UNIT II

OPTICAL FIBERS

Introduction:

The first experimental proof that light could be guided was given by John Tyndall
nearly 120 years ago. The first glass fabrics were made in the 1920’s. But the concept of
cladding is introduced in 1950. Optical fiber communication is mainly because of the
inversion of lasers by Maiman in 1960. The optical frequencies are of the order of 5x10 14
Hz as compared to electrical communication frequencies which are about 1010 Hz. So there
is a increase in the signal strength. At the early time some of the best optical glasses had
attenuations of the order of several thousand dB/km. For practical, communication is
possible only when the attenuation could be of the order of 20 dB/km or less.

By 1970, the workers of corning glass work produced the first optical fiber with loss
under 20 dB/km. By 1979, the fiber loss was brought down to just 0.2 dB/km.

The first fiber optical communication was installed in Chicago, in 1977. A 24 –

fiber optical cable less than 2.5 cm diameter in size was employed to carry 16,000 voice
circuits to serve them. Around 1980, in USA alone more than 3 million kilometers of optical
fibers were laid to replace electrical communication across the country and the decade 1980
is referred to as decade of glass.

The fiber optics communication is also known as light wave communication or

photonics.

Photonics is the enabling technology for optical fiber communication to improve its
performance and to reduce its cost.

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Optical fibers construction:

Optical fibers are essentially light guides used in optical communications as wave
guides. They are transparent dielectrics and able to guide visible and infrared light over
long distances.

An optical fiber is made of mainly two parts. One is the inner cylindrical material
made of glass or plastic called the core. The outer part is called the cladding which envelops
the inner core as a concentric cylinder. The cladding is also made of similar material but of
lesser refractive index. There is a material continuity between core and cladding. The
cladding is enclosed in polyurethane jacket.

Optical fibers as waveguides:

A waveguide is a tubular structure through which energy of some sort could be

guided in the form of waves. Since light waves can be guided through a fiber, it is called
light guide. It is also called fiber wave guide or fiber light guide.

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 The cladding has always lower refractive index than that of core. The light signal
which enters into the core can strike the interface of the core and cladding only at larger
angle of incidence. The light signal undergoes multiple reflections. Since each reflection
is a total internal reflection, the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself
completely within the core during propagation. Thus, the optical fiber functions as a wave
guide.
If the fiber has sharp bends, then there is no total internal reflection occurs, so signal
fails to come out from the fiber.

Total internal reflection:

When a light travels from denser medium to rarer medium and the angle of incidence
is greater than critical angle, the total internal reflection takes place.

From Snell’s law

n1sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
At critical angle θ1 = θc and θ2 = 90°
∴n1sin θc = n2 sin 90 = n2

n 
or θc= sin -1  2 
 n1 
In case of total internal reflection, there is absolutely no absorption of light energy
at the reflecting surface.

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Numerical aperture and Ray propagation in the fiber:

Let us consider the special case of a ray which suffers critical incidence at the core
cladding interface. Let ‘AO’ be the incident ray, entering to the core at an angle ‘θo’ with
the fiber axis. Let it be refracted along OB at an angle θ1 in the core, and further proceed to
fall at critical angle of incidence (90 – θ1) at B on the interface between core and cladding.
Since it is a critical angle of incidence, the ray is refracted at 90° to the normal drawn to the
interface i.e., it grazes along BC.

If the angle of incidence is less than ‘θo’ then, the ray will gets total internal
reflections. And the rays with incidence are greater than ‘θo’ will not take total internal
reflection. Therefore the incident rays which are within the cone AOA’ will get total
internal reflections.
The angle ‘θo’ is called the waveguide acceptance angle or the acceptance cone half
– angle, and ‘sinθo’ is called the numerical aperture (N A) of the fiber. The numerical
aperture represents the light – gathering capability of the optical fiber.

Condition for propagation:

Let no, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core of the fiber
and cladding respectively.

Now, for refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO into the core, we have by
applying the Snell’s law that,
no sinθo = n1 sin θ1
At the point B on the interface, the angle of incidence = 90 – θ1.

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 ∴ Again applying Snell’s law, we have,

n1 sin(90 – θ1) = n2 sin 90

or n1 cosθ1 = n2

n2
or cosθ1 = --------------------(2)
n1

n1 n1 1
from (1), Sinθo = sin 1 = (1 − cos2  1 ) 2
n0 n0

n1 n2 n n12 − n22 n12 − n22

or sinθo = 1 − 22 = 1 =
n0 n1 n0 n12 no

If the medium surrounding the fiber in air, then no = 1

Or sin θo = n12 − n 22

If θi is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate

If θi < θo or Sinθi < sin θo

or sin θi < n12 − n22

Thus the condition for propagation is sin θ i < N A

Fractional index change (Δ):

The fractional index change Δ is the ratio of the refractive index difference of the
core and cladding to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber.

(n1 − n2 )
∴Δ= --------------- (3)
n1

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Types of optical fibers and modes of transmission:

In any optical fiber, the whole material of the cladding has a uniform refractive index
value. But the refractive index of the core materials may either remains constant or
subjected to variation in a particular way. The curve which represents the variation of
refractive index with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber is called
refractive index profile. The optical fibers are classified under three categories based on
geometry, refractive index profile and the number of modes that the fiber can guide.

a) single mode fiber

b) step-index multimode fiber
c) Graded index multimode fiber.

a) Single mode fiber:

Fig: single mode fiber

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 A single mode fiber has a core material of uniform refractive index value. Similarly
cladding also has a material of uniform refractive index but of lesser value. This results in
a sudden increase in the value of refractive index from cladding to core. Thus its refractive
index profile takes the shape of a step. The diameter value of the core is about 8 to 10 μm.
Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in fig. Hence it is called
single mode fiber.
Single mode fibers are the most extensively used ones and they constitute 80% of
all fibers that are manufactured in the world today. They need Lasers as the source of light.
Though less expensive, it is very difficult to splice (join) them. They find particular
application in submarine cable system.

b) Step – index multimode fiber:

Fig. Step index multi mode fiber

Here core has larger diameter, so it is possible to propagate a large number of modes
as shown in fig. Its refractive index profile is similar to that of a single mode fiber but with
a larger plane region for the core.

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 The step-index multimode fiber can accept either a laser or an LED as source of
light. It is the least expensive of all. Its typical application is in data links which has lower
band width requirements.

c) Graded – index multimode fiber:

Fig.: Graded index multi mode fiber

It is also called GRIN. The geometry of GRIN is same as that of step index
multimode fiber. Its core material has a special feature that its refractive index value
decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis and becomes equal to that of the
cladding at the interface. But the Refractive index of cladding remains constant. Either a
Laser or LED can be the source for the GRIN multimode fiber. It is most expensive of all.
Its splicing could be done with some difficulty. Its typical application is the telephone trunk
between central offices.

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Modes of propagation:

V – number:
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V – number and is given by

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 (𝑁 𝐴)
𝑉= or 𝑉=
𝜆 𝑛0 𝜆 𝑛0

for v >>1, the number of modes supported by the fiber (approximately) is given by
V2
Number of Modes ≈
2
here d ⇒ core diameter
λ ⇒ wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

Attenuation:
The loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber is
called attenuation. It is also called the fiber loss.

− 10 P 
= log10  out  dB / km
L  Pin 
Where L is in km and Pin & Pout are expressed in w

The three mechanism through which attenuation takes place are

1. Absorption 2. Scattering 3. Radiation losses

1. Absorption:
In this case, the loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of photons associated with
signal. Photons are absorbed.
a) By impurities in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
b) By intrinsic absorption by the glass material itself.

2. Scattering Losses:
While the signal travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered because of sharp
changes in refractive index values inside the glass (non – crystalline) over long distances.

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 The sharp variation in refractive index value inside the fiber glass is induced by
localized structural in homogeneity in the material.

Scattered Photon

Scattering Center

3. Radiation losses:
Radiation losses occur due to bending of fiber. There are two types of bends.
a) Macroscopic bends: This refers to bends having radii that are large as compared to
the fiber diameter, such as ones which occur while turning it around a corner.

Escaping ray

b) Microscopic bends: These are repetitive small scale fluctuations in the linearity of
the fiber axis. Microscopic bending occurs due to non - uniformities in the
manufacturing of the fiber or by non uniform lateral pressures created during the
cabling of the fiber.

Escaping ray
Applications of fiber optics:
1. Fiber – optic communication.
2. Fiber – optic endoscope:
3. Optical fibers are used as sensing device.
4. Optical fibers are used for data link purpose.
5. Local Area Networks (LAN):

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Applications of fiber optics:

Fiber – optic communication.

Block diagram of point-point optical communication

OR

Block diagram of point-point optical communication

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Advantages of optical communication system:
1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of information in either digital or analog
form.
2. The raw materials used to make optical fibers are easily available at low cost.
3. Because of their compactness and light weights, fibers are much easier to transport.
4. Optical fibers are totally protected from interference between different
communication channels.
5. There is no signal disturbance in optical fibers.
6. The common grounding is irrelevant in optical fibers.
7. There is no energy radiation from a fiber.
8. Optical fibers are protected from corrosive and flammable environments.
9. Cost / meter/ channel for fiber would be lesser than that of metallic cable.

Limitations of optical communication system:

a. The optical connectors which are used to connect (splicing) two fibers are highly
expensive.
b. The fibers will not bent to smaller radius of curvature, which leads to breaking of
fiber.
c. The fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature, which leads to loss
in signal power.
d. Optical fibers facing maintenance costs.

--------------------- The End ---------------

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