18MES103L-Civil and Mechanical Engineering

Workshop

CONTENTS
Page No.
Section A: Fitting 2

Section B: Carpentry 13

Section C: Welding 23

Section D: Sheet metal 31

Section E: Smithy 37

Section F: Plumbing 43

Section G: Foundry 47

Section H: Machining 59

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Section A: FITTING

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Section B: CARPENTRY

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Section C: WELDING

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Section D: SHEET METAL

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Section E: SMITHY

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Section F: PLUMBING

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 Section G: FOUNDRY
Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal into a mold, and
removing the mold material after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed
are aluminium and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also
used to produce castings in foundries.
There are large number of tools and equipments used in foundry shop for carrying out different operations
such as sand preparation, molding, melting, pouring and casting. They can be broadly classified as hand tools, sand
conditioning tool, flasks, power operated equipments, metal melting equipments and fettling and finishing
equipments.

HAND TOOLS USED IN FOUNDRY SHOP

Hand riddle
Hand riddle is shown in Fig. 8.1(a). It consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh equipped with
circular wooden frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for removing foreign material such as nails, shot
metal, splinters of wood etc. from it.
Shovel
Shovel is shown in Fig. 8.1(b). It consists of an steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle.
It is used in mixing, tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used for moving and
transforming the molding sand to the container and molding box or flask. It should always be kept clean.
Rammers
Rammers are shown in Fig. 8.1(c). These are required for striking the molding sand mass in the molding
box to pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern. The common forms of rammers used in ramming are
hand rammer, peen rammer, floor rammer and pneumatic rammer which are briefly described as

Fig. 8.1 (a) Fig. 8.1 (b) Fig. 8.1 (c)

(i) Hand rammer

It is generally made of wood or metal. It is small and one end of which carries a wedge type construction,
called peen and the other end possesses a solid cylindrical shape known as butt. It is used for ramming the sand in
bench molding work.
(ii) Peen rammer
It has a wedge-shaped construction formed at the bottom of a metallic rod. It is generally used in packing
the molding sand in pockets and comers.
(iii) Floor rammer
It consists of a long steel bar carrying a peen at one end and a flat portion on the other. It is a heavier and
larger in comparison to hand rammer. Its specific use is in floor molding for ramming the sand for larger molds. Due
to its large length, the molder can operate it in standing position.

(iv) Pneumatic rammers

They save considerable time and labor and are used for making large molds.
Sprue pin

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 Sprue pin is shown in Fig. 8.1(d). It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to
join mold cavity while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed. Later its withdrawal from cope produce a
vertical hole in molding sand, called sprue through which the molten metal is poured into the mould using gating
system.
It helps to make a passage for pouring molten metal in mold through gating system
Strike off bar
Strike off bar (Fig. 8.1(e)) is a flat bar having straight edge and is made of wood or iron.
It is used to strike off or remove the excess sand from the top of a molding box after completion of ramming thereby
making its surface plane and smooth. Its one edge is made beveled and the other end is kept perfectly smooth and
plane.

Fig. 8.1 (e)

Fig. 8.1 (d)

Mallet
Mallet is similar to a wooden hammer and is generally as used in carpentry or sheet metal shops. In
molding shop, it is used for driving the draw spike into the pattern and then rapping it for separation from the mould
surfaces so that pattern can be easily withdrawn leaving the mold cavity without damaging the mold surfaces.
Draw spike
Draw spike is shown Fig. 8.1(f). It is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp
point at the other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern for it withdrawal from the mold. It is
used for driven into pattern which is embedded in the molding sand and raps the pattern to get separated from the
pattern and finally draws out it from the mold cavity.
Vent rod
Vent rod is shown in Fig. 8.1(g). It is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one end and
a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand it is utilized to pierce
series of small holes in the molding sand in the cope portion. The series of pierced small holes are called vents holes
which allow the exit or escape of steam and gases during pouring mold and solidifying of the molten metal for
getting a sound casting.

Fig. 8.1 (f) Fig. 8.1 (g)

Lifters
Lifters are shown in Fig. 8.1(h). They are also known as cleaners or finishing tool which are made of thin
sections of steel of various length and width with one end bent at right angle. They are used for cleaning, repairing
and finishing the bottom and sides of deep and narrow openings in mold cavity after withdrawal of pattern. They are
also used for removing loose sand from mold cavity.
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 Fig. 8.1 (h)

Trowels
Trowels are shown in Fig. 8.1(i). They are utilized for finishing flat surfaces and joints and partings lines of
the mold. They consist of metal blade made of iron and are equipped with a wooden handle. The common metal
blade shapes of trowels may be pointed or contoured or rectangular oriented. The trowels are basically employed for
smoothing or slicking the surfaces of molds. They may also be used to cut in-gates and repair the mold surfaces.

Fig. 8.1 (i)

Slicks
Slicks are shown in Fig. 8.1(j). They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which
are generally used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after withdrawal of the pattern. The
commonly used slicks are of the types of heart and leaf, square and heart, spoon and bead and heart and spoon. The
nomenclatures of the slicks are largely due to their shapes.

Fig. 8.1 (j)

Swab
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 Swab is shown in Fig. 8.1(k). It is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening the edges of sand mould,
which are in contact with the pattern surface before withdrawing the pattern. It is used for sweeping away the
molding sand from the mold surface and pattern. It is also used for coating the liquid blacking on the mold faces in
dry sand molds.
Spirit level
Spirit level is used by molder to check whether the sand bed or molding box is horizontal or not.
Gate cutter
Gate cutter (Fig. 8.1(l)) is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to cut runners and feeding
gates for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.

Fig. 8.1 (k) Fig. 8.1 (l)

Gaggers
Gaggers are pieces of wires or rods bent at one or both ends which are used for reinforcing

FLASKS
The common flasks are also called as containers which are used in foundry shop as mold boxes, crucibles and ladles.

Moulding Boxes
Mold boxes are also known as molding flasks. Boxes used in sand molding are of two types:
(a) Open molding boxes. Open molding boxes are shown in Fig. 8.2. They are made with the hinge at one corner
and a lock on the opposite corner. They are also known as snap molding boxes which are generally used for making
sand molds. A snap molding is made of wood and is hinged at one corner. It has special applications in bench
molding in green sand work for small nonferrous castings. The mold is first made in the snap flask and then it is
same set of boxes. As an alternative to the wooden snap boxes the cast-aluminum tapered closed boxes are finding
favor in modern foundries. They carry a tapered inside surface which is accurately ground and finished. A solid
structure of this box gives more rigidity and strength than the open type. These boxes are also removed after
assembling the mould.
Large molding boxes are equipped with reinforcing cross bars and ribs to hold the heavy mass of sand and support
gaggers. The size, material and construction of the molding box depend upon the size of the casting.
Hinge
(b) Closed molding boxes. Closed molding boxes are shown in Fig. 8.3 which may be made of wood, cast-iron or
steel and consist of two or more parts.
The lower part is called the drag, the upper part the cope and all the intermediate parts, if used, cheeks.
All the parts are individually equipped with suitable means for clamping arrangements during pouring.
Wooden Boxes are generally used in green-sand molding. Dry sand moulds always require metallic boxes because
they are heated for drying. Large and heavy boxes are made from cast iron or steel and carry handles and grips as
they are manipulated by cranes or hoists, etc. Closed metallic molding boxes may be called as a closed rectangular
molding box or a closed round molding box .

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 Fig. 8.2 Open molding box Fig. 8.3 Closed molding box

Crucible
Crucibles are made from graphite or steel shell lined with suitable refractory material like fire clay. They
are commonly named as metal melting pots. The raw material or charge is broken into small pieces and placed in
them. They are then placed in pit furnaces which are coke-fired. In oil- fired tilting furnaces, they form an integral
part of the furnace itself and the charge is put into them while they are in position. After melting of metals in
crucibles, they are taken out and received in crucible handle. Pouring of molten is generally done directly by them
instead of transferring the molten metal to ladles. But in the case of an oilfired furnace, the molten metal is first
received in a ladle and then poured into the molds.
Ladle
It is similar in shape to the crucible which is also made from graphite or steel shell lined with suitable
refractory material like fire clay. It is commonly used to receive molten metal from the melting furnace and pour the
same into the mold cavity. Its size is designated by its capacity. Small hand shank ladles are used by a single
foundry personal and are provided with only one handle. It may be available in different capacities up to 20 kg.
Medium and large size ladles are provided with handles on both sides to be handled by two foundry personals.
They are available in various sizes with their capacity varying from 30 kg to 150 kg. Extremely large sizes, with
capacities ranging from 250 kg to 1000 kg, are found in crane ladles. Geared crane ladles can hold even more than
1000 kg of molten metal. The handling of ladles can be mechanized for good pouring control and ensuring better
safety for foundry personals workers. All the ladles consist of an outer casing made of steel or plate bent in proper
shape and then welded. Inside this casing, a refractory lining is provided. At its top, the casing is shaped to have a
controlled and well directed flow of molten metal. They are commonly used to transport molten metal from furnace
to mold.

MOLD AND CORE MAKING

MOLDING SAND
The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granulular elements of rocks, and
deserts. The common sources of molding sands available in India are as follows:
1 Batala sand ( Punjab)
2 Ganges sand (Uttar Pradesh)
3 Oyaria sand (Bihar)
4 Damodar and Barakar sands (Bengal- Bihar Border)
5 Londha sand (Bombay)
6 Gigatamannu sand (Andhra Pradesh) and
7 Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural molding sands contain sufficient
binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially using basic sand molding constituents (silica sand
in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper proportion by weight with
perfect mixing and mulling in suitable equipments.

CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND

The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder, moisture content and additives.
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Silica sand
Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of molding sand having enough refractoriness
which can impart strength, stability and permeability to molding and core sand.
But along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime stone, magnesia, soda and potash are present as
impurities. The silica sand can be specified according to the size (small, medium and large silica sand grain) and the
shape (angular, sub-angular and rounded).
Effect of grain shape and size of silica sand
The shape and size of sand grains has a significant effect on the different properties of molding and core
sands. The shape of the sand grains in the mold or core sand determines the possibility of its application in various
types of foundry practice.
Grain sizes and their distribution in molding sand influence greatly the properties of the sand. The size and
shape of the silica sand grains have a large bearing upon its strength and other general characteristics.
Binder
In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The inorganic group includes clay
sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be Kaolonite, Ball
Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses,
cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc.
Moisture
The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies generally between 2 to 8 percent. This amount
is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand for developing bonds. This amount of water is held rigidly by the
clay and is mainly responsible for developing the strength in the sand. The effect of clay and water decreases
permeability with increasing clay and moisture content. The green compressive strength first increases with the
increase in clay content, but after a certain value, it starts decreasing.
Additives
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop some special
property in the sand. Some common used additives for enhancing the properties of molding and core sands are
discussed as under.

KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of silica sand with
18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand. It
is fine, soft, light, and porous. Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains the shape and the
impression to give to it under pressure. Molds prepared by this sand are not requiring backing and hence are known
as green sand molds. This sand is easily available and it possesses low cost. It is commonly employed for production
of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores, is called dry
sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is mainly suitable for larger castings. Mold
prepared in this sand are known as dry sand molds.
Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses high clay as much
as 30-50% and 18% water. Patterns are not used for loam molding and shape is given to mold by sweeps. This is
particularly employed for loam molding used for large grey iron castings.
Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to the surface of the pattern
and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial coating around the pattern and hence for
mold surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions and must possess, therefore, high
strength refractoriness. It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand. Different forms of carbon are
used to prevent the metal burning into the sand. A facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist of
25% fresh and specially prepared and 5% sea coal. They are sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine
molding sand to make facings. The layer of facing sand in a mold usually ranges from 22-28 mm. From 10 to 15%
of the whole amount of molding sand is the facing sand.
Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the whole volume of the
molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose. The backing sand is sometimes called black
sand because that old, repeatedly used molding sand is black in color due to addition of coal dust and burning on
coming in contact with the molten metal.
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System sand
In mechanized foundries where machine molding is employed. A so-called system sand is used to fill the
whole molding flask. In mechanical sand preparation and handling units, no facing sand is used. The used sand is
cleaned and re-activated by the addition of water and special additives. This is known as system sand. Since the
whole mold is made of this system sand, the properties such as strength, permeability and refractoriness of the
molding sand must be higher than those of backing sand.
Parting sand
Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to the pattern and also
to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without clinging. This is clean clay-free silica
sand which serves the same purpose as parting dust.
Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This is highly rich silica
sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind
materials. Pitch or flours and water may also be used in large cores for the sake of economy.

PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

Refractoriness
Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures without breaking
down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly important characteristic of molding sands.
Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent. Molding sand with poor refractoriness may burn on to the
casting surface and no smooth casting surface can be obtained.
Permeability
It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any air, gases or moisture
present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into it. All these gaseous generated during
pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective. Permeability is a function
of grain size, grain shape, and moisture and clay contents in the molding sand. The extent of ramming of the sand
directly affects the permeability of the mould. Permeability of mold can be further increased by venting using vent
rods
Cohesiveness
It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and attract each other within
the molding sand. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets enhanced to increase the green, dry and hot
strength property of molding and core sand.
Green strength
The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength and toughness to permit the
making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e. thev must be capable of attaching
themselves to another body and. therefore, and sand grains having high adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the
molding box. Also, the sand grains must have the property known as cohesiveness i.e. ability of the sand grains to
stick to one another. By virtue of this property, the pattern can be taken out from the mould without breaking the
mould and also the erosion of mould wall surfaces does not occur during the flow of molten metal. The green
strength also depends upon the grain shape and size, amount and type of clay and the moisture content.

Dry strength
As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer adjacent to the hot
metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion of
mould wall during the flow of molten metal. The dry strength also prevents the enlargement of mould cavity cause
by the metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal.
Flowability or plasticity
It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It will flow uniformly to all portions of
pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions. Generally sand
particles resist moving around corners or projections. In general, flowability increases with decrease in green
strength, an, decrease in grain size. The flowability also varies with moisture and clay content.
Adhesiveness
It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such sticking of molding sand
with inner wall of molding box
Collapsibility

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 After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible so that free
contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or cracking of the contracting metal. In
absence of this property the contraction of the metal is hindered by the mold and thus results in tears and cracks in
the casting. This property is highly desired in cores
Miscellaneous properties
In addition to above requirements, the molding sand should not stick to the casting and should not
chemically react with the metal. Molding sand should be cheap and easily available. It should be reusable for
economic reasons. Its coefficients of expansion should be sufficiently low.

STEPS INVOLVED IN MAKING A SAND MOLD

1. Initially a suitable size of molding box for creating suitable wall thickness is selected for a two piece pattern.
Sufficient care should also be taken in such that sense that the molding box must adjust mold cavity, riser and the
gating system (sprue, runner and gates etc.).
2. Next, place the drag portion of the pattern with the parting surface down on the bottom (ram-up) board as shown
in Fig. 8.4 (a).
3. The facing sand is then sprinkled carefully all around the pattern so that the pattern does not stick with molding
sand during withdrawn of the pattern.
4. The drag is then filled with loose prepared molding sand and ramming of the molding sand is done uniformly in
the molding box around the pattern. Fill the molding sand once again and then perform ramming. Repeat the process
three four times,
5. The excess amount of sand is then removed using strike off bar to bring molding sand at the same level of the
molding flask height to completes the drag.
6. The drag is then rolled over and the parting sand is sprinkled over on the top of the drag [Fig. 8.4 (b)].
7. Now the cope pattern is placed on the drag pattern and alignment is done using dowel pins.
8. Then cope (flask) is placed over the rammed drag and the parting sand is sprinkled all around the cope pattern.
9. Sprue and riser pins are placed in vertically position at suitable locations using support of molding sand. It will
help to form suitable sized cavities for pouring molten metal etc. [Fig. 8.4 (c)].

Fig. 8.4

10. The gaggers in the cope are set at suitable locations if necessary. They should not be located too close to the
pattern or mold cavity otherwise they may chill the casting and fill the cope with molding sand and ram uniformly.
11. Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
12. Remove sprue and riser pins and create vent holes in the cope with a vent wire.

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The basic purpose of vent creating vent holes in cope is to permit the escape of gases generated during pouring and
solidification of the casting.
13. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface and roll over the cope on the bottom board.
14. Rap and remove both the cope and drag patterns and repair the mold suitably if needed and dressing is applied
15. The gate is then cut connecting the lower base of sprue basin with runner and then the mold cavity.
16. Apply mold coating with a swab and bake the mold in case of a dry sand mold.
17. Set the cores in the mold, if needed and close the mold by inverting cope over drag.
18. The cope is then clamped with drag and the mold is ready for pouring, [Fig. 8.4 (d)].

GATING SYSTEM IN MOLD

Fig 8.5 shows the different elements of the gating system. Some of which are discussed as under.

Fig. 8.5 Gating System

1. Pouring basin
It is the conical hollow element or tapered hollow vertical portion of the gating system which helps to feed
the molten metal initially through the path of gating system to mold cavity. It may be made out of core sand or it
may be cut in cope portion of the sand mold.
It makes easier for the ladle operator to direct the flow of molten metal from crucible to pouring basin and
sprue. It helps in maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow. It reduces turbulence and vertexing at the sprue
entrance. It also helps in separating dross, slag and foreign element etc. from molten metal before it enters the sprue.
2. Sprue
It is a vertical passage made generally in the cope using tapered sprue pin. It is connected at bottom of
pouring basin. It is tapered with its bigger end at to receive the molten metal the smaller end is connected to the
runner. It helps to feed molten metal without turbulence to the runner which in turn reaches the mold cavity through
gate. It sometimes possesses skim bob at its lower end. The main purpose of skim bob is to collect impurities from
molten metal and it does not allow them to reach the mold cavity through runner and gate.
3. Gate
It is a small passage or channel being cut by gate cutter which connect runner with the mould cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity. It feeds the liquid metal to the casting at the rate
consistent with the rate of solidification.
4. Choke
It is that part of the gating system which possesses smallest cross-section area. In choked system, gate
serves as a choke, but in free gating system sprue serves as a choke.
5. Runner
It is a channel which connects the sprue to the gate for avoiding turbulence and gas entrapment.
6. Riser

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 It is a passage in molding sand made in the cope portion of the mold. Molten metal rises in it after filling
the mould cavity completely. The molten metal in the riser compensates the shrinkage during solidification of the
casting thus avoiding the shrinkage defect in the casting.
It also permits the escape of air and mould gases. It promotes directional solidification too and helps in bringing the
soundness in the casting.
7. Chaplets
Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either to prevent shifting of mould or locate core
surfaces. The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent metal of which the casting is. These are placed
in mould cavity suitably which positions core and to give extra support to core and mould surfaces. Its main
objective is to impart good alignment of mould and core surfaces and to achieve directional solidification. When the
molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the chaplet melts and fuses itself along with molten metal during
solidification and thus forms a part of the cast material. Various types of chaplets are shown in Fig. 8.6. The use of
the chaplets is depicted in Fig. 8.7.

Fig. 8.6 Types of chaplets

Fig. 8.7 Use of chaplets

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Chills
In some casting, it is required to produce a hard surface at a particular place in the casting. At that
particular position, the special mould surface for fast extraction of heat is to be made. The fast heat extracting
metallic materials known as chills will be incorporated separately along with sand mould surface during molding.
After pouring of molten metal and during solidification, the molten metal solidifies quickly on the metallic mould
surface incomparison to other mold sand surfaces. This imparts hardness to that particular surface because of this
special hardening treatment through fast extracting heat from that particular portion. Thus, the main function of chill
is to provide a hard surface at a localized place in the casting by way of special and fast solidification. Various types
of chills used in some casting processes and The use of a chill in the mold is depicted in Fig. 8.8.

Fig. 8.8 Types of chills and their use in mould

PLASTICS MOLDING PROCESSES

There are various methods of producing components from the plastics materials which are supplied in the
granular, powder and other forms. Various plastics molding processes are:
1. Compression Molding.
2. Transfer Molding
3. Injection Molding.
4. Blow Molding.
5. Extrusion Molding
6. Calendaring.
7. Thermoforming.
8. Casting
Two major processes from the above are discussed as under.
Injection die Molding
In this process, thermoplastic materials soften when heated and re-harden when cooled. No chemical
change takes place during heating and cooling. Fig. 8.9 illustrates the injection molding process. The process
involves granular molding material is loaded into a hopper from where it is metered out in a heating cylinder by a
feeding device. The exact amount of material is delivered to the cylinder which is required to fill the mold
completely. The injection ram pushes the material into a heating cylinder and doing so pushing bushes a small
amount of heated material out of other end of cylinder through the nozzle and screw bushing and into cavities of the
closed mold. The metal cooled in rigid state in the mold. Then mold is opened and piece is ejected out material
heating temperature is usually between 180°- 280°C. Mold is cooled in order to cool the mold articles. Automatic
devices are commercially available to maintain mold temperature at required level. Injection molding is generally
limited to forming thermoplastic materials, but equipment is available for converting the machines for molding
thermosetting plastics and compounds of rubber.

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 Fig. 8.9

Extrusion Molding
Generally all thermo plastic materials are highly suitable for extrusion in to various shapes such as rods,
tubes, sheets, film, pipes and ropes. Thermosetting plastic is not suitable for extrusion molding. In this process the
powder polymer or monomer is received through hopper and is fed in to the heated chamber by a rotating screw
along a cylindrical chamber. The rotating screw carries the plastic powder forward and forces it through the heated
orifice of the die. As the thermoplastic powder reaches towards the die, it gets heated up and melts.
It is then forced through the die opening of desired shape as shown in the sectional view of the extrusion molding
process through Fig 8.10. On leaving the product from the die, it is cooled by water or compressed air and is finally
carried by a conveyor or belt. The process is continuous and involves low initial cost.

Fig. 8.10

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 Section H: MCHINING
The lathe is used for producing cylindrical work. The work piece is rotated while the
cutting tool movement is controlled by the machine. The lathe is primarily used for cylindrical
work. The lathe may also be used for: Boring, drilling, tapping, turning, facing, threading,
polishing, grooving, knurling etc.
The purpose of a lathe is to rotate a part against a tool whose position it controls. It is
useful for fabricating parts and/or features that have a circular cross section. The spindle is the
part of the lathe that rotates. Various work holding attachments such as three jaw chucks, collets,
and centers can be held in the spindle. The spindle is driven by an electric motor through a
system of belt drives and/or gear trains. Spindle speed is controlled by varying the geometry of
the drive train.
The tailstock can be used to support the end of the work piece with a center, or to hold
tools for drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It can be adjusted in position along the
ways to accommodate different length work pieces. The ram can be fed along the axis of rotation
with the tailstock hand wheel.
The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. It consists of: A saddle that mates
with and slides along the ways, an apron that controls the feed mechanisms, a cross slide that
controls transverse motion of the tool (toward or away from the operator), a tool compound that
adjusts to permit angular tool movement and a tool post T-slot that holds the tool post.

Fig 7.1Principal components of a central lathe

Feed, Speed, And Depth of Cut

Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the work moves with respect to the tool.
Feed rate is defined as the distance the tool travels during one revolution of the part. Cutting
speed and feed determines the surface finish, power requirements, and material removal rate. The
primary factor in choosing feed and speed is the material to be cut. However, one should also
consider material of the tool, rigidity of the work piece, size and condition of the lathe, and depth
of cut. To calculate the proper spindle speed, divide the desired cutting speed by the
circumference of the work.

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Parts of Lathe
Head Stock
The headstock houses the main spindle , speed change mechanism , and change gears The
headstock is required to be made as robust as possible due to the cutting forces involved, which
can distort a lightly built housing, and induce harmonic vibrations that will transfer through to
the work piece, reducing the quality of the finished work piece
Bed
The bed is a robust base that connects to the headstock and permits the carriage and
tailstock to be aligned parallel with the axis of the spindle. This is facilitated by hardened and
ground ways which restrain the carriage and tailstock in a set track. The carriage travels by
means of a rack and pinion system, leads crew of accurate pitch, or feed screw.
Feed and lead screws
The feed screw is a long driveshaft that allows a series of gears to drive the carriage
mechanisms. These gears are located in the apron of the carriage. Both the feed screw and lead
screw are driven by either the change gears or an intermediate gearbox known as a quick change
gearbox or Norton gearbox. These intermediate gears allow the correct ratio and direction to be
set for cutting threads or worm gears. Tumbler gears are provided between the spindle and gear
train that enables the gear train of the correct ratio and direction to be introduced. This provides a
constant relationship between the number of turns the spindle makes, to the number of turns the
lead screw makes. This ratio allows screw threads to be cut on the work piece without the aid of
a die.
Carriage
In its simplest form the carriage holds the tool bit and moves it longitudinally (turning) or
perpendicularly (facing) under the control of the operator. The operator moves the carriage
manually via the hand wheel or automatically by engaging the feed screw with the carriage feed
mechanism, this provides some relief for the operator as the movement of the carriage becomes
power assisted. The hand wheels on the carriage and its related slides are usually calibrated both
for ease of use and to assist in making reproducible cuts.
Cross-slide
The cross-slide stands atop the carriage and has a lead screw that travels perpendicular to
the main spindle axis, this permit facing operations to be performed. This lead screw can be
engaged with the feed screw (mentioned previously) to provide automated movement to the
cross-slide; only one direction can be engaged at a time as an interlock mechanism will shut out
the second gear train.
Compound rest
The compound rest is the part of the machine where the tool post is mounted. It provides
a smaller amount of movement along its axis via another lead screw. The compound rest axis can
be adjusted independently of the carriage or cross-slide. It is utilized when turning tapers, when
screw cutting or to obtain finer feeds than the lead screw normally permits.
Tool post
The tool bit is mounted in the tool post which may be of the American lantern style,
traditional
4 sided square styles, or in a quick change style. The advantage of a quick change set-up is to
allow an unlimited number of tools to be used (up to the number of holders available) rather than
being limited to 1 tool with the lantern style, or 3 to 4 tools with the 4 sided type.
Tail Stock
The tailstock is a tool holder directly mounted on the spindle axis, opposite the
headstock. The spindle does not rotate but does travel longitudinally under the action of a lead
screw and hand wheel.
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The spindle includes a taper to hold drill bits, centers and other tooling. The tailstock can be
positioned along the bed and clamped in position as required. There is also provision to offset the
tailstock from the spindles axis; this is useful for turning small tapers.

Fig 7.1 Different parts of engine lathe or central lathe

Lathe Operations
Turning
Turning is the machining operation that produces cylindrical parts. In its basic form, it
can be defined as the machining of an external surface:
with the work piece rotating,
with a single-point cutting tool, and
with the cutting tool feeding parallel to the axis of the work piece and at a distance that will
remove the outer surface of the work.
Taper turning is practically the same, except that the cutter path is at an angle to the work axis.
Similarly, in contour turning, the distance of the cutter from the work axis is varied to produce
the desired shape
Facing
Facing is the producing of a flat surface as the result of a tool's being fed across the end
of the rotating work piece. Unless the work is held on a mandrel, if both ends of the work are to
be faced, it must be turned end for end after the first end is completed and the facing operation
repeated. The cutting speed should be determined from the largest diameter of the surface to be
faced. Facing may be done either from the outside inward or from the center outward. In either
case, the point of the tool must be set exactly at the height of the center of rotation.
Parting
Parting is the operation by which one section of a work piece is severed from the
remainder by means of a cutoff tool. Because cutting tools are quite thin and must have
considerable overhang, this process is less accurate and more difficult. The tool should be set
exactly at the height of the axis of rotation, be kept sharp, have proper clearance angles, and be
fed into the work piece at a proper and uniform feed rate.
Drilling
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 A lathe can also be used to drill holes accurately concentric with the centerline of a
cylindrical part. First, install a drill chuck into the tail stock. Make certain that the tang on the
back of the drill chuck seats properly in the tail stock. Withdraw the jaws of the chuck and tap
the chuck in place with a soft hammer.
Move the saddle forward to make room for the tailstock. Move the tailstock into position, and
lock the bit in place. Before starting the machine, turn the spindle by hand. Just move the saddle
forward, so it could interfere with the rotation of the lathe chuck. Always use a center drill to
start the hole.
Boring
Boring is an operation in which a hole is enlarged with a single point cutting tool. A
boring bar is used to support the cutting tool as it extends into the hole. Because of the extension
of the boring bar, the tool is supported less rigidly and is more likely to chatter. This can be
corrected by using slower spindle speeds or by grinding a smaller radius on the nose of the tool.

Single Point Thread Turning

External threads can be cut with a die and internal threads can be cut with a tap. But for
some diameters, no die or tap is available. In these cases, threads can be cut on a lathe. A special
cutting tool should be used, typically with a 60 degree nose angle. To form threads with a
specified number of threads per inch, the spindle is mechanically coupled to the carriage lead
screw. Procedures vary for different machines

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