INTERPERSONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL

COMMUNICATION

15.1 The Communication Process: What It Is, How It Works

Communication is the transfer of information and understanding from one
person to another. The process involves sender, message, and receiver;
encoding and decoding; the medium; feedback; and “noise,” or interference.
Managers need to tailor their communication to the appropriate medium (rich
or lean) for the appropriate situation.

Section 15.1 Key Concepts:

Defining Communication
● Communication is the transfer of information and understanding from one
person to another.
● The perceptual model of communication depicts communication as a process
in which receivers create meaning in their own minds.
● You are an efficient communicator when you can transmit your message
accurately in the least time.
● You are an effective communicator when your intended message is
accurately understood by the other person.
How the Communication Process Works
● Communication has been said to be a process consisting of a sender
transmitting a message through media to a receiver who responds.
● A diagram of the communication process is presented in Figure 15.1.
● The sender is the person wanting to share information.
● Information is called a message, and the receiver is the person for whom the
message is intended.
● Encoding is translating a message into understandable symbols or language.
● Decoding is interpreting and trying to make sense of the message.
● The medium is the pathway by which a message travels, such as by using
text, e-mail, hand-written notes, face-to-face conversation, phone calls, or
videoconferencing.
● Feedback occurs when the receiver expresses his or her reaction to the
sender’s message.
o Feedback is essential in communication so that the person sending the
message can know whether the receiver understood it in the same way
the sender intended—and whether he or she agrees with it.
o Feedback can be facilitated by paraphrasing—when people restate in
their own words the crux of what they heard or read.
● The communication process can be disrupted at several different points by
noise—any disturbance that interferes with the transmission of a message.
 o The noise can occur in the medium, such as a poor cell phone
connection, or it can occur during encoding or decoding.
o Noise can also occur during cross-cultural communication, through the
use of nonverbal communication, and as a result of the use of jargon,
which is terminology specific to a particular profession or group.

Selecting the Right Medium and Media Richness

● Managers need to use the right communication tool for the right condition.
● All media have their own advantages and disadvantages, and there are a few
different criteria to consider when choosing the right medium, including
whether a given medium is rich or lean.
● Media richness indicates how well a particular medium conveys information
and promotes learning. Figure 15.2 presents the different types of media over
a continuum, ranging from high to low.
o The “richer” a medium is, the better it is at conveying information.
o Types of media may be positioned along a continuum ranging from
high media richness to low media richness.
o Face-to-face, the most personal form of communication, is also the
richest, while impersonal written media is low in richness.
A rich medium should be used in a routine situation and to avoid
oversimplification, while a lean medium is best for a routine situation and to
avoid overloading, which provides more information than is necessary

15.2 How Managers Fit into the Communication Process

Formal communication channels follow the chain of command, which is of
three types—vertical, horizontal, and external. Informal communication
channels develop outside the organization’s formal structure. One type is the
grapevine. Another, face-to-face communication, builds trust and depends
heavily on managers’ effective listening skills.
Section 15.2 Key Concepts:
Formal Communication Channels
● Formal communication channels follow the chain of command and are
recognized as official.
● Formal communication is of three types: vertical (upward and downward),
horizontal (laterally or sideways), and external (outside the organization).
● Vertical communication is the flow of messages up and down the hierarchy
within the organization.
o Downward communication flows from a higher level to a lower level
(or levels).
▪ In small organizations, top-down communications may be
delivered face-to-face, while in larger organizations, these
 communications are delivered via meetings, e-mail, memos, and
company publications.
o Upward communication flows from a lower level to a higher level (or
levels).
▪ Often this type of communication is from a subordinate to his or
her immediate manager.
▪ Effective upward communication depends on an atmosphere of
trust.
● Horizontal communication flows within and between work units; its main
purpose is coordination.
o Examples of horizontal communication include sharing information,
coordinating tasks, solving problems, resolving conflicts, and getting
the support of your peers.
o Barriers to horizontal communication include:
▪ Specialization that makes people focus just on their jobs alone.
▪ Rivalry between workers or work units.
▪ Lack of encouragement from management.
● External communication flows between people inside and outside the
organization.
o This form of communication is increasingly important because
organizations desire to communicate with stakeholders such as
customers, suppliers, shareholders, or other owners in pursuit of their
strategic goals.

Informal Communication Channels

● Informal communication channels develop outside the formal structure and
do not follow the chain of command.
● Informal communication channels are more spontaneous, can skip
management levels, and can cut across lines of authority.
● Two types of informal channels are the grapevine and face-to-face
communication.
o The grapevine is the unofficial communication system of the informal
organization, a network of in-person and online gossip and rumor.
▪ The grapevine is more active when official communication is
lacking.
▪ Employees are more likely to believe the grapevine when official
and unofficial communication conflict.
▪ Managers must learn how they can most effectively influence
the grapevine.
o Face-to-face communication builds trust and depends heavily on
managers' effective listening skills.
 ▪ Employees value authentic human contact with the boss and
welcome the implication that their manager cares about them.
▪ Face time builds relationships and trust, shows respect for
employees as individuals, and thus is highly motivating.
▪ To make the most of face-to-face communication in the work
environment, you should:
● Make time for face-to-face communication by scheduling
time with individual employees when everyone will be
free of distractions.
● Listen not just to the words the other person is saying but
also to the emotional content behind the words, and be
brief when it's your turn to speak.
● Deliver good news up front, but when delivering bad
news, build up to it by explaining the situation, identifying
factors you can’t control, and giving the other side of the
argument its due.
● Hold employee town hall meetings with an open question-
and-answer session, and be available for informal
conversations with individuals afterwards.

15.3 Barriers to Communication

We describe several barriers to communication. Physical barriers include
sound, time, and space. Personal barriers include variations in
communication skills, processing and interpreting information, trustworthiness
and credibility, ego strength, listening skills, judging others, and generational
considerations. Cross-cultural barriers are a greater challenge as more jobs
include interactions with others around the globe. Nonverbal communication
can present a barrier if it conflicts with the spoken message. Finally, gender
differences can present barriers but can be overcome.
Section 15.3 Key Concepts:
Physical Barriers
● Sound, time, and space are examples of physical barriers.
● Noise from machinery can be a physical barrier.
● Office design can be a physical barrier too, if it isolates people in cubicles or
surrounds them with noisy open space that makes conversation difficult.
Personal Barriers
● Variable Skills in Communicating Effectively
o Some people are simply better communicators than others.
o Better communication skills can be learned.
● Variations in How Information is Processed and Interpreted
 o Because people use different frames of reference to interpret the world
around them, they are selective about what things have meaning to
them and what don’t.
o These differences affect what we say and what we think we hear.
● Variations in Trustworthiness and Credibility
o Without trust between you and the other person, communication is apt
to be flawed.
o Instead of communicating, both of you will be concentrating on
defensive tactics, not the meaning of the message being exchanged.
● Oversized Egos
o Egos—pride, self-esteem, and even arrogance—are another barrier.
o Egos influence the way we treat each other and influence how
receptive we are to being influenced by others.
● Faulty Listening Skills
o Mindlessness is a state of reduced attention or thoughtlessness.
o Life's dynamics put all of us into occasional states of mindlessness.
o Our brains simply can't keep up with all the stimuli we receive.
● Tendency to Judge Others’ Messages
o We have a natural tendency to judge others’ statements from our own
point of view.
o This is especially true if we have strong feelings about an issue.
● Generational Differences
o There are often generational differences in the use of and preferences
for different forms of communication.
o Older generations might be reluctant to adopt new communication
technology.
Cross-Cultural Barriers
● Culture represents the ideas, values, practices, and material objects that
allow a group of people to carry out their collective lives in relative order and
harmony.
● Culture naturally affects the way we communicate, both with those who share
that culture and especially with those from other cultures.
● Cultural differences that can impede communication include different
languages, nonverbal signs and symbols, prejudice and bias, religious and
other beliefs, and ethnocentrism.
● Cross-cultural barriers can be reduced via cross-cultural communication
training. This type of training is very important for expatriates.
Nonverbal Communication
● Nonverbal communication consists of messages sent outside of the written
or spoken word.
● Some research suggests that about 55 percent of what we communicate is
transmitted nonverbally.
● Four ways in which nonverbal communication is expressed are through (1)
eye contact, (2) facial expressions, (3) body movements and gestures, and (4)
touch.
● Eye Contact
o Westerners use eye contact to signal the beginning and end of a
conversation, to reflect interest and attention, and to convey both
honesty and respect.
o Asians lower their eyes to show respect, while members of Latin
cultures do so to show remorse.
o Differences in the meaning behind eye contact can lead to
misunderstanding.
● Facial Expressions
o In the United States, smiling represents warmth, happiness, or
friendship, whereas frowning represents dissatisfaction or anger.
o People in some cultures are less openly demonstrative than people in
the United States.
o People from other cultures may smile slightly when angry or
embarrassed, as well as when happy.
● Body Movements and Gestures
o Open body positions express openness, warmth, and availability for
communication.
o Closed body positions represent defensiveness.
o Angling your body away from the other person generally makes you
look disinterested.
o Interpretations of body language can depend on context and culture.
● Touch
o Norms for touching vary significantly around the world.
o Kissing on the cheek, patting on the shoulder, and embracing may be
appropriate in the U.S., but people in other cultures find these actions
offensive.
o Western women tend to use touching of other women to show
friendship or sympathy, whereas men are less likely to touch other men
and more likely to associate being touched with sexual behavior.
o Other cultures are often more conservative about the use of touch
between men and women.
15.4 Social Media and Management
We discuss social media and their use by employees and managers. We
look at the impact of social media on managers’ and organizations’
effectiveness, including applications to recruiting, productivity, sales, inno-
vation, and reputation management. We also consider the costs of social
media use, such as the effects of cyberloafing and the need to manage e-
mail, as well as growing concerns about security and privacy. We look at the
use of texting in organizations and, finally, at the implications for managers of
setting social media policy.

Section 15.4 Key Concepts:

Social Media
● Social media use web-based and mobile technologies to generate interactive
dialogue with members of a network.
● The widespread use of social media is changing our personal lives and the
very nature of how businesses operate and the principles of management.
● Social media allow business managers to reach and interact with customers
in new ways and can increase a company’s brand awareness and sales.
Social Media and Managerial and Organizational Effectiveness
● With their ease of use, speed, and potentially huge audiences, social media
have increasing applications for managers' and organizations' effectiveness.
● Social media can influence employment recruiting, employee and employer
productivity, innovation, sales, and corporate reputation.
● Employment Recruiting
o About 92 percent of companies today use social media for recruiting,
especially for recruiting “passive” job candidates, that is, those who
aren't actively looking for a new job.
o LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter are the primary social media sources
used for recruiting.
o Most recruiters believe that social media allow them to more easily find
candidates with specific sets of skills.
o Employers should ensure that they don’t illegally use protected
characteristics such as religious affiliation, age, family composition, or
sexual orientation when recruiting using social media.

● Employee Productivity
o Social media tools at work, if used appropriately, can make
communication by and among employees more productive.
o The key for employees, managers, and employers is to harness the
speed and reach of social media to enhance individual performance.
 o Results like reduced turnover, higher performance, increased job
satisfaction, and greater creativity and collaboration are common
findings in research about the effects of social media.
o Employees who work remotely are particular beneficiaries of social
media's communications capabilities.
There is plenty of evidence that everyone should unplug from e-mail and
social media on a regular basis, if not during every evening, weekend, and
vacation

o Companies of all sizes and industries believe in the benefits of social

media.
o Social media can allow firms to connect in real time over distance with
employees, customers, communities, suppliers, and prospective talent;
to collaborate within and outside organization; and to expand
boundaries to utilize knowledge, skills, and experience of people not
employed by the organization.
o If deployed effectively, social media enable businesses to do the
following:
▪ Connect with key stakeholders.
▪ Connect with varied sources of expertise inside the organization.
▪ Connect with varied sources of expertise outside the
organization.
o On the other hand, if not managed effectively, social media can create
many legal, financial, and human resource risks.

● Social Media and Innovation

o Crowdsourcing is using the Internet and social media to enlist a group
outside the organization for help solving a problem.
o The assumption of crowdsourcing is that the more people you have
thinking about the problem, the more potential ideas will be generated,
but it has a mixed record of success.
o In order to use social media for innovation, organizations need clear
strategies and objectives.
● Social Media and Sales and Brand Recognition
o Social media presence can generate customers and brand recognition
when:
▪ Social media increase product/service awareness and generate
customer inquiries.
▪ Social media enhance relationships with customers.
▪ Social media increase the ability to reach customers on a global
scale.
 ▪ Social media foster co-promotion of local businesses and the
image of small businesses in the area.
▪ Social media foster consumers' conversations about brands.
o Recent research suggests that social media won't create positive
outcomes unless two conditions are present.
▪ First, the company must possess both competence in social
media skills and technology, and commitment in the form of
dedicated resources.
▪ Second, a successful social media strategy requires consumers
or customers with social media skills.
● Social Media and Reputation
o Some companies have been very successful at using social media to
build and protect their reputations online.
o To limit the harm of negative comments posted by disgruntled
customers or employees, firms should:
▪ Create and enforce a social media policy for employees.
▪ Appoint experienced managers to monitor social media
presence and respond quickly and appropriately to negative
posts.
▪ Acknowledge there is a problem, and apologize if the
organization is in error.
▪ Take the conversation offline to a private sphere such as phone
or e-mail if necessary.
Downsides of Social Media
● It’s fair to say the digital age and rise of social media have introduced almost
as many difficulties as efficiencies into people’s lives.
● Some of these problems relate to cyberloafing, security breaches, privacy
concerns, and the volume of e-mail.
● Cyberloafing
o Cyberloafing refers to lost productivity due to using the Internet at
work for personal use.
o Employees waste time talking on cell phones or texting, surfing the
Internet, spending time on social media, sending personal e-mail, and
shopping.
o Software tools can reduce cyberloafing, but managers should engage
employees in decisions about how to use such tools to make sure rules
are fair and to make employees feel like they are "part of the
conversation.”
o Most employees can and do bring their own devices to work and so are
perfectly capable of bypassing controls installed on office computers.
 o Taking an online break from work might not be such a bad thing if it
can reduce stress and improve concentration.
● Phubbing and FOMO
o Microaggressions, or acts of unconscious bias, include a number of
seemingly tiny but repeated actions, like interrupting others,
mispronouncing or mistaking someone’s name, and avoiding eye
contact.
o The urge to phub others springs from the fear of missing out—FOMO—
or of being out of touch with something happening in our social
network
● Security
o Security is defined as a system of safeguards for protecting
information technology against disasters, system failures, and
unauthorized access that result in damage or loss.
o Security is a continuing challenge, with threats ranging from malicious
software (malware) that tries to trick people into yielding passwords
and personal information, to viruses that can destroy or corrupt data.
o Human error by careless or improperly trained employees is part of the
problem.
o Internal attacks by disgruntled employees are one of the biggest
security threats a business can face.
o Table 15.6 presents some ways to protect yourself against security and
privacy breaches on the Internet.
● Privacy
o Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about
themselves.
o A potentially devastating violation of privacy is identity theft, in which
thieves hijack your name and identity and use your good credit rating to
get cash or buy things.
o The most important thing to know about online and social media
privacy is that nothing posted is ever truly private.
o The monitoring of electronic work communications is widespread with
employers monitoring their employees' e-mail and tracking their
Internet use.
o Determined employees can often get around monitoring tools and
devices, sometimes weakening the organization's security protocols in
the process.
● The Need to Manage E-mail
o The average worker can receive hundreds of e-mails a day, even
though most of us can handle no more than a few dozen in that time.
o While texting, social networking, and other forms of electronic and
digital communication have begun to reduce the dominance of e-mail,
 it's predicted that the number of e-mail users worldwide will continue to
grow.

15.5 Improving Communication Effectiveness

We describe how you can be a more effective listener, as in learning to
concentrate on the content of a message, communicating nondefensively, and
employing empathy. We offer four tips for becoming a more effective writer.
Finally, we discuss how to be an effective speaker through three steps.

Nondefensive Communication
● Defensive communication is either aggressive, attacking, angry
communication or passive, withdrawing communication.
● Nondefensive communication is assertive, direct, and powerful.
● Defensiveness often is started by the poor choice of words we use and/or the
nonverbal posture used during interactions.
● Using absolutes like “always” or “never” is very likely to create a defensive
response.
● Table 15.9 describes antecedents of defensive and nondefensive
communication.
● Some steps to achieving nondefensive communication are: build relationships
first, frame your message into terms that acknowledge the receiver's point of
view, free yourself of prejudice and bias, practice full disclosure, and pick a
time and place conducive to communicating and listening.

Empathy
● Empathy is the ability to recognize and understand another person's feelings
and thoughts.
● Empathy is a reflective technique that fosters open communication.
● Being empathetic requires two key actions: mindfulness and incorporating
your understanding of another person's feelings and thoughts into your
communications.
● Empathy leads to more effective communication and interaction because
people feel heard, and it sends the message that we care about others.
● Studies show that everyone can learn empathy with training and practice.
Being an Effective Listener
● Active listening is the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal
messages.
● It requires full attention and processing of information.
● Listening is a cornerstone skill of communication competence.
 ● Many of us think we are good listeners when evidence suggests just the
opposite, and we will not become better listeners unless we are motivated to
do so.
● There are four typical listening styles: active, involved, passive, and detached.
● These listening styles differ with respect to how invested the listener is, their
level of participation, and the type of body language they display.

Being an Effective Writer

● Given that e-mail and texting have replaced the telephone in so much of
business communication, writing is an essential management skill.
● Recommendations for writing business communications more effectively
include:
o Start by telling your purpose and stating what you expect of the reader.
o Keep your words and structure simple, be direct, and use active voice.
o Send your message to only those people who need the information,
and don’t send a message when you are feeling emotional.
o Follow spelling and grammar rules, and proofread your writing before
sending it on.
● Table15.11 presents other recommendations for business writing, both online
and offline.
Being an Effective Speaker
● Being an effective speaker is one of the greatest skills you can have.
● One can do away with a great deal of anxiety about speaking in public by
knowing what and how to prepare.
● Dale Carnegie’s classic advice for the content of a presentation still holds: (1)
Tell them what you’re going to say. (2) Say it. (3) Tell them what you said.
o The introduction should prepare the audience for the rest of the
speech.
o For the main body of the speech, you want to select and cover your
few key points as succinctly as possible, and provide your listeners
with guidelines and transitional phrases so they can see where you’re
going.
The end should provide a solid, strong, persuasive wrap-up, and you want to give
some thought to the last thing you will say