Light and Optical Fibers

Unit 1
 The Nature of Light
• Quantum Theory – Light consists of small
particles (photons)
• Wave Theory – Light travels as a transverse
electromagnetic wave
• Ray Theory – Light travels along a straight
line and obeys laws of geometrical optics.
Ray theory is valid when the objects are
much larger than the wavelength
 Nature of Light

Spherical and plane wave fronts and their associated

rays
 Polarization states
• If the electric field is oscillating along a
straight line, it is called a linearly polarized
(LP) or plane polarized wave
• If the E field rotates in a circle (constant
magnitude) or in an ellipse then it is called
a circular or elliptically polarized wave
• Natural light has random polarization
Field distributions in plane E&M waves
 Adding two linearly polarized waves

Adding two
linearly polarized
waves with a
zero phase
difference
between them
 Elliptically polarized light

Adding two
unequal
amplitude
linearly polarized
waves with a non
zero phase
difference
between them
 Adding linearly polarized waves

Adding two
equal amplitude
linearly polarized
waves with a
relative phase
difference of
π/2+2m π results
in a right
circularly
polarized wave
 Optical laws and definitions
• In free space a light wave travels at a speed of 3x108
m/s
• Speed is related to frequency and wavelength by c=fλ
• A fundamental optical parameter of a material is
refractive index (or index of refraction)
n = c/ν
where ν is speed in the dielectric medium
• Typical values of n are
• 1.00 for air
• 1.33 for water
• 1.45 for silica glass
• 2.42 for diamond
 Reflection and Refraction
• When a light ray encounters a boundary separating two
different media, a part of the ray is reflected back and

• The remainder is bent (of refracted) as it enters the second

material

• The bending or refraction is result of the difference in the

speed of light in two materials that have different refractive
indices

• At the interface, refractive indices are related by Snell’s law

n1sinΦ1= n2sinΦ2 or equivalently,
n1cosθ1= n2cosθ2
Air(1.0)

Glass (1.5)
Critical Angle

Critical Angle:
Sin Φc=n2/n1
Fiber Types
 Optical Fibers

• It is a dielectric waveguide

• Normally cylindrical in shape

• Confines EM energy at optical frequency in

the form of light within its surface and Guides
light parallel to its axis
 Characteristics of Fiber
• Transmission properties are dictated by:
– Its structural characteristics which affects the propagation along the
fiber
– Structure:
• Establishes the capacity
• Influence the response of the waveguide to environmental perturbations

• Most widely accepted structure is the single solid dielectric of

radius ‘a’ and index of refraction:
core – n1
clad – n2
Structure of a typical optical fiber
 Types of Optical Fibers
• Advantages of Cladding

– Reduces scattering loss (arise from dielectric discontinuities at the core surface)
– Adds mechanical strength
– Protects core from absorbing surface contaminants

• Variations in material composition of the core give rise to two commonly used
fiber types:
Step index: RI of the core is uniform throughout
Single mode
Multimode
Graded index: RI of the core varies wrt radial distance
Single mode
Multimode

• Advantage of Multimode fibers:

– Larger core radii ease s power launch & connecting together of similar fibers, LED can be used, IMD
can be reduced by GI profile, so larger BW than SI multimode
 Graded Index Fiber

nc c We can visualize a graded index

B' fiber by imagining a stratified
medium with the layers of refractive
B' Ray 2 nb b indices n > n > n ... Consider two
B' c/nb B''
a b c
B A close rays 1 and 2 launched from O
A na at the same time but with slightly
2 B c/na a different launching angles. Ray 1
1 Ray 1
just suffers total internal reflection.
O O'
M Ray 2 becomes refracted at B and
reflected at B'.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

 Step and Graded Index Fibers
n2
n1
3 (a) Multimode step
2 index fiber. Ray paths
1 n are different so that
O
rays arrive at different
times.

n2
(b) Graded index fiber.
3 Ray paths are different
2 but so are the velocities
O 1 n along the paths so that
O' O'' 2 n1 all the rays arrive at the
3
same time.

n2
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Rays and Modes
• To study the propagation Characteristics of light
The EM light field – guided along the fiber

– Is Represented by a superposition of bound or trapped modes

• Each guided mode consists of simple set of EM field

configurations

• Monochromatic light has a time and z dependence given by

– e j(ωt-βz)
– β is the z-component of the wave propagation constant k=2π/λ and is
main parameter of interest in describing fiber modes
 Geometrical optics or Ray-tracing
approach
• Provides a good approximation to the light
acceptance and guiding properties of fiber,
when a/λ is large (small wavelength limit)

• Valid when there are large number of guided

modes

• Advantages: gives a more direct physical

interpretation of light propagation
characteristics
Relation between Modes and Rays
• A guided mode can be decomposed into a family of super-imposed plane
waves

• With any plane wave, a light ray is associated, that is perpendicular to the
phase front of the wave

• The family of plane waves corresponding to a particular mode forms a set

of rays called a ray congruence

• Each ray of this particular set travels in the fiber at the same angle relative
to the fiber axis

• Possible angles of ray congruence corresponding to these modes are

limited to number of guided modes
 Limitations
• Not useful in analyzing single-mode or few modes

• Not useful in solving problems involving coherence or

interference phenomenon

• Modal analysis is necessary, when a knowledge of field

distribution of individual modes is required

• Another discrepancy is: In analyzing field in an optical fiber

which is uniformly bent with a constant radius of curvature
Ray Optics
 Step-index fiber structure
• n2 = n1(1-∆)
• n2 – clad R.I.;
• n1 – core R.I.(typical 1.48)
• ∆ - index difference (nominal value 0.01)
– Typical values range: 1-3% (multimode)
0.2-1% (single mode)
Ray optics representation:
since core size of multimode fibers is larger than λ of light – so ray
optics
For simplicity, consider particular ray belonging to a ray congruence

There are two types of rays:

meridional rays (lies in single plane)
skew rays (not confined to a single plane)
 Difference between Skew and
Meridional Rays
Along the fiber
1 3 1, 3
Meridional ray (a) A meridional
ray always
Fiber axis crosses the fiber
axis.

2 2

1 (b) A skew ray

2 1 does not have
Skew ray 2
Fiber axis
to cross the
5
3 fiber axis. It
5 zigzags around
3 4
4 the fiber axis.

Ray path along the fiber Ray path projected

on to a plane normal
to fiber axis
Illustration of the difference between a meridional ray and a skew ray.
Numbers represent reflections of the ray.
 Skew and Meridional Rays
• Meridional rays
– Confined to the meridian planes (axis of symmetry) of the fiber
– easy to track
• Bound rays – trapped in the core and propagate along fiber axis
• Unbound rays – refracted out of fiber core

• Skew rays:
– constitute a major portion of the total no. of guided rays
– but not required to obtain general picture of rays propagation
– when included in analysis
• change the expression for light acceptance capability of fiber
• power loss of light travelling along the fiber
Meridional Ray Optics
 Numerical Aperture
Light Collecting capability of the fiber

To find NA, θ0→θ0,max; θ→θc; φ → φc

nsinθ0,max=n1sin θc
From ∆, θc=90-φc
nsinθ0,max=n1sin (90-φc)
NA=n1cos φc
=n1(1-sin2 φc)½
=n1[1-(n2/n1)2) ]½ [since sin φc=n2/n1]
NA=(n12-n22) ½
 (a) The electric field (b) The intensity in (c) The intensity (d) The intensity
of the fundamental the fundamental in LP 11 in LP 21
mode mode LP 01

Core

E
Cladding

E01
The electric field distribution of the fundamental mode
in the transverse plane to the fiber axis z. The light
intensity is greatest at the center of the fiber. Intensity
r patterns in LP 01, LP11 and LP 21 modes.

© 1999 S .O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

 Overview of modes
• A planar dielectric slab waveguide represents a
simplest form of an optical waveguide

• Fig. shows the field patterns of several lower-order

TE modes

• Order of mode = No. of field zeros across the guide

• Steeper the angle - higher the order of the mode

 Overview of modes
• Fields not completely confined to the core
– Harmonically vary in the guiding region
– Exponentially decay outside the core region

• For low order modes fields are tightly concentrated

near the centre

• For higher-order modes fields are distributed more

toward the edges of the guide

• Mode coupling – power loss from core

– Modes in clad – suppressed by coating
 Overview of modes
• In addition to : bound and refracted modes

• There is another class of modes – leaky modes

– Leaky modes partially confined to core
– Attenuate continuously by radiating their power
– This power radiation – due to quantum mechanical phenomenon –
tunnel effect

• A mode remains guided

n2k < β < n1k
k = 2π/λ
Cut-off condition
β = n2k

it is a boundary condition between truly guided modes and

leaky modes
 Summary of key modal concepts
• V number (connected with cut-off condition)

• V = 2πa (n12 – n22)1/2 / λ = (2πa/λ) NA

– V is a dimensionless quantity

• Except for HE11 mode, each mode can exist only for values of
V that exceed a certain limiting value

• Each mode have different V limit

 Summary key modal concepts
• Modes are cut-off when β = n2k, this occurs when V ≤ 2.405

• HE11 mode ceases to exist when core dia. Is zero (principle of

SM fiber)

• V no. also used to express no. of modes M in a multimode

fiber when V is large

M = (1/2) (2πa/ λ)2 (n12 – n22) = V2/2

 Summary key modal concepts
• Another quantity of interest for a SI fiber is
the fractional power flow in the core and
cladding region

(Pclad/ Ptotal) = 4/ (3 (M)1/2)

Fiber Key Parameters
Fiber Key Parameters
 Fiber Materials

• While selecting materials, foll must be

ensured
– Long, thin, flexible fibers to be made
– Materials must be transparent at a particular
wavelength so that fiber guide light efficiently
– Core and clad must have slight diff in RI only

Ex: Glass and Plastic

Glass fibers
Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCF)
Fiber Optic Cables