be used
fiducial variable. The second model is adaptive, input of it is current and rotor speed, output flux-linkage of this
model is been adjusted continuously in order that the error between those two models are turn to zero by
adjusting the input of adaptive model through PI controller [12].
The expressions for the rotor flux linkages in the stationary reference frame can be obtained by using
the stator voltage equations of the induction machine (in the stationary reference frame). These give (1) and (2),
which are now rearranged for the rotor flux linkages:

 rd  ( Lr / Lm )[  (u sD  Rs i sD )dt  L's i sD ] ……….. (1)

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 An Artificial-Intelligence Based Induction Motor Speed control and Estimation using
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 rq  ( Lr / Lm )[  (u sQ  Rs i sQ )dt  L's i sQ ] ………. (2)

These two equations represent a so-called stator voltage model, which does not contain the rotor speed
and is therefore a reference model. However, when the rotor voltage equations of the induction machine are
expressed in the stationary reference frame, they contain the rotor fluxes and the speed as well. These are the
equations of the adaptive model:
   
 rd  (1 / Tr )  ( Lm i sD  rd   r Tr  rq )dt ………... (3)
   
 rq  (1 / Tr )  ( Lm i sQ  rq   r Tr  rd )dt ………... (4)
The reference and adaptive models are used to estimate the rotor flux linkages and the angular difference of the
outputs of the two estimators   is used as the speed tuning signal.
 
  
   Im r ' r '*   rq  rd  rd  rq
 

Fig.1 MRAS-based rotor speed observer using rotor flux

Linkages for the speed tuning signal
Adaptation mechanism is the PI controller to turn the error state of reference and adaptive model to
zero by adjusting the input of adaptive model, which variable is the rotor speed.
By the time error state equivalent to zero the system give the estimate speed equivalent to actual speed.
The estimated speed can be expressed as (5).

r  K p   K i    dt …………...... (5)

III. Artificial Intelligence-Based Model Reference Adaptive System

The MRAS-based schemes described in the previous section contain a reference model and an adaptive model.
However, greater accuracy and robustness can be achieved if the mathematical model is partially replaced by a
neural network. It is then also possible to eliminate the need of the separate PI controller, since this can be
integrated into the tuning mechanism of the neural network-based model. The neural network-based model can
take various forms: it can be an artificial neural network (ANN) or a fuzzy neural network etc. and there is also
the possibility of using different types of speed tuning signals. It is believed that some of these solutions can
give high accuracy and are relatively robust to parameter variations even at extremely low stator frequency. One
specific implementation of the ANN-based MRAS speed estimator system which is popular in academic work,
as shown in Fig. 2, which is similar to the conventional MRAS system. In this new model, the adaptive model is
replaced by a simple two layer neural network, which enables the whole system with fast response and better
accuracy than the conventional MRAS [13-14].

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Fig.2 MRAS-based rotor speed estimator containing a two layer ANN

IV. MRAS Based Two Layer ANN Speed Estimator With Dynamic Reference Modal
Compared to the conventional MRAS based rotor speed estimator containing a Two layer ANN could give more
accurate estimation result and relatively robust to parameter variations. The two layer ANN replaces the
adjustable model and adaptive mechanism in the conventional MRAS, but the reference model is still necessary
for estimation the rotor flux which is used as speed tuning signal. Several machine parameters are used to build
the conventional reference model, such as stator resistance (Rs) and stator reluctance (Ls). These parameters
may change during the different periods of motor operating. The values of these parameters are fixed in the
reference model. So the ANN speed estimator is still sensitive to parameter variations especially during the
motor low speed running period. To solve this problem and make this scheme more independent to the machine
parameters, a stator resistance estimator is built in the new reference model, in which the stator resistance Rs
value could be estimated online. Fig. 3 shows the total scheme of neural network based MRAS with a dynamic
reference model. In this new system, both the reference model and adaptive model of the conventional MRAS
system are modified for better performance. The whole system can be divided into two main parts, the dynamic
reference model part and the neural network part.

Fig.3 MRAS based ANN speed estimator with dynamic reference model.
The dynamic reference part consists of the dynamic reference model derived from equations (1) and (2), in
which the stator resistance Rs is replaced by the online estimated value s Rˆ coming from equation (6) and (7),
  K 
R  K  i eR …………………………………………….. (6)
 p 
s p s

 
  

eRs  isD  rd   rd   isQ  rq   rq  ……………… (7)
   
The neural network part contains a simple two-layer neural network, with only an input layer and an
output layer. Adjustable and constant weights are built in the neural network, and the adjustable weights are
proportional to the rotor speed.
The adjustable weights are changed by using the error between the outputs of the reference model and
the adjustable model, since any mismatch between the actual rotor speed and the estimated rotor speed results in
an error between the outputs of the reference and adaptive estimators. To obtain the required weight adjustments
in the ANN, the sampled data forms of equations (3) and (4) are considered. By using the backward difference
method, the sampled data forms of the equations for the rotor flux linkages can be written as (8) and (9), where
T is the sampling time.

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 An Artificial-Intelligence Based Induction Motor Speed control and Estimation using
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   
[ rd (k )  rd (k  1)] / T   rd (k  1) / Tr   r  rq (k  1)
 ( Lm / Tr )isD (k  1)........................................................(8)

   
[ rq (k )  rq (k  1)] / T   rq (k  1) / Tr   r  rd (k  1)
 ( Lm / Tr )isQ (k  1).....................................................(9)

Thus the rotor flux linkages at the kth sampling instant can be obtained from the previous (k-1)th values as
  
 rd k    rd k  11  T / Tr   rT  rq k  1
 LmT / Tr isD k  1................................(10)

  
 rq k    rq k  11  T / Tr   rT  rd k  1
 LmT / Tr isQ k  1................................(11)

Introducing c = T /Tr, the following weights are given:

c  T / Tr
w1  1  c ..…………........... (12)
w2   r cT r   r T
w3  cL m

It can be seen that w1 and w3 are constant weights, but w2 is a variable weight and is proportional to the
speed.

Thus Equations (10) and (11) take the following forms:

  
 rd k   w1 rd k  1  w2  rq k  1  w3isD k  1 ……. (13)

  
 rq k   w1 rq k  1  w2  rd k  1  w3isQ k  1 ……. (14)

These equations can be visualized by the very simple two layer ANN shown in Fig. 4.

Fig.4 Neural network representation for estimated rotor flux linkages

The neural network is training by the back propagation method; the estimated rotor speed can be obtained from:

 
  
  
 
r k    r k  1     rd k    rd k   rq k  1   rq k    rq k   rd k  1 / T
 
 r k    r k  1  w2 k  / T   / T w2 k  1      …. (15)
 
  / T w2 k  1

Where η is the learning rate and α is a positive constant called the momentum constant. The inclusion of the
momentum term into the weight adjustment mechanism can significantly increase the convergence, which is

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 An Artificial-Intelligence Based Induction Motor Speed control and Estimation using
conventional MRAS with dynamic reference modal

extremely useful when the ANN shown in Fig. 4 is used to estimate in real time the speed of the induction
machine.
V. Simulation Results
To compare the conventional MRAS and the AI-based MRAS with dynamic reference model, simulations are
established by using Matlab-Simulink software, based on the standard well established validated 2-axis machine
model [6]. Current, torque and speed estimation results using conventional MRAS and neural network based
MRAS are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 respectively. These results assume the machine parameters are correctly
measured and unchanged during operation. Both Of the two schemes can give good speed tracking results.

Fig. 5 Speed estimation using Conventional MRAS

Fig. 6 Speed Estimation using Two-layer ANN MRAS

Further simulation has been carried out with changed stator resistance to test how much the parameter
changing would affect the speed estimation results.
In Fig. 7 simulation is carried out with the stator resistance changed by a small amount, 2%. Obviously,
both schemes are still sensitive to parameter variations. A final simulation for AI-based MRAS with the
dynamic reference model is shown in Fig. 9. The online estimated stator resistance is displayed in Fig.8. From
the simulation result in Fig. 9, the effect caused by the stator resistance variation has been considerably
improved.

Fig.7 Speed estimation by using Conventional MRAS (with Stator resistance Rs changed 2%)

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 An Artificial-Intelligence Based Induction Motor Speed control and Estimation using
conventional MRAS with dynamic reference modal

Fig. 8 Estimated Rs in the Dynamic reference model

Fig. 9 Speed Estimation using Two-layer MRAS with

Dynamic reference model

Comparing all the above simulation results shows that the conventional MRAS scheme works well
when the parameters are precisely measured and do not change during operation.
The MRAS with adaptive model replaced by the two-layer neural network can slightly improve the
performance when working in the same situation. But both schemes can still be easily affected by parameter
variations, which do occur during practical operation. By introducing the stator resistance online estimator, the
performance is much improved which should enable the scheme usable for practical operation.

VI. Conclusion
The main objective of this paper is to compare conventional MRAS and AI-based MRAS for induction
motor speed sensor less speed estimation. The conventional MRAS can give good speed estimation in most of
the operation period, but errors will occur during low frequency operation mainly caused by the machine
parameter variations. An AI-based MRAS system can give improved accuracy and bypasses the PI controller
tuning problems. The simple structure of the two-layer neural network shown in Fig. 4 yields a speed estimation
system working online with a fast response.
Also the simple two-layer neural network does not require a separate learning stage, since the learning
takes place during the on-line speed estimation process. This is mainly due to the fact that the development time
of such an estimator is short and the estimator can be made robust to parameter variations and noise.
Furthermore, in contrast to most conventional schemes, it can avoid the direct use of a speed-dependent
mathematical model of the machine. However, the Two-layer neural network MRAS lies more in the realm of
adaptive control then neural networks. The speed value is not obtained at the output, but as one of the weights.
Moreover, only one weight is adjusted in the training. Therefore, it would still be sensitive to parameter
variations and system noise. In the new approach, an online stator resistance estimator is used to compensate the
parameter variations. From the comparison of the computer simulation results, it is obvious that this new
approach makes the whole scheme more robust to parameter variations, which also gives the possibility of
practical use of the neural network based MRAS scheme. The stator resistance estimator is working under
adaptive mechanism (PI controller). Further study could be carried out for replace the PI controller with another
simple neural network which could also estimate more machine parameters.

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 An Artificial-Intelligence Based Induction Motor Speed control and Estimation using
conventional MRAS with dynamic reference modal

References
[1] Finch, J. W. and Giaouris, D., Controlled AC Electrical Drives, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Feb. 2008, 55, 1, pp. 1-
11,.
[2] Landau, Y.D., Adaptive Control the Model Reference Approach. 1979: Marcel Dekker.
[3] Vas, P., Sensor less Vector and Direct Torque Control, 1998: Oxford University Press.
[4 ] Shauder, C., Adaptive Speed Identification for Vector Control of Induction Motors without Rotational Transducers. IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, 1992, 28.
[5] Yang, G. and T. Chin, Adaptive-Speed Identification Scheme for a Vector-Controlled Speed Sensor less Inverter-Induction Motors.
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.1993,29.
[6] Fitzgerald, A.E., C. Kingsley, and S.D. Umans, Electric Machinery. 6th ed., 2003: McGraw-Hill International Edition.
[7] Vas, P., Artificial-Intelligence-Based Electrical Machines and Drives. 1999: Oxford University Press.
[8] Kumara, I.N.S., Speed Sensor less Field Oriented Control for Induction Motor Drive. PhD Thesis, 2006, University of Newcastle
upon Tyne.
[9] Leonhard, W., Controlled AC drives, a successful transition from ideas to industrial practice. Elsevier Science, 1996.
[10] Zhen, L. and L. Xu, Sensorless Field orientation Control of Induction Machines Based on Mutual MRAS scheme. IEEE Transactions
on Industrial Electronics, 1998, 45.
[11] Holtz, J. and J. Quan, Drift and Parameter-Compensated Flux Estimator for Persistent Zero-Stator-Frequency Operation of
Sensorless-Controlled Induction Motors. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Applications, 2003, 39.
[12] Ohtani, T., N. Takada, and K. Tanaka, Vector Control of Induction Motor without Shaft Encoder. IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Applications, 1992, 28.
[13] Peng, F.Z. and T. Fukao, Robust Speed Identification for Speed Sensorless Vector Control of Induction Motors. IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Applications, 1994, 30.
[14] Vasic, V. and S. Vukosavic, Robust MRAS-based Algorithm for Speed Sensorless Vector Control of Induction Motors. IEEE Power
Engineering Review, 2001.

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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)
ISSN : 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 22-29
www.iosrjournals.org

Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional

System Employing PMSG
N.Venkatesh1, G.Pandu ranga reddy2
1
(Electrical & Electronics, G.P.R.E.C, A.P, India)
2
(Electrical & Electronics, G.P.R.E.C, A.P, India

Abstract : Over the last ten years, the global wind energy capacity has increased rapidly and became the
fastest developing renewable energy technology. The controllability of the wind turbines becomes more and
more important as the power level of the turbines increases. Nowadays, for generating units above 1MW,
variable speed concepts are usually applied that are either based on doubly fed induction machines or
converter-driven synchronous machines. Synchronous generator are widely used in standalone WECS, Though
the requirements are not fulfilled directly by the machine, the control strategy is used in both the stator as well
as rotor side along with power electronic converters to fulfill the requirements stated above. In this paper,
matrix converter has to be introduced for wind power applications. Major technical features and advantages
are going to describe.
Keywords – Matrix Converter, Pmsg, WECS

I. INTRODUCTION
The last few years has seen a huge Investment in renewable energy resources as alternative sources of
energy. Wind energy is the fastest growing source of renewable energy in the power industry and it will
continue to grow worldwide as many countries are formulating plans for its future development. Many countries
have developed plans to meet the growing energy demands in the future by taking advantage of the abundant
energy in wind so as to protect the environment from CO2 released through some of the more conventional
ways of generating power.
The U.S. is targeting about 20% of the electricity produced in 2030 to be from wind energy. For power
system operators, increasing contribution of wind energy to the grid poses new challenges that need to be
addressed in order to ensure the reliability and the security of the electric power grid [1]. Many technologies
have competed over the years for the concept of designing the generators and the power electronics used for the
control of wind turbines. Wind turbines have evolved from using fixed speed turbines to using variable speed
turbines that improves the controllability of the energy tapped from the wind. Modern wind turbines allow a
variable speed operation of the generator through a power converter interface with the grid.
Now a days, for generating units above 1MW, variable speed concepts are usually applied that are
either based on doubly fed induction machines or converter-driven synchronous machines. Some of the largest
units currently available and therefore especially suited for off-shore applications are built on the direct drive
synchronous machine concept [3].
This paper presents a direct AC-AC matrix converter, as an alternative to the DC-link voltage-sourced
converter. In this paper, first, a brief description of WECS is provided. Then, it is demonstrated how the wind
energy can be optimally captured and converted to electric energy using a wind turbine, a permanent magnet
synchronous generator and a matrix converter. Finally, the simulation results based on the proposed WECS are
presented to support the theoretical expectations.

II. DIRECT DRIVE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

2.1 overview

fig 1: direct drive synchronous generator

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 Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional System Employing PMSG
Figure 1 shows the principal arrangement of a direct drive synchronous generator. Rotor and generator
shafts are mounted to the same shaft without gear-box. The generator is a high-pole synchronous generator
designed for low speed [3]. Considering the energy yield and reliability, the direct-drive generator
systems seem to be more powerful compared to geared drive systems, especially for offshore. The direct-drive
permanent magnet synchronous generator system (PMSG DD) is more superior compared to other systems in
terms of losses and energy yield [4]. For allowing variable speed operation, the synchronous generator must be
connected to the grid through a frequency converter. One of possibility for the frequency converters are matrix
converters.
The matrix converter (MC) provides direct AC-AC conversion and is considered an emerging
alternative to the conventional two-stage AC-DC-AC converter topology [5]. A matrix converter provides a
large number of control levers that allows for independent control on the output voltage magnitude, frequency
and phase angle, as well as the input power factor. When compared with the AC-DC-AC converter system, the
bold feature of MC is elimination of the DC-link reactive elements, e.g. bulky capacitors and/ or inductors.
However, this topology has not yet found its appropriate place in industrial applications. The main reasons
behind this are the potential commutation problems, requiring complex control and buffer circuits, unavailability
of monolithic bi-directional switches, lack of decoupling between the two ac sides of the converter, and low
voltage gain.

III. WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM MODELLING

3.1. Wind Turbine
The mechanical power that the turbine extracts from the wind Pm is inferior to Pw .This is due to the fact
that the wind speed after the turbine isn’t zero. So, the power coefficient of the turbine C p can be defined by
C p Pw Where Cp < 1
Pm
The recuperated power is given by:
1
Pm  C p ArVw3 (1)
2
Where Ar is wind turbine rotor swept area (m2).
Vw3 is wind speed (m/s).
Ρ is air density (Kgm3)
Cp depends on tip speed ratio λ and pitch angle β. Tip speed ratio is the ratio of blade tip speed to wind speed. β
is the pitch angle which is the angle between the plane of rotation and the blade cross-section chord.

 t 
*R
(2)
3
v w
R is radius of the turbine (m), and Wt is angular velocity of the rotor (r/sec)[6].
The power coefficient can be utilized in the form of look-up tables or in form of a function. The second
approach is presented below, where the general function defining the power coefficient as a function of the tip-
speed ratio and the blade pitch angle is defined as
16.5
 116  i
C p ( ,  )  0.5  0.4  5 e (3)
 i 
Where λi is
1 (4)
i 
1 0.035

  0.089  3  1
The rate of the rotor speed is proportional to the inverse of the inertia and difference between wind
turbine mechanical torque (Tm) and the generator electrical torque (Te). The wind turbine output mechanical
torque is affected by Cp. In order to maximize the aerodynamic efficiency, the torque Te of the synchronous
generator is controlled to match with the wind turbine torque Tm to have maximum possible Cp max. With a
power converter, adjusting the electrical power from the synchronous generator controls the Te; therefore, the
rotor speed can be controlled. For the system to operate at maximum power at all wind speeds, the electrical
output power from the power converter controller must be continuously changed so that under varying wind
speed condition the system is matched always on the maximum power locus[3].
The model of the wind turbine implemented in Simulink is shown in Fig. 2 .

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 Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional System Employing PMSG

Fig. 2. Simulink model of turbine

3.2 Permanent magnet synchronous generator
The PMSG has been considered as a system which makes possible to produce electricity from the
mechanical energy obtained from the wind. Permanent Magnet Generator provides an optimal solution for
varying-speed wind turbines. This eliminates the need for separate base frames, gearboxes, couplings, shaft
lines, and pre-assembly of the nacelle. The output of the generator can be fed to the power grid directly. High
level of overall efficiency can be achieved.
The dynamic model of the PMSG is derived from the two phase synchronous reference frame, which
the q-axis is 90° ahead of the d-axis with respect to the direction of rotation. Fig. 3 shows the d-q reference
frame used in a salient-pole synchronous machine (which is the same reference as the one used in a PMSG),
where θ is the mechanical angle, which is the angle between the rotor d-axis and the stator axis [7].

Fig. 3. – d-q and α-β of a typical salient-pole synchronous machine.

The stator windings are positioned sinusoidal along the air-gap as far as the mutual effect with the rotor
is concerned; the stator slots cause no appreciable variations of the rotor inductances with rotor position;
magnetic hysteresis and saturation effects are negligible; the stator winding is symmetrical; damping windings
are not considered; the capacitance of all the windings can be neglected and the resistances are constant (this
means that power losses are considered constant).
The stator windings are positioned sinusoidal along the air-gap as far as the mutual effect with the rotor
is concerned; the stator slots cause no appreciable variations of the rotor inductances with rotor position;
magnetic hysteresis and saturation effects are negligible; the stator winding is symmetrical; damping windings
are not considered; the capacitance of all the windings can be neglected and the resistances are constant (this
means that power losses are considered constant).
The mathematical model of the PMSG in the synchronous reference frame is given by the following
equations[7].
d id 1 (5)
 ( Ri  L L i V
 (  )  )
dt L L
ls md
s d e ls mq q d

d iq (6)
( R i   [( L  L ) i   ]  V q)
1

dt 
Lls Lmq s q e ls md d f

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 Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional System Employing PMSG

Where
id, iq : d-q axis stator currents,
Rs, : stator resistance,
Lmd , Lmq : d-q axis inductance,
Lls: stator inductance,
ψf : magnet flux.
We is angular velocity of the generator defined by  e
 p  t
(7)
Where p is the number of pole pairs The electromagnetic torque may be expressed in terms of the stator
currents and stator flux linkages as

T e  ( 2 )( 2 )(( Lmd  Lls) iq id   f )

1 P (8)
Main technical problems connected with distributed generation system operation are voltage and
power stability. This group of problems is often solved with simulators based on dq transformation. However,
these simulators do not comprehend solution of harmonics, which can be present during transient and specific
cases could cause errors in protection functions. Fig. 4. shows the equivalent circuit of the PMSG in de d-q
synchronous rotating reference frame.

Fig. 4.Equivalent circuit of the PMSG in the synchronous frame.

Figure 5. shows the simulink model of the permanent magnet synchronous generator.

Fig.5. simulink model of permanent magnet synchronous generator

3.3 Matrix Converter

The matrix converter is a forced commutated converter which uses an array of controlled bidirectional
switches as the main power elements to create a variable output voltage system with unrestricted frequency. It
does not have any dc-link circuit and does not need any large energy storage elements [5].
3.3.1 Conventional Matrix Converter Topology
The conventional matrix converter topology is composed of an array of nine bi-directional switches
connecting each phase of the input to each phase of the output. By properly operating the switches in the matrix
converter, one can achieve control on the output voltage magnitude, frequency and phase angle, as well as
control on the input displacement angle. Matrix converter is a bi-directional power flow device with the
capability of producing high quality input and output waveforms [8]. Figure 6 shows the schematic diagram of a
conventional matrix converter.

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 Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional System Employing PMSG

Fig. 6.Schematic Diagram of a Conventional Matrix Converter

A serious drawback attributed to the conventional matrix converter topology is the commutation
problems associated with the operation of the four-quadrant switches. Safe operation of the switches requires
complicated switching strategies imparting the elegance of the topology.

3.3.2 Improved matrix converter topology

Figure 7 shows the schematic diagram of the improved matrix converter topology. The improved
matrix converter is based on the concept of “fictitious dc link” used in controlling the conventional matrix
converter. However, there is no energy storage element between the line-side and load-side converters.

Fig.7. schematic diagram of the improved matrix converter

The improved matrix converter topology has the following advantages with respect to the conventional
matrix converter topology:
1. The commutation problems associated with the switches have been solved.
2. All the switches at the line-side turn on and turn off at zero current.
As shown in Figure 7, matrix converter offers four control levels that can be used to control the input
displacement angle and output voltage magnitude, frequency and phase angle. The model discussed above has
been implemented in Matlab / Simulink environment and this shows the converter and the inverter portion in
Matrix Converter. The simulated model is shown in Figure 8. The output of the synchronous generator is given
to the input of the matrix converter.

Fig.8. simulink model of improved matrix converter

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The system level simulation is made utilizing Matlab/Simulink. This software represents all the
switches as ideal switches. The turbine characteristics and synchronous generator output voltage waveforms are
obtained to test the feasibility of proposed control method. In this section, the simulation results obtained from
system is presented.

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 Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional System Employing PMSG

Fig.9. wind velocity(m/s) vs time(s)

In order to assess the capability of the system at varying wind velocity, a step change in the wind
velocity is applied to the system. The system is first operating at the wind velocity of 8m/s. At t =3.2 secs, the
wind velocity is increased to 12m/s. This shown in Figure 9.

Fig.10. power coefficient vs tip speed ratio

Cp-λ Curve can be used in wind turbine design to determine the rotor power for any combination of
wind velocity and rotor speed. They provide immediate information on the maximum rotor power co-efficient
and optimum tip speed ratio. Figure 10 shows the maximum value of Cp is 0.22, which is achieved at tip speed
ratio of 4. The maximum efficiency is observed for the maximum value of Cp.

Fig.11. d axis voltage(v) vs time(sec)

The Figure 11 shows the variation in synchronous generator direct axis output voltage with the change in wind
velocities. As the wind velocity increases, the generator output voltage also increases. For the wind velocity of 8
m/s the generator produces the output voltage of 65 Volts and for 12m/s the output voltage reaches to 225 Volts.
Further increase in wind speed increases the generated voltage.

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 Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional System Employing PMSG

Fig. 12. Generator torque (Nm) vs time (sec)

When the synchronous machine operates as a generator, the torque produced is negative indicating that
the machine is in braking mode as the operating frequency is less than the supply frequency or regeneration
mode when the operating frequency is higher than the supply frequency for variable speed drives applications.
Figure 12 shows the variation of generated torque with timeIt can be observed from the graph that the Torque
and the Speed settles down after certain instant while simulation, this shows that the Mathematical Model is
perfectly working for the parameters provided to it and also the Model generated has been executed as expected.
The generator output voltage given to the input voltage to the matrix converter.

Fig.13. matrix converter input voltage(vol) vs time(s)

The figure 13 shows the input voltage to the matrix converter from the synchronous generator with the
variation of the step change in the wind velocity.

Fig. 14. Rectifier output voltage(vol) vs time(s)

The input voltage of the matrix converter is given to fully controlled converter. The rectified output
voltage of the matrix converter for the wind velocity of 8 m/s is 55 Volts and for 12 m/s is 210 Volts.

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 Application of Matrix Converter in Wind Energy Conventional System Employing PMSG

Fig. 15. Matrix output voltage vs time

Figure 15 shows the variations in the matrix converter output voltage that results in necessary changes in the
synchronous generator terminal frequency and voltage.

V. Conclusion
The wind turbine driven synchronous generator is modeled using Matlab/Simulink tool and is also
analyzed for various wind velocities. As the speed increases, both frequency and amplitude of the output voltage
from the permanent magnet synchronous generator also increases. In order to obtain the constant output voltage
with constant frequency, the synchronous generator is coupled with the matrix converter. A controlled rectifier
rectifies the output voltage of permanent magnet synchronous generator and rectified output is given to the
inverter. As there is no DC link element between the converter and the inverter, the converter produces the
constant DC voltage irrespective of wind velocities. The constant DC voltage from the converter is given to the
input of inverter to obtain an AC output voltage of constant amplitude with constant frequency. There by
constant output voltage with constant frequency is obtained from the proposed Wind Energy Conversion
Scheme. Simulation results show successful generation of power and output voltage from the wind at various
wind velocities.

VI. APPENDIX

Wind turbine parameters are

Air density (ρ) =1.225 Kg/m3
Blade radius = 29.2m
Pitch angle = 19o
Generator parameters are
Rated generated power (P) = 250 Kw
No. Of poles = 4
Stator resistance (Rs) = 0.14 Ω
Stator inductance (Lis) = 0.9mH
D-axis inductance (Lmd) = 43mH
Q-axis inductance (Lmq) = 20mH

References
[1] “Behavior of double fed induction generator under near by wind fault plant” by Olumide Aluko, Student Member, IEEE, Travis M.
Smith, Senior Member, IEEE, Leon M. Tolbert, Senior Member, IEEE.
[2] “Application of A Matrix Converter for PMSGWind Turbine Generation System” by Guoliang Yang, and Yanping Zhu
[3] “Application of matrix converter in wind energy conventional sources by employing synchronous generator” by J. Karpagam*, P.S.
Mayurappriyan*, Jovitha Jerome.†
[4] “Review of generator systems for direct drive wind turbines” by D. Bang, H. Polinder, G. Shrestha, J.A. Ferreira.
[5] P.W.Wheeler, J. Rodriguez, J. Clare,L. Empringham, and A.Weinstein, “Matrix Converters: A Technology Review” IEEE Trans. on
Industrial Electronics vol.:49, No:2, 2002 pp 276-289.Trans. on Industrial Electronics vol.:49, No:2, 2002, pp 276-289.
[6] “Modeling And Control of A Wind Turbine Using Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator” by S.Vijayalakshmi, Asst.Prof.EEE,
SRM University, Saikumar.S, Saravanan.S,R.V.Sandip, Vijay Sridhary.
[7] “Modeling of a Variable Speed Wind Turbine with a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator” by Alejandro Rolan', Alvaro Luna,
Gerardo Vazquez, Daniel Aguilar Gustavo Azevedo.
[8] L. Wei, T.A. Lipo, “A Novel Matrix Converter Topology with simple Commutation”, IEEE Press , pp 1749-1754.

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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)
ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 30-38
www.iosrjournals.org

Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half

Bridge Shunt APF
V. R. Gaikwad1, S. N. Kore2
1
(Department of Electronics Engineering, Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli, Maharashtra, India)
2
(Department of Electronics Engineering, Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli, Maharashtra, India)

ABSTRACT: Domestic electrical appliances like compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), television (TV), personal
computer (PC), etc. use electronic switching technique. They create harmonics on power supply lines and are
classified as Nonlinear loads. These harmonics are harmful to other loads and contribute to power loss. The
power quality can be maintained by using an efficient Active Power Filter (APF). An expression for the ON time
of MOSFET, in single phase half bridge shunt APF, was derived and expressed as a function of phase voltage,
compensating current and dead time. The expression was tested by building an APF model in Matlab - Simulink.
Simulation results show that, the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is reduced below 5%.
Keywords: Fourier transforms, Power quality, Pulse width modulation (PWM), Rectifiers, Total harmonic
distortion (THD)

I. INTRODUCTION
Electricity is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of Alternating Current (AC). Loads on
the AC power supply lines are of two types, Linear load and Nonlinear load. A linear non resistive load causes
phase difference between phase voltage and line current (Fig. 1). On the other hand, a nonlinear load creates
harmonics on the power supply lines (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). The harmonics created by a nonlinear load on the
power supply lines cause serious effects like, overheating of distribution transformer, overheating of power
factor correction capacitor, interference with communication equipments, etc. The end result is reduction in
efficiency of power transmission, distribution and utilization. THD is a measure of the effective value of the
harmonic components of a distorted waveform. IEEE 519-1992 recommendation allows a THD of 5% in low
voltage grids. The Power factor (pf) and THD for domestic loads is presented in table 1. The table clearly
indicates that, the THD due to domestic loads like, Fluorescent lamp, Television and Personal Computer, is
beyond the limit proposed in the IEEE 519-1992 recommendation. APF is one of the solutions to eliminate
harmonics and improve power factor [1]-[3].

Table 1. Domestic Electrical Loads

Load pf THD (%)

Florescent Lamp 0.89 39.5
TV 0.63 121
PC 0.58 140

Figure 1. Phase voltage and current with linear load

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF

Figure 2. Current drawn by nonlinear load

Figure 3. FFT of current drawn by nonlinear load

A single phase half bridge shunt APF is connected in parallel with the nonlinear load (Fig. 4). The
nonlinear load draws current il (Fig. 5). When APF is not connected, the nature of source current is is same as
il . When APF is connected, in shunt with the nonlinear load, it generates compensating current ic such that is
becomes sinusoidal. The fundamental current component of il is calculated using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
[2] and is used as reference current iref (Fig. 6). The compensating current ic , is obtained by subtracting iref
from il (Fig. 7). It is generated by controlling the ON time of MOSFET's M1 and M2, in the half bridge.

Figure 4. Single phase half bridge shunt APF

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF

Figure 5. Load current ( il )

Figure 6. Reference Current ( iref )

Figure 7. Compensating Current ( ic )

II. ANALYSIS
Let the instantaneous source, nonlinear load and compensating current be is (t ) , il (t ) and ic (t )
respectively. Applying KCL at node A,
is (t )  ic (t )  il (t )
ic (t )  il (t )  is (t ) (1)
The shunt APF makes,

i s (t )  iref (t ) (2)
where,

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF
iref (t )  I m sin(2ft )

I m is peak value of fundamental in load current

From (1) and (2)

ic (t )  il (t )  iref (t )

Sampling at frequency f s ,

ic (n)  il (n)  iref (n) (3)

where,

  n 
iref (n)  I m sin 2   
  N 

I m is calculated using Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT),

 n1 
1 N  j 2  
Im  2
N
 il (n)e
n1
 N 

The sampling frequency f s determines the accuracy of ic . Therefore, f s is selected to be at least 250 times the
fundamental frequency f. Equation (3) is used to model the compensating current generator block.

vs (t ) is a sinusoidal function with period T  (1 / f ) . It can be approximated as a linear function,

during switching period Tsw  (1 / f s )  T (Fig. 8).

Figure 8. Phase Voltage and VSI Output

In the interval, 0  t  Tsw

v s (Tsw )  v s (0)
v s (t )  t  v s ( 0) ( 4)
Tsw

let,

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF
v s (Tsw )  v s (0)
k (5)
Tsw

From (4) and (5)

v s (t )  kt  v s (0) (6)

During the interval, 0  t  Tsw , the output of VSI is,

vo (t )  0 0  t  t1 M 1 OFF M 2 OFF
 Vc t1  t  t 2 M 1 ON M 2 OFF
0 t 2  t  t 3 M 1 OFF M 2 OFF
 Vc t 3  t  Tsw M 1 OFF M 2 ON

V c is the voltage across capacitor. It is assumed to be constant during the switching interval because of large
value of capacitor and small switching period [1]. So, the capacitor is modeled as a DC voltage source.
However, in practice the charge lost by the capacitor is restored by periodically pumping charge in capacitor.

In the interval, 0  t  Tsw , MOSFET M1 is ON for time Ton , MOSFET M2 is ON for time Toff and
both are OFF for time 2Td .
Tsw  Ton  Toff  2Td (7 )

The inductor connected between the AC voltage source and the Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) converts
the VSI into current source inverter. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop formed by the AC voltage
source, inductor and VSI,

dic
vo (t )  v s (t )  ic (t ) R  L
dt

Integrating both the sides taking limits from 0  t  Tsw

Tsw Tsw Tsw Tsw

 vo (t )dt 
0
 vs (t )dt   ic (t ) Rdt 
0 0
 Ldi (t )
0
c

t2 Tsw Tsw Tsw Tsw

 Vc dt   Vc dt 
t1 t3
 (kt  vs (0))dt   ic (t ) Rdt 
0 0
 Ldi (t )
0
c

t2 Tsw Tsw Tsw Tsw Tsw

Vc  dt  Vc  dt  k  tdt  v s (0)  dt  R  ic (t )dt  L  dic (t ) (8)

t1 t3 0 0 0 0

The area under the compensating current waveform during the interval 0  t  Tsw is,

Tsw
Tsw
 i (t )dt 
c ic (Tsw )  ic (0) (9)
0
2

From (5), (8) and (9)

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF
 v (T )  vs (0)  Tsw2
( )  vs (0)(Tsw )  sw ic (Tsw )  ic (0) R  Lic (Tsw )  ic (0) 
T
Vc (t2  t1 )  Vc (Tsw  t3 )   s sw
 Tsw  2 2
  v (T )  vs (0)  
Vc Ton  Tsw  2Td  Ton   Tsw   s sw   vs (0)  ic (Tsw )  ic (0)   ic (Tsw )  ic (0)
R L
 2  2 Tsw 
Tsw   vs (Tsw )  vs (0)  R 
  ic (Tsw )  ic (0)   ic (Tsw )  ic (0)
L
2Ton  Tsw  2Td   
Vc   2  2 Tsw 
T   v (T )  vs (0)  R 
  ic (Tsw )  ic (0)   ic (Tsw )  ic (0)
Tsw L
Ton   Td  sw   s sw
2 2Vc   2  2 Tsw 
T  1   v (T )  vs (0)  R 
  ic (Tsw )  ic (0)   ic (Tsw )  ic (0)   Td
L
Ton  sw 1    s sw
2  Vc   2  2 Tsw 
Converting the above equation to discrete time domain,

Tsw    v s (n)  v s (n  1)  R 
1  1   ic (n)  ic (n  1)   ic (n)  ic (n  1)   Td
L
Ton    (10)
 V
2  c  2  2 Tsw 

Equation (10) is used to model the PWM block.

III. MODELING
The single phase half bridge shunt APF model with a nonlinear load is shown in Fig. 9. The nonlinear
load is a 200W full wave bridge rectifier with capacitor filter and a resistive load. The nonlinear load is driven
by a 230 V, 50 Hz power supply. In order to capture the line current with APF not connected and connected, in a
single simulation, a switch is placed between the AC power supply and the inductor. This switch is kept open
for the first ten cycles of vs (t ) and then it is closed. The line current with APF not connected is as shown in
Fig. 10. FFT of this line current (Fig. 11) shows that, the THD is 50.54%. The line current with APF connected
is as shown in Fig. 12. FFT of this line current (Fig. 13) shows that, the THD is 4.15%. The compensating
current generated is as shown in Fig. 14. The values of model parameters are tabulated in table 2.

Figure 9. Single phase half bridge shunt APF model with a nonlinear load

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF

Figure 10. Line current (APF OFF)

Figure 11. FFT of line current (APF OFF)

Figure 12. Line current (APF ON)

Figure 13. FFT of line current (APF ON)

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF

Figure 14. Actual compensating current

Table 2. Model parameters

Parameter Value
Tsw 80 μs

Td 1 μs
Vc 650 V

L 130 mH

R 163 Ω

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS

The simulation results obtained for other nonlinear loads with this APF model is tabulated in table 3.

Table 3. Simulation results

Half wave rectifier with capacitive filter and resistive load

THD = 87.3% (244.04%) THD = 8.64%

Full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load (α=450)

THD = 20.46% THD = 2.58%

Bidirectional AC voltage controller with resistive load (α=900)

THD = 54.86% THD = 5.26%

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 Modeling and Simulation of Single Phase Half Bridge Shunt APF
V. CONCLUSION
Simulation results obtained for, single phase half bridge shunt APF model with fix load, show that the
THD is reduced below 5% and pf is improved. Simulation results meet the IEEE 519-1992 recommendation.
Therefore, the expression for ON time of MOSFET, in single phase half bridge shunt APF, is suitable to be
implemented as an embedded system.

REFERENCES
[1] Sergio Serena, Chongming Qiao and Keyue M. Smedley, A Single Phase Active Power Filter with Double Edge Integration Control
IECON'01: The 27th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, 2001, pp. 949 - 953
[2] R. B. Oliveria, F. B. Libano, R. A. M. Braga and J. C. Lima, Low Cost Single Phase Active Power Filter Controlled by DSP, 10th
International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power, 2002, pp. 524-529.
[3] Chongming Qiao, Keyue M. Smedley and Franco Maddaleno, A Single Phase Active Power Filter With One Cycle Control Under
Unipolar Operation, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, 2004, pp. 1623-1630.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mr. V. R. Gaikwad born in Maharashtra, in India on December 29, 1977. He graduated from Dr. J. J.
Magdum College of Engineering, Jaysingpur and post graduated from Walchand College of Engineering,
Sangli. He received B.E and M.Tech. degree in Electronics Engineering from Shivaji University, Kolhapur.
He is working as Assistant Professor in the department of electronics engineering at walchand college of
engineering, sangli. His fields of interest include circuits and systems, embedded systems and VLSI.

Mr. S. N. Kore born in India on May 10, 1959, is M.E. in Electronics Engineering. He is working as
Associate Professor at Walchand College of Engineering, since 1990, in the department of electronics
engineering. His areas of interest are digital signal processing and communication networks. He is a
member of the board of studies in electronics at shivaji university, kolhapur and solapur university, solapur.
He is recipient of Annasaheb Benare's Charitable Trust's Best Teacher award, in 2005.

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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)
ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 39-45
www.iosrjournals.org

Interrelationship Superstructure for Mobile Communications

Maninder Kaur, Arthi Srivastava, Abhishek Ganu
(ECE/Keshav Memorial Institute of Technology/JNTU/India)
(CSE/KMIT/JNTU/India)
(CSE/KMIT /JNTU/India)

Abstract: This article describes suitable network architecture for the mobile communications system beyond
IMT-2000. Recent rapid developments in mobile communication services have significantly altered the lifestyles
of many people. With the increasing demand for access to the Internet, the amount of data traffic in mobile
communication networks has significantly increased and will dominate these networks. Therefore, mobile
networks beyond IMT-2000 should offer higher bit rate channels and adapt to multimedia traffic more
efficiently. This article first forecasts market trends in mobile communications in order to identify requirements
of the mobile communications system beyond IMT-2000. Then the article considers the network architecture of
the mobile communications system beyond IMT-2000 that will satisfy those requirements.
Keywords: Architecture, IMT 2000, Multimedia traffic, Network architecture

I. Introduction
The concept of “anytime, anywhere, anyone” was realized by the development of mobile
communications systems for voice communications. Initially, mobile communication systems were mainly used
by a few people as a complement to fixed telephone communications., the number of subscribers has
significantly increased, driven by the continuous development of mobile technologies, the expansion of service
areas, the introduction of compact terminals, and the increased popularity of mobile communications among the
younger generation. Data communication services through mobile networks have attracted many people to the
WWW and have promoted the exchange of e-mail. These services are now expected to change people‟s
lifestyles dramatically through further development of mobile communication technologies. Thus, the status of
services of mobile communication systems is changing from “complementary” to “requisite” and their role is
expanding from “handy phone” to “private information infrastructure.”

Figure 1. Basic Network

The third-generation (3G) system known as the IMT-2000, which will be introduced in 2001, will
enhance the ability of data communications. The system offers channels of less than 2 Mb/s when subscribers
move at vehicular speeds. Therefore, the mobile communications system beyond IMT-2000 (4G) should be
designed to offer significantly higher bit rates than 2 Mb/s even in a vehicular environment and to adapt to data
communications more efficiently to realize the concept of “anytime, anywhere, anyone, and anything” from the
viewpoint of multimedia communications.
This article first forecasts market trends in mobile communications in order to identify
requirements of the mobile communications
beyond IMT-2000. The article proposes a 4G-systemn network architecture that satisfies those requirements.

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 Interrelationship Superstructure for Mobile Communications
II. Market Trends of Mobile Communications 4G System Objectives
Taking a retrospective view of the history of mobile communications, we can see that a technological
revolution in mobile communications or a major replacement in facilities has occurred every decade. Figure 1
shows the generations ofmobile systems and their application areas from the viewpoints of transmission bit rate
and the mobility of terminals. As the figure shows, the milestones achieved in mobile communications aim at
faster bit rates and wider service areas. The first-generation system, which was deployed in the 1980s, was
based on analog FM transmission technologies; the second- generation (2G) system applied digital transmission
tech nologies such as TDMA. Both generations are mainly used for voice communications, although the 2G
system offers data communication services using digital channels at several tens of kilobits per second

Figure 2. Information speed

The 3G system achieves a maximum bit rate of 2 iMb/s and will offer packet- switched multimedia
services as well as circuit switched voice services. Because the 4G system will most likely be introduced several
years thereafter, a bit rate higher than that of the 3G system should be offered even in a high-speed mobility
environment. From the aspect of other than the transmission bit rate, the 4G system will be expected to connect
not only pe0p.e but also machines and people. In the 21st century our society will be more information-oriented
and all information will be digitized. Most electrical appliances will be equipped with communication functions.
The ratio of data traffic to voice traffic will significantly increase. In addition, through enhanced mobile
terminals such as PDAs (personal digital assistants), people will be able to access nesccesary information and
ccintrol their appliances remotely whenever and from wherever they wish. In order to realize such a society, the
4G system should be designed to seamlessly connect
people and their environment.

III. Traffic Estimation

If mobile communicaticns are used only for voice communications between people, the number of
subscribers and traffic volume will become saturated in the near future. However, mobile communications will
provide data communications between non-human objects as well as people. Therefore, the amount of mobile
comrnunications traffic will further increase for a considerable time into the future based on the development of
new applications.
In February 1999 „ i-mode service” was introduced in Japan. This service covers a wide range of
applications, such as enabling customers 10 access Web sites, exchange mail, and buy tickets . Since the service
was introduced the number of i-mode subscribers has dramatically increased. At the end of March 2001 the
number of mobile Internet subscribers was 3.5 million in Japan (a total of three operator groups). Furthermore,
there are other factors that will increase the amount of mobile traffic in the future. For example, one user
may use several mobile terminals (MTs) depending on a given situation. Many object:; equipped with
communication functions such as multimedia vehicles, electrical appliances, vending machines, and pet
locators, will proliferate and diversify the demand for mobile communications. Table 1 gives the statistics of
population, vehicles, and personal computers in some countries to show such potential demand. Considering
these market trends, mobile communications traffic in 2010 and 2015 is estimated as shown in Fig. 2. This
estimation is based on the ITU-R report M.2023, “Spectrum requirements for IMT-2000,” by ITU-R Task
Group 8/1. The TG8/1 estimation classified services that will be available in 2010 into six categories according
to the channel bit rate: Speech (16 kb/s in each direction) Simple message (14 kb/s in each‟direction) Switched
data (64 kbi‟s in each direction) Medium multimedia (downlinlduplink 384/64 kb/s) High multimedia
(do.wnlink/uplink: 2000/128 kb/s) Highly interactive mLltimedia (128 kb/s in each direction) The amount of

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 Interrelationship Superstructure for Mobile Communications
traffic was estimated by assuming the number of subscribers and frequency of use of each service catego ry.
“High multimedia” service, 2-Mb/s downlink and 128-kb/s uplink, is the fastest service of the six categories.
The amount of traffic of voice services that are representative services in the 1G and 2G systems is estimated to
increase twofold in 2010 compared with that in 1999.

Figure 3. No. of subscribers according to population

Multimedia services will expand beyond those of voice in the 3G era and multimedia traffic will
become twice that of voice services in 2010. To estimate the traffic in 201.5, we assume here that voice-service
traffic will be saturated after 2010, multimedia traffic will grow at a 40 percent rate per year after 2010, and
higher bit rate multimedia services (indicated as multimedia will be introduced. The 40 percent increase rate is
based on two factors:
The capacity of memory and hard disks has increased at the The number of pixels in a CCD for input
devices has also Based on these assumptions, the amount of traffic in 2015 will be 23 fold that of the present,
and multimedia traffic will account for 90 percent of the traffic. As indicated in this estimation, 4G systems
should accommodate this dramatically
increasing amount of multimedia traffic. Therefore, enhancing the system capacity as well as achieving a higher
bit rate transmission are important requirements for the 4G system.

IV. Network Requirements

In this section, possible wireless transmission characteristics for the 4G system are described. Then
requirements for the network are discussed considering these characteristics. Wireless Transmission
Charateristics Transmission Bit Rate - The 3G system achieves a maximum bit rate of 2 Mb/s, but the bit rate
may decrease in a vehicular- speed environment. Wireless LANs and other broadband wireless access systems
using 5-GHz frequency bands (e.g., MMAC , IEEE 802.11, and HiperLAN/2 will offer greater than 30-Mb/s
transmission capability in an indoor/pedestrian environment. For the 4G system, more than 20-Mb/s
transmission will be realized in an outdoor/vehicular environment Spectrum - Because the 4G system will
provide greater than 20-Mb/s wireless channels and should accommodate the significantly increasing amount of
traffic, sufficient frequency

Figure 5. Different types of Mobile switching center

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 Interrelationship Superstructure for Mobile Communications

Figure 5. Traffic Growth

resources will be required. A lower frequency band, which is considered suitable for mobile communications, is
now heavily used. Therefore it seems unlikely that a frequency band below 3 GHz will be used for the 4G
system. Although the frequency band for the 4G system has not yet been discussed in the ITU-R (WRC), the 4G
system design should consider a higher frequency band for operation.

V. Area Coverage
One of the advantages of mobile communications is the ability to communicate independently of time and place.
Therefore, expanding the service area of mobile communication systems is always an important issue for system
operators. The 2G system now covers approximately 100 percent of populated areas, and customers can use
mobile phones even in some buildings and underground shopping malls in urban areas. The 4G system is
expected to have coverage similar to the 2G system. The 4G system will offer channels of more than 20 Mb/s,
which is three orders of magnitude greater than that of the 2G system.
The cell radius covered by a base station (BS) generally decreases if, assuming all other conditions are
the same, radio signals are transmitted at higher bit rates because the received signal level must be higher than
that at a lower transmission bit rate to compensate for the increased noise level. Moreover, as mentioned above,
the 4G system may be operated at a higher frequency band so that propagation loss of the wireless signal is
higher than that of 2G and 3G systems.

VI. Hierarchical Service Area

Although we expect that all objects will be connected to a network through wireless links, it may be
difficult for small devices to be directly connected to the 4G system due to power consumption and antenna
size.
However, compact devices will be capable of exchanging wire-

Figure 6. GSM Architecture

less signals at short range. Therefore, compact devices will be able to access the 4G nctwork through a
miniature BS, which will act as a MT for the 4G system. By employing such a configuration, service areas will
consist of multiple overlapping cells.

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 Interrelationship Superstructure for Mobile Communications
VII. Requirements
Seamless Connections - Imagining the network services in 2010, many types of wireless communication
systems will be more popular as well as wired communications systems, and they will be used according to
consumer needs The 3G system will play a major role in public mobile communication services, and wireless
LANs will play a major role in private area communications. Short-range wireless systems will also be used to
configure pi:rsonal area networks (PANs). These PANs are very short-rang networks established around a
person in which very closely dispersed personal devices for information or communication such as personal
computers, PDAs, and mobile terminals exchange various types of information In addition to these wireless
access systems, the 4G system will offer several tens of megabits per second channels for public mobile
communications. When many types of networks can be used, customers may wish to access each system
according to time, location, or other conditions. Concerns pertaining to the economic coverage of the 4G system
of rural areas can be eased by The complementary use of other wireless systems. For these purposes, the
following functions will be required:
Interconnection between wireless access networks.
Capability of handover between wireless access networks.
Security mechanisms across wireless access networks.

VIII. Reduction in the Nuniber of Control Messages and Short Delay at Handover
As mentioned in the previous section, it seems unavoidable that the cell radius of a 4G BS will
decrease. Due to this, cell sojourn time of customers will be shortened and the handover frequency will increase.
Since channel bit rates of th: 4G will be enhanced beyond that of the 3G system, the number of error bits of
packets will increase in the 4G system even with the same duration of channel cutoff. Therefore, reducing the
number of control messages and a short delay handover are required.

i) Reduction of Bit Cost

Because customers have a limit as to how much they are w'illing to pay for services, the cost for
communication services will not be significantly increased.
Therefore, to develop broadband multimedia communications, the bit cost of the 4G system should be
decreased as well as the realization of broadband transmission capability. As mentioned above, the cell radius
of the 4G system will tend to decrease based on traffic and propagation characteristics. If the decreased-area
cells are used to cover entire service areas even in rural areas, the cost of the 4G system may approach an
unacceptable level. In order to prevent this, the 4G network should be designed to reduce system costs while
covering the largest possible service area.

ii) Service integration Based on lnternet Protocols

Nowadays, most telecommunication services tend to be realized through the Internet and terminals tend
to be connected to the Internet. In addition, many appliances will be networked and they will communicate with
each other through the Internet [lo]. Therefore, the 4G network should support IP protocols as a future network
infrastructure.

iii) Movable Network Support

Because the 4G system will offer sufficiently high-speed channels, a LAN in a vehiclewill be
connected as a movable network to the 4G system. MTs may be connected to such movable networks and may
communicate with the 4G system through the movable network, or compact devices connected to a PAN will be
connected to the 4G system through a MT in the PAN. In this way, movable networks or MTs in the 4G system
will work as a gateway for smaller networks. Therefore, the 4G system should consider accommodating a
movable network as well as the traditional MTs

IX. Network Architecture

Basic Concept
Similar to the 3G system, it comprises a core network (CN), which performs location control, call
control, and service control; and the radio access network (RAN), which performs radio transmission and radio
resource control. Mobility control is performed through cooperation between the CN and RAN. The information
transportation in the 4G system (CN and RAN) is based on IP protocols. Each MT has its own IP address.
Therefore, the 4G network directly connects with the Internet, but connects with ISDN or PSTN through
gateways. Contrarily, traditional mobile systems connect to the Internet through gateways. In order to make
seamless connections, multiple types of RANs are connected to a common CN.

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 Interrelationship Superstructure for Mobile Communications
i) RAN Physical link Configuration
In order to realize economical high-speed large-capacity mobile communication systems, deployment of the
RAN is a key issue to be resolved. The configuration of the RAN of the 3G system (3G-RAN) is shown in Fig.
5a. It has a vertical-tree structure and multiple BSs are connected to a radio network controller (RNC). In order

Figure 7. Terminals of the network

to enhance radio-signal quality at the cell edges, a diversity handover scheme is introduced to the3G system. In
the scheme, when a MT can communicate with multiple BSs, that is, the MT is handed over between adjacent
BSs, all Layer 1 signals of the uplink (MT to BSs) received at each BS are transmitted to the RNC, and the RNC
combines them into a user data stream. Simultaneously, Layer 1 signals of the downlink (BSs to MT) are
transmitted from the multiple BSs, and the MT combines the received data from multiple BSs into a user data
stream. If three BSs are incorporated for each MT handover, all Layer 1 signals on the BS approach links
between the RNC and the BSs are tripled compared to the original user information. In the 4G system, which
employs decreased-area cells and in which handover may occur more frequently, the load on both the approach
links and the RNC signal processing equipment will be heavier. This will cause a serious cost increase in the
RAN. Thus, a‟new and innovative RAN structure should be studied to reduce the infrastructure cost. The RAN
structure proposed here is a cluster type-RAN as shown in Fig. 5b. In the figure, BSs are grouped into a
“cluster” and there is a “cluster-head‟‟ BS, which is connected to the CN. BSs in a cluster are linked to each
other by a kind of LAN (horizontal structure) and diversity hand-over in the cluster is processed in a distributed
manner within the cluster (localized handover processing). The cluster is viewed as a “virtual BS” from the core
network. Thus, most of the Layer 1 signal processing is enclosed in the cluster so that the load on both the
approach links and the signal processing on the specific equipment are significantly reduced. Figure 5b also
shows the Layer 1 signal processing concept. The uplink signal is received by multiple BSs and then the
received signal is forwarded to one of the BSs that processes the uplink signal as a temporal agent. After the
processing, the uplink signal is forwarded to the CN by the cluster-head BS. As the MT moves, the
representative BS (the temporal agent) is changed to one of the adjacent BSs.

Figure 8. Handover

Downlink packet signals are multicast from the cluster-head BS to the other BSs in the cluster. When a MT can
communicate with multiple BSs simultaneously, the downlink quality and required transmitting power for each
MT can be monitored and fed back to the BSs with a short time delay. With this information, each BS
autonomously determines whether or not it is better to transmit a packet signal. Thus, the probability of
unnecessary or excessive-power transmission will be reduced. This realizes high-efficiency and low
interference transmission so that the capacity of the 4G system will increase.

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 Interrelationship Superstructure for Mobile Communications

Figure 9. Mobile Station gets signal from Base Station

X. Conclusion
This article analyzed the market trends of mobile communications and identified the requirements for
the mobile communications system beyond TMT-2000. The amount of traffic of future mobile communications
is projected to increase significantly.
To accommodate this huge amount of traffic, the mobile communications systems beyond IMT-2000 will use a
higher frequency band and offer information channels that have a bit rate ten-fold higher than the 3G system.
Due to this, the cell radius of the mobile communications system beyond IMT-2000 will decrease and the
handover frequency will increase. Moreover, since several types of radio access networks will be used in the
future, seamless handover between these radio access networks will be necessary. Based on these requirements,
this article presented network architecture for the mobile communications system beyond IMT- 2000 that
comprises an IP-based core network and several types of radio access networks. According to this configuration,
mobile communication systems are seamlessly connected to each other and the Internet. This article proposed a
cluster- type link configuration, the 4G-RAN, to reduce air interface Layer-1 control signals and pointed out
that the core network and the 4G-RAN are integrated into a unified IP transport network. The article
summarized the mobility control. Other cellular network functions can also be developed in the IP transport
network.

References
[1] M. Zeng, A. Annamalai, and V. Bhargava, "Recent Advances in Cellular Wireless Communications," /€E€ Commun. Mag., vol. 37,
no. 9, Sept. 1999, pp. 128-38.

[2] K. Enoki, "Concept of i-Mode Service: New Communication Infrastructure in the 2lst Century," NTT DoCoMo Tech. Journal, vol.
1, no. 1, Oct. 1999, pp. 4-9.

[3] ARIB, "MMAC," available at http://www.arib.or.jp/mmade/index.htmL

[4] ETSI, "HiperLAN/2 Standard," available at http://www.etsi.org/technicalactiv/hiperlan2. Html

[5] S. Abeta et al., "Coherent DS-CDMA and MC-CDMA Broadband Packet Wireless Access in a Multi-cell Environment," Proc. I€€€
VTC-2000 Fall, Sept. 2000, pp. 2213-18.

[6] F. Kojima, H. Harada, and M. Fujise, "Adaptive Sub-carriers Control Scheme for OFDM Cellular Systems," Proc. VTC2000
Spring, May 2000, pp. 1065-9.

[7] 1 1. Walfisch and H. L. Bertoni, "Theoretical Model of UHF Propagation in Urban Environments," I€€€ Trans. Ant. Prop., vol. 36,
no. 12, Dec.

[8] W. Mohr, "Broadband Radio Access for IP-Based Networks in the IST BRAIN Project," Proc. /E€€ ICT, May 2000.

[9] T. Siep et al., "Paving the Way for Personal Area Network Standards: An Overview of the IEEE P802.15 Working Group for
Wireless Personal Area Networks," /€E€ Pers. Commun., vol. 7, no. 1, Feb. 2000, pp. 37-43.

[10] M. Nakagawa, "Wireless Home link," l€lC€ Trans. Commun., vol. €82-B, no. 12, Dec. 1999, pp. 1893-6.

[ l1] H. Soliman et al., "Internet-Draft, Hierarchical MIPv6 mobility management (draft-soliman-mobileip-hmipv6-02.txt)," Feb. 2001

www.iosrjournals.org 45 | Page
IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)
ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 46-50
www.iosrjournals.org

Frequency response of Diamond-like Nanocomposite thin film

based MIM capacitor and equivalent circuit modelling
Sukhendu Janaa, Sayan Dasa, Utpal Gangopadhyaya, Prajit Ghosha and
AnupMondal b
a
MeghnadSahaInstitute of Technology, Techno India Group, Kolkata – 700150, India
b
Dept. of Chemistry, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Howrah – 711103, India

Abstract: The frequency response of metal-insulator-metal (MIM) based thin film capacitorswere studied using
LCR bridgewhere diamond-like nanocomposite (DLN) filmbehaves as a dielectric medium. The films were
deposited by plasma assisted chemical vapour deposition (PACVD) method. Fourier transforms infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) and Ramanspectroscopy give the structure of DLN film. The results show that, equivalent
parallel capacitance (EPC) decreases sharplybeyond 105Hz for thinner films. But for thicker films, there is no
such decrease. This is due to some parasitic series resistance effect in the capacitor circuit. An equivalent
circuit model for real capacitor has been established.Moreover, there is also a small decrement in EPC with
frequency and this effect increases with thickness of film.This may be due to lack of sufficient time for electron
transportation through bulk DLN material. The DLN based thin film capacitor has a great potential for use in
electronic/electricalsystem.
Keywords: DLN, PACVD, frequency response capacitance, thin film capacitor, etc.

I. Introduction
Diamond–like Nanocomposite, an amorphous material comprises of two interpenetrating network
structures. These are one diamond like carbon bonds network stabilized by hydrogen(a-C:H) and another quartz
like silicon network stabilized by oxygen (a-Si:O) [1-4].Different chemical bonds between constituent atoms of
the two networks lead to low residual stress[8]. Apart from different tribological[3, 4, 6], thermal[4, 5],
chemical[10], biocompatibility[7] properties, DLN has also good dielectric properties[1, 2]. DLN possess
electrical resistivity of 108 to 1014 ohm cm, dielectric constant 3 to 10 and breakdown strength in the range of
106 to 108 V/cm[1, 2, 9]. Capacitor has been fabricated with DLN thin film as the dielectric medium
sandwiched by two metal electrodes. Measurement of frequency response of capacitor fabricated by us in the
frequency range of 102Hz to 106Hz has been reported. An equivalent circuit that represents the real behaviour of
the capacitor in electric circuit has also been modelled.

II. Experimental

2.1. Synthesis of DLN film:

Diamond-like Nanocomposite coatings were deposited on aluminium coated silicon substrate by
plasma assisted chemical vapour deposition (PACVD) process. The base pressure is 2 x 10-5 mbar and working
pressure is 3 x 10-4 mbar. Substrates are cleaned by conventional method and again cleaned in situ by plasma
etching prior to deposition. A liquid siloxane precursor injected in the low pressure chambervapouriseswith a
hot filament and in turn ionizesby bombarding thermionic electrons from filament to generate the plasma
atmosphere of precursor elements. The filament current is in the range of 90-110A. The ions are then pulled
towards a rotating substrate holder by using a high frequency RFself-bias of -550V. During deposition process,
argon gas flows in to the chamber at the rate of 50ml/min.

2.2: Fabrication of DLN based capacitor:

Silicon is cleaned by conventional cleaning method and the aluminium thin film is deposited on silicon
substrate by vacuum evaporation (PVD) method. Then the DLN film is deposited on aluminium coated silicon
substrate by PACVD method. Finally,the aluminum thin film is again deposited on DLN surface. The contact
points are achieved by using silver peast. A typical structure of the capacitor is shown in Fig. 1.

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 Frequency response of Diamond-like nanocomposite thin film based MIM capacitor and equivalent
circuit modelling

Figure1: Schematic diagram of single layer DLN based thin film capacitor

III. Results and discussion

In order to study of structure of DLN film, the FTIR spectrum of a representative film was recorded
from 400 -4000cm-1 range.Thecorresponding
FTIRtracehasbeenshowninFig.2.TheFTIRtraceofthefilmshowstwonetworks:oneisDiamond-
LikeC:Hnetworkandanother is Si:OnetworkandtheyareinterpenetratedwiththeSi-
Cbondingdepictingthetypicalnatureof DLN film[3].

240
220
200
C-H
180 Stretching Si:H
Stretching
160
T (a.u.)

C=C
Stretching
140
120
100
Si-C
80
Si-O
60 Stretching
40
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
-1
Wave number (cm )

Figure 2: The FTIR spectra of DLN film show the bonding structure.

-1
Ramanspectrumwasinvestigatedin thewave number to1800cm . rangingfrom1100
2
RamanspectrumanalysisofDLNfilmis deconvolutedintotwo Gaussianpeaks. TheG-peak is due to C=Csp
stretchingvibrationand theD-peak i s attributedtothedisordered breathingmotionofsix-foldaromaticrings[3,
5].Thus,thepeakpositionsintheRaman spectrumofDLNfilmandtheintensityratioofD/G-
peakarethemostimportantparametersto understandtheelectricalproperties of the DLN film because sp2 π bonds
-1
are responsible for electron transportation through DLN film. Therearetwobands around1355cm (D-
-1
peak)and1524cm (G-peak)showninFig.3. The ID/IG ratio is observed to be 0.35 which may be indirectly
related with sp /sp2 ratio[11].
3

1200

1000
Intensity (a.u)

800

600

400

200

0
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
-1
Wavenumber (cm )

Figure 3: Raman spectra of DLN film is deconvulated into two Gaussian peaks.
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 Frequency response of Diamond-like nanocomposite thin film based MIM capacitor and equivalent
circuit modelling
3.1. Frequency response of EPC:
The frequency response of EPC of DLN based thin film MIM capacitor has been recorded using
Agilent 4284A Precision LCR Meterat room temperature. The peak to peak voltage of ac signal was 0.5V with
frequency ranges from 102 Hz to 106Hz. The Frequency response of three single layer DLN thin films based
MIM capacitorshas been shown in Fig. 5 and Fig.6. The thickness of DLN films are 118nm,313nm and
1090nmrespectively. It is observed that the EPCis almost constant up to 105Hz of ac source then
decreasessharply for both of thin capacitors. This may be due to some parasitic series resistance effect. We
applied an equivalent model for real capacitor to explain such behaviour in section 3.2. Moreover, a small
gradient of EPC with frequency is present in all capacitors and the rate of such decrement increases with
thickness of film. This may be due to lack of sufficient time to transport of charge through bulk DLN film.

3.2 Equivalent capacitor model:

In real capacitor, there must be a definite leakage resistance in between two electrodes and a small
series resistance due to resistance of thin metal electrodes and contact terminals. These resistances are termed as
parasitic resistance. The LCR bridgemeasured the impedance by assuming a parallel combination of capacitor
and resistance i.e. equivalent parallel capacitance (Cp) and equivalent parallel resistance (Rp).

Figure 4: Diagram of instrumental model circuit and equivalent model circuit as considered.

According to the instrumental set up, total impedance measured by LCR bridge is converted in two impedances:
one is due to equivalent parallel capacitance (Cp) and another is due to equivalent parallel resistance (Rp).
According to our model (Fig. 4), we assumed that an ideal capacitor (C) which is independent of frequency
(~MHz), a parallel leakage resistance (Rf) and parasitic resistance (Rs) in series.
Total impedance (Zex) according to instrumental set up is divided as a real part and imaginary part. Similarly,
total impedance of equivalent model circuit is divided in real and imaginary parts. Comparing the real and
imaginary part of equivalent model circuit and instrumental circuit, we get,
𝐂𝐑𝟐𝐟
𝐂𝐩 = ………..…….. 1
𝐱𝐑𝟐𝐬 +𝟐𝐑 𝐬 𝐑 𝐟 +𝐑𝟐𝐟
𝐱𝐑𝟐𝐬 +𝟐𝐑 𝐬 𝐑 𝐟 +𝐑𝟐𝐟
𝐑𝐩 = ...……………. 2
𝐱𝐑 𝐬 +𝐑 𝐟
wherex = 1 + ω2 C2 R2f …….……. 3

In general, the series resistance (Rs) is much smaller than the leakage resistance (Rf). At low
frequency, „x‟in equation 1 is closes to one hence;Cp and Rp are nearly equal to C and Rf respectively according
to equations 1 and 2. If Rf is very high (~ MΩ or higher), then Rshas no significant effect on EPC even at high
frequency (106 Hz). But if Rf is low (~kΩ), then Rscan play an important role on EPC at higher frequency. By
changing the value of Rs, we fitted the experimental graph from the equivalent model circuit.
7
Film thickness=118nm
16

14 6
Capacitance (nF)

Capacitance (nF)

Film thickness=313nm
12
5

10

4
8

6 3
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 5: Frequency response of EPC for 118nm and 313nm thick DLN based capacitor.

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 Frequency response of Diamond-like nanocomposite thin film based MIM capacitor and equivalent
circuit modelling
230
Thickness=1090nm
220

210

Capacitance (pF)
200

190

180

170

160
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 6: Frequency response of EPC for 1090 nm thick DLN based capacitor.

The frequency response of EPC of single layer (thickness=118nm) DLN film capacitor has good
agreement with equivalent model circuit (Fig. 7). The EPC and EPR of the capacitor are 16.2nF and 9.48kΩ
respectively at frequency 100Hz. So the value of C and Rf are 16.2nF and 9.48kΩ respectively.
18

16

14
Capacitance (nF)

12

10

8 Experimental graph
Our model graph
6

4
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 7: Capacitance vs. frequency response for DLN single layer thin film capacitor of thickness 118nm. (Rs =
15Ω, Rf = 9.48kΩ, C = 16.2nF)

It has been seen by trial and error method that,Rsis equal to 15Ωfor better fitment of experimental results.

Figure 8: Capacitance vs. frequency response for DLN single layer thin film capacitor of thickness 313nm. (Rs =
18Ω, Rf = 4.5 MΩ, C = 6.52nF).

Fig. 8 also shows that the frequency response of EPC of single layer (thickness=313nm) DLN film
capacitor has agreement with theoretical model. The EPC and EPR of the capacitor are 6.52nF and 4.5MΩ
respectively at frequency 100Hz. Similarly, the value of C and Rf are 6.52nF and 4.5MΩ respectively. It also
has been seen by trial and error method that, Rs is equal to 18Ω for better fitment of experimental results.
There is no sharp decrement of EPC at high frequency for thick layer DLN film(1090 nm) which shown in Fig.
6. Because the leakage resistant is very high comparable to series resistance and hence does not have any effect
within frequency 1 MHz on EPC according to equation 1. The EPC and EPR are 223pF and 30MΩ respectively
at 100Hz frequency.
Another interesting observation is that, there is a gradual decrease of EPC with frequency up to 105Hz.
This effect increases with film thickness. These may be explained as follows: for any definite potential
difference across the capacitor the field strength becomes very high for very thin dielectric film. Due to the high
field strength and defect states present in the bulk of the film, transportation of electrons through DLN film may
be explained by Pool-Frankle model for insulators. The transportation causes electron drift velocity, so electrons
www.iosrjournals.org 49 | Page
 Frequency response of Diamond-like nanocomposite thin film based MIM capacitor and equivalent
circuit modelling
take some time to cross the bulk materialif applied field remains active in that direction. For alternating electric
field, as applied field frequency increases frequent change in field direction causes decrease in transportation of
electrons because of lesser available time for them to be transported. Hence current decreases in the circuit i.e.
circuit impedance increases. Increase of impedance signifies decrease of EPC. Apart from this when thickness
of DLN film increases the field strength decreases for specific potential difference and the path length for
electrons also increase as a result time for transportation further increase causing lowering of EPC. When the
frequency is quite high >104 Hz the decrement in EPC reduces causing more or less a steady capacitance for
thicker film (Fig. 9).

1.0

0.9

0.8
Normalized Cp

0.7
DLN film thickness=118nm
0.6 DLN film thickness=313nm
DLN film thickness=1090nm
0.5

0.4
3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 9: Normalized EPC for three different samples

The sharp decrease in EPC after 105 Hz for thinner DLN film layered capacitors in Fig 9 may be
attributed to parasitic series resistance effect in the capacitor circuitas mentioned in section 3.2.

IV. Conclusion
The study for capacitance against frequency of DLN thin film based MIM capacitor shows that,
parasitic resistance has a great effect on EPC at high frequency operation. To avoid this effect, the leakage
resistance should be very high and parasitic resistance should be very low. For a particular dielectric medium to
increase the leakage resistance the thickness of dielectric must be enlarged which leads to decrease in
capacitance for fixed electrode area. In case of high capacitance and high frequency operation, our model can be
helpful to design an electrical/ electronic circuit properly since it has good matching with experimental studies.
Hence, DLNthin film based MIM capacitor has great potential for use in electrical/ electronic circuit.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the DST, Govt. of India for financial support. The FTIR and Raman Spectra
studies were carried out in the IIT, Kharagpur, and IACS, Kolkata respectively.

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COATINGS FOR OPTICAL COMPONENTS”, United States Patent [19], Patent Number: 5,718,976, Date of Patent: Feb. 17,
1998.
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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE)
ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 1, Issue 2 (May-June 2012), PP 51-56
www.iosrjournals.org

Analysis of Dual Stator PM Brushless DC Motor

Ankita Dwivedi, R. K. Srivastava
Department of Electrical Engineering, IT-BHU Varanasi

Abstract: In this paper the analysis of dual stator permanent magnet BLDC (PMBLDC) motor has been
reported. The proposed dual stator PMBLDC motor consists of two separate concentric stators having different
number of slots with a common rotor on the same shaft. Two stator stampings of different radii are used for
design of stators. The rotor is a hollow cylindrical rotor in the space between two stators. The analysis of the
designed dual stator PMBLDC motor has been done. In dual stator machine, the total output torque
corresponds to the algebraic sum of two independent torques.
Keywords: Dual stator motor, Permanent magnet BLDC (PMBLDC) motor, inner stator and outer stator.

I. INTRODUCTION
Dual stator topology has been widely used in motors for different applications where power
segmentation and reliability are main concern. Dual stator configurations are already being used in induction,
synchronous motors for applications like wind-mill generators, aircrafts, etc. In these dual stator machines, there
are two stator windings which share the same magnetic and mechanical structures. These machines are typically
used in high power applications. The stators may consist of two identical windings with or without phase shift.
The two windings may have different number of poles, number of phases and ratings. In dual stator machine, the
output torque corresponds to the algebraic sum of two independent torques. By having two independent torque
components the low frequency operation, including standstill maneuvering can be improved [3].
PM brushless motor drives are successfully implemented in different electric propulsion systems. To improve
the torque density, two air-gaps are combined in a motor to deliver the output torque and then the
electromagnetic torque is produced by the separate currents of both stators. Based on this concept, the double-
stator PM motor drive is introduced. It combines the double-stator structure of the PM brushless motor so as to
provide high starting torque and good controllability for EV propulsion. Because of its unique configuration the
motor can offer advantages of high torque density and good controllability [5].
Dual stator machines of various types are being recently considered for various motoring and
generating applications. From the point of view of stator winding, dual stator machines have been categorized as
“split-wound” and “self-cascaded”. The winding of split-wound dual machine was incorporated to increase the
power capability of large synchronous generators and had been recently found useful as part of uninterruptible
power supplies, generator of both dc and ac electric power and stand-alone power supply. Its inherent
redundancy has also been exploited to achieve better drive reliability. The split-wound synchronous machine
with either round or salient-pole rotor structure has two similar but separate three-phase windings wound for the
same number of poles [7].
PM motors operated as brushless dc (BLDC) drives have also received wide attention as their
performance can be superior to conventional brushed dc motors and ac motors. Applications of BLDC drives
with permanent-magnet excitation are increasing day by day. The use of rare earth cobalt magnets (Sm-Co) and
the recently introduced neodymium-iron-boron (Nd-Fe-B) magnets can provide high torques [2]. These high
magnetic field machines have good servo performance and are suitable as direct drives in robotics and
automation, if appropriate modern control techniques are implemented for the control of its speed and position.
Normally a PMBLDC motor is an ac synchronous motor with permanent magnet mounted on the rotor
and windings on the stator. The PM creates the rotor flux and the stator windings create electromagnetic poles.
The rotor is attracted by energized stators phase generating a rotation. By using an appropriate sequence of
supply to stator phases, a rotating magnetic field on the stator is created and rotor rotates. Due to the
construction of brushless motor, the motor power losses are almost entirely in the stationary stator, hence heat
can be easily transferred in to atmosphere.
Dual stator machines can be axial-field or radial-field machines. Compared with conventional PM
machines AFPM machines normally have two air gaps. The RFPM and AFPM machines have the similar
performance in terms of torque density, torque-to mass ratio, losses, and efficiency. However, the material cost
of AFPM machines is much higher than that of the RFPM machines due to more magnets needed for the
AFPMs. The RFPM can provide stronger cooling capability than the AFPM [8].

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 Analysis of Dual Stator PM Brushless DC Motor
A BLDC motor can reduce the torque ripple and stator current per phase without increasing the voltage
per phase and increase the reliability and power density. A high number of phases increase the torque-per-
ampere ratio for the same machine volume [9].

II. DUAL STATOR BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

It is proposed to analyze dual stator PM BLDC motor. There are two concentric stators having different
diameter with one of the stator having large diameter and 36 slots in inner periphery and another stator have
smaller diameter in outer periphery and 20 slots. The space between the two stators is occupied by a common
cylindrical hollow rotor in which the surface mounted permanent magnets are pasted in inner and outer
cylindrical surfaces of the rotor. The details of these machines are also given in Appendix.
The schematic diagram of one of the dual stator machine is shown in Fig 1.

Fig 1. Schematic diagram of Dual stator PMBL DC

motor

III. Mathematical Modeling

The PMBL DC motor can be analyzed using d-q model reported in reference [4]. When both the stators
of dual stator PMBL DC motor are producing unidirectional torque, the net torque is obtained by superposition.
The model of BLDC motor can be easily applied for obtaining performance characteristics of dual stator BLDC
motor. It is assumed that the coils impressed voltages in different stators are having the same zero crossing as
the rotational induced EMF in them. It is also assumed that switching of different coils are synchronized with
the rotor position. The paper present here deals with the theoretical determination of performance
characteristics of dual stator BLDC motors. For steady-state operation with balanced, sinusoidal applied stator
voltages are [4],
𝑉𝑞𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 𝐼𝑞𝑠 + 𝜔𝑟 𝐿𝑑 𝐼𝑑𝑠 + 𝜔𝑟 𝜆𝑚
(1)
𝑉𝑑𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 𝐼𝑑𝑠 + 𝜔𝑟 𝐿𝑑 𝐼𝑑𝑠 + 𝜔𝑟 𝜆𝑚
(2)
Where, Rs is the stator resistance per phase
Ls is the stator resistance per phase
ƛm is the amplitude of flux linkages established by the permanent magnet
Vqs and Vds are the stator voltages in d-q axes frame
Iqs and Ids are the stator currents in d-q axes frame
The flux linkage ƛm is always constant. The steady-state torque can be expressed as,
3 𝑝
𝑇𝑒 = 2 2 𝜆𝑚 𝐼𝑞𝑠 + 𝐿𝑑 − 𝐿𝑞 𝐼𝑞𝑠 𝐼𝑑𝑠

IV. RESULTS
The proposed dual stator PMBL DC motors reported earlier have been analyzed using the above
reported model. Dual stator PMBL DC motors has been analyzed for different voltages and number of phases
for different stators. The two stators of the machine are given different supply voltages as well as different
phases,

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 Analysis of Dual Stator PM Brushless DC Motor

Cases Dual stator PMBLDC motor

20 slots 36 slots
Change of Voltages
Case A 12volts 24volts
Case B 24volts 48volts
Case C 48volts 96volts
Change of phases
Case a 1 phase 3 phase
Case b 3 phase 1 phase
Case c 3 phase 3 phase

The torque-speed characteristics and the power-speed characteristics for the different cases of voltages are
plotted,

Case A 12/24V

Case B 24/48 V

Case C 48/96 V

Fig 2 Effect of changing applied voltages on torque-speed characteristics

Case A 12/24V

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 Analysis of Dual Stator PM Brushless DC Motor

Case B 24/48 V

Case C 48/96 V

Fig 3 Effect of changing applied voltages on power-speed characteristics

Now the dual stator machines are analyzed for different phases in stators and the torque-speed and
power-speed characteristics are plotted. During the phase variation analysis in the dual stator motor the supply
voltage is kept at 12 volts,

Case a Single/three phase 12 V

Case b Three/single phase 12V

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 Analysis of Dual Stator PM Brushless DC Motor

Case c Three/three phase 12V

Fig 4 Effect of variation of phases on torque-speed characteristics with 12 V

Case a Single/three phase 12 V

Case b Three/single phase 12V

Case c Three/three phase 12V

Fig 5 Effect of variation of phases on power-speed characteristics with 12 V

V. Discussions of the Results:

The effect of voltage variation is shown in Fig 2 (a), (b) and (c). As the voltage of any of the stator in
dual stator BLDC motor increases the corresponding starting torque of the machine increases and thus the total
torque increases as it is the sum of torques of both the machines. With the increase in speed, torque of the BLDC
motor increases and at certain speed the torque becomes zero. For machine having different slots/poles the speed
at which torque will become zero is different. For larger voltages like 96 volts, torque decreases very slowly
and become almost constant. The performance like power versus speed can be easily developed. As the
brushless DC motor is also known as Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor because this power-speed
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 Analysis of Dual Stator PM Brushless DC Motor
characteristic resembles those of synchronous machine characteristics. From power-speed characteristics of
Dual stator BLDC motor, it can be stated that the characteristics of this machine is stable.
Also, as the number of phases in a machine increases the starting torque also increases and in the dual stator
machine with two stators having different number of phases, the stator with lower number of phase has less
starting torque as compared to the machine having high number of phases. Also for different phases in different
stators the torque will become zero at different speed and for the dual stator machine having same number of
phases in both the stators the torque will become zero at the same speed.
From power-speed characteristics of dual stator motor having different number of phases in the two
stators, the maximum power of each machine will be different and the power of different stator will reach zero
at different speeds. But when the two stators of the dual stator machine have same number of phases the speed at
which power will reach zero will be the same.

VI. CONCLUSIONS
The increasing demand of power in day to day life and energy crisis have given importance to the
development of dual stator PM brushless dc motor. The advantages like reliability, high power density and
reduced torque-ripples are achieved. PMBLDC motor design results in low rotor inertia, higher rotor speed and
higher motor supply voltage as compared to conventional dc motor. Its high reliability and robust nature also
makes it suitable for electric vehicle applications. Also, permanent magnet BLDC drives are highly suitable for
high-speed applications. These motors have higher power density or higher power per unit weight of motor,
which makes them more attractive

REFERENCES:
[1] Djafar Hadiouche, Hubert Razik, and Abderrezak Rezzoug, “On the Modeling and Design of Dual-Stator Windings to Minimize
Circulating Harmonic Currents for VSI Fed AC Machines”, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 506-
515, March-April 2004.
[2] Teck-Seng Low, Mohammed A.Jabbar, and M. Azizur Rahman, “Permanent-Magnet Motors for Brushless Operation” , IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 124-129, January/February 1990.
[3] Alfredo Mufioz-Garcia Thomas A. Lipo, “Dual Stator Winding Induction Machine Drive”, IEEE Transactions 1998, pp.601-608.
[4] Paul C. Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk and Scott D.Sudhoff, “Analysis of Electric Machinery”, IEEE press, IEEE power engineering
society, 1994 Edition.
[5] Shuangxia Niu, K. T. Chau, Dong Zhang, J. Z. Jiang, Zheng Wang, “Design and Control of a Double-Stator Permanent-Magnet
Motor Drive for Electric Vehicles” , IEEE Transactions 2007, pp. 1293-1300.
[6] Xiaoyong Zhu, Dajian Chen, Li Quan, Zhiling Liao and Guohai Liu, “The Flux Controllable Permanent Magnet Brushless
Machines: Concepts, Developments and Applications’, IEEE Transactions 2009, IPEMC 2009, pp. 1919-1924.
[7] Zhiqiao Wu, Olorunfemi Ojo and Jyoti Sastry, “High-Performance Control of a Dual Stator Winding DC Power Induction
Generator”, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol.43, No.2, pp. 582-592, March/April 2007.
[8] Ronghai Qu; Aydin, M.; Lipo, T.A., “Performance comparison of dual-rotor radial-flux and axial-flux permanent-magnet BLDC
machines”, IEEE Transactions 2003, Vol.3, pp. 1948-1954, June 2003.
[9] Tae-Yeong Kim; Byoung-Kuk Lee; Chung-Yuen Won, “Modeling and simulation of Multiphase BLDC motor Drive systems for
autonomous underwater applications”, IEEE Transactions 2007, Vol.2, pp. 1366-1371, May 2007.

Appendix

Details of Proposed Dual stator BLDC Motor:

INNER OUTER
STATOR STATOR
Number of slots 20 slots 36 slots
Slot/pole ratio 1 1

Resistance per 5.33Ω 10.67Ω

phase

Inductance per 50 mH 50 mH
phase
Thickness of 2mm
magnet
Magnet ferrite
Air gap 1 mm

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