u. s.

DEPARTMENT of commerce
C IV II. A E R O N A U TI C S A D M I N IS T R A TI ON
-"
W.A.S H IN GT ON, D. C.

Civil Pilot
Training Mounucil

Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 23

* EC on D. E. D. IT I on
s E. PT E M B E * 1941

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

3 9015 095152883
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
JESSE H. JONES, Secretary

c 1 v I L A E R O N A U T 1 c s A D M I N I S T R AT I o N
DONALD H. CONNOLLY, Administrator

Civil Pilot
Training Manual

Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 23

Second Edition

SEPTEMBER 1941

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1941

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - - - - - - - - - - Price 65 cents

–
 PR E FA C E
This manual is designed primarily for the use of students taking the
Elementary ground and flight courses and the Secondary flight course of the
Civilian Pilot Training Program. The material contained herein therefore
is outlined in accordance with the courses developed for that program. How
ever throughout the preparation of the manual, an effort has been made to
make it equally valuable to all civilian student pilots as a standardized hand
book of safe flying.
The manual is divided into five parts:
Part One, Aircraft Operation, covers the following subjects: Theory
of flight; inspection and care of aircraft and engines; instruments; and para
chutes. A text for the study of the Civil Air Regulations, entitled DIGEST of
Civil AIR REGULATIONS FOR PILOTs (Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 22) is
printed separately. This is done in order to provide most efficiently for in
corporating in the text such changes and revisions in the regulations as may
become necessary from time to time. Navigation and meteorology, the two
other preliminary ground courses, are covered in separate textbooks, PRACTICAL
AIR NAVIGATION AND METEOROLOGY FOR PILOTs (Civil Aeronautics Bulletins
Nos. 24 and 25).
Part Two, Elementary Flight Course, covers the four stages (A, B, C, and
D) of the controlled Elementary flight course. Starting with the familiariza
tion of the student with the airplane this section follows, step by step, through
the entire sequence of the various maneuvers comprising the complete course,
ending with cross-country flying and the pilot's flight test.
Part Three, Secondary Flight Course, treats the maneuvers comprising that
course. Successful completion of the Elementary course is a prerequisite to
the air work described in this section. All student pilots and such private pilots
who have not been instructed in them are cautioned against attempting these
maneuvers except under the guidance of a certificated instructor. Since much
of the work comprising the Secondary flight course is merely a review and
extended practice of the work in the Elementary course, it is felt that a repeti
tion of discussions on such phases as familiarization with the airplane, taxiing,
and detailed instructions on the elementary maneuvers is unwarranted. The
Secondary ground course is handled in the program by the participating
schools and colleges, and none of the subjects comprising this course is included
in this book. Texts for the Secondary ground work are: AERODYNAMICs For
Pilots: Pilot'sAIRPLANE MANUAL; PILOT's PowerPLANT MANUAL; and Pilot's
RAdio MANUAL. (Civil Aeronautics Bulletins Nos. 26, 27, 28, and 29.)
Part Four, Seaplane Flying, is devoted to a discussion of that subject.
In the main, it merely emphasizes and explains the difference between the
operation of landplanes and seaplanes. It is to be considered as supplementary
material to the other parts of the book and is included in order that the man
ual may serve the seaplane student as well as the landplane student.
iii
IV PREFACE

Part Five, General Information, covers the following: Airplane load fac
tor information for pilots; engine idling and carburetor heat; axioms for the
pilot; and fire in the air. An appendix contains a glossary of aeronautical
terms.
The descriptions and explanations of the yarious maneuvers assume the
use of conventional heavier-than-air craft except in one section entitled, “Two
Control Airplanes,” in Part Two, Chapter I. In recent years many uncon
ventional types have been developed, such as two-control, tricycle-landing
gear craft. Some of these are easier to handle than conventional craft, but
the reasons for this advantage and the finer points of their use are best under
stood by reference to maneuvers that are possible only with three independ
ent controls, like those of conventional craft. Seaplanes having these three
controls are considered conventional.
The art of flying is progressing rapidly. The vast experience accumulated
as a result of the extended pilot-training programs, both civil and military,
now under way, plus the normal increase in the swiftly mounting knowledge
of this comparatively new science will lead eventually to the development of
improved and perhaps entirely different methods of instruction. The controlled
courses, however, offer standardized curricula based on approved and accepted
practices in use at the present time. While it admittedly is not feasible to
turn out a finished pilot in the number of hours of flight training allotted to each
student in these courses, it is believed that the student who completes success
fully even the Elementary course alone will be equipped with the fundamental
fly

knowledge and training which will enable him to safely for the rest

of
his
flying career. Successful completion
of

the more advanced maneuvers com

prising the Secondary course naturally will provide him with still broader
background -
a
of

experience.
This manual does not profess fly. No boo
to

teach the student how

to
by

that, for flying can actually handling the

do

learned properly only

be

can
airplane flight while
an

an
of

controls instructor demonstrates how the

in

done and corrects and explains any errors that

be

various maneuvers should

might However, the book will serve supplement
as

the student make. to

a

the instructor's teachings and assist the student the reviewing past work.
of
in

Acknowledgment the Army Air Corps, Aero

of
to

the Bureau
to

made
is

Navy Department, Advisory

of

to

nautics the and the National Committee

their publications which has been
of

for Aeronautics for material from certain

adapted and incorporated this work, the General Inspection and Aircraft
to
in

Airworthiness Divisions, and the many flying instructors and operators

in
byto

the field who aided materially their suggestions and criticisms.

preparation
D.
of

of

of

J.

The the first edition this manual was the work

Brimm, Jr., Lieutenant Commander, United States Naval Reserve, assisted by
Parker, Jr., Chief, Ground School Section, Standards Division, Civilian
J.
S.

Pilot Training. The controlled courses flight training were the work
of

in of

Jack Cram, Captain, United States Marine Corps. The changes

R.

the second edition consisted primarily further explanations

of

the addition
in
of

changing
of

some the maneuvers without the maneuvers themselves. This

Webster, Professor Physics and Coordinator
of

of

of
at L.

was the work David -

Civilian Pilot Training Stanford University.
-
 CONT EN TS

Page
Page
Preface------------------------- III Chapter II.-INSPECTION AND
PART ONE. AIRCRAFT – CARE OF AIRCRAFT AND
GINES
EN

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-

-
-
-
OPERATION
Inspection-------------------
Chapter I.--THEORY OF FLIGHT- 1
Safetying methods. -----

...
Aerodynamics. - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - 1
The airfoil - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- 2
Powerplant----
Forces on the airfoil------

-
-
-
-
-
2
Speeding up------------- 5
Landing gear... -----
Slowing down----------- 6
Attitude at
and angle of
tack------------------ 8
Speed and angle of attack- 9
Ground speed, wind and Fire while starting_
air speed--------------

_
_
10
Starting, running, and stopping
Comparison of wing shapes-
the engine----------------
11.
Flaps and slots ---------- 12
Changes in plan form---- 14
Starting ----------------
Running (warming up) ---
The airplane---------------- 14
Use of the throttle-------
Control of the airplane--- 15
Stopping----------------
Action of controls... ------ 15
Propeller torque effects--- 17
Inspection check list --------
Practical choices of speed --- 18
...

Drag relation speed-- 18 Chapter III.-INSTRUMENTS____

to
in

67
The normal glide and
others 21 The altimeter---------------- 68
-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-

Best climbing---. -------- 26 The air-speed indicator-------- 69

Cruising---------------- 24) The turn-and-bank indicator-- 73
Stability-------------------- 30 The inclinometer or bank indi
gravity, cator---------------------- 75
of

Center and
balance--------------- 30 The magnetic compass-------- 75
Positive, neutral, and nega The tachometer-------------- 77
tive stability---------- 35 79
Airplane stability-------- 36 Temperature gages----------- 81
Longitudinal stability. 36 Rate of climb indicator-------- 82
Rolling stability_____ 40 The Sperry gyro horizon ------ 84
Yawing stability----- 42 The Sperry directional gyro--- 89
Free directional os
cillations_-_ 42 Chapter IV.--PARACHUTES______ 92
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

Performance----------------- 45
Airplane structural considera Parachute construction-------- 92
tions-------------------- 47 Inspection parachutes 94
of

-
-
-

-
-

Kinds of stress----------- 47 parachutes---- 95

of

Maintenance
Simple structures-------- 48 Carrying the parachute------- 96
Correction preconceived ideas. Using the parachute---------- 96
of

49
VI CONTENTS
Page
PART TWO.-ELEMENTARY
Primary flight maneuvers—Con.
FLIGHT COURSE Page Glides---------------------- 154

Chapter I.-ST A G E A, DUAL Normal glides----------- 154

INSTRUCTION________ _____ --- 99 Gliding turns------------ 155

Rectangular course----------- 157
Familiarization with the air- Stalls----------------------- 158
plane--------------------- 99
Power off---------------- 159
Familiarization with the para- Power on --------------- 161
chute---------------------- 102
Accidental stalls-------------- 162
Communication and signals---- 103 Stalling speed in banks-------- 163
Local air traffic rules__________ 104
Take-offs.------------------- 165
Misconceptions of the student-- 104 Running take-off--------- 168
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 105 Landings-------------------- 169
Taxiing
without brakes or steer- Correcting bad landings--- 173
wheels - - - - - - - 106
able
tail Precision approaches--------- 175
No wind
----------
— 106
Landing with 90° ap
Into the wind-------- 107 proach---------------- 178

Turns---------------
107
S turns across a road--------- 181
How to wing -- 109
hold
a Climb and glide coordination
Down wind--------- 109 exercises------------------ 183
109
Cross wind---------- 30° eights around pylons_ 184

_
_
_
_
...

_
With brakes without
but 180° side approach precision
steerable tail wheels---- 110 landing------------------- 190
No wind- 110
----------- Take-offs cross wind---------- 191
Into -- - - - - - - 110
Landings cross wind---------- 191
the wind
Down -- - - - - - - - 111
Forced landings-------------- 192
wind.
Cross wind-- 111
turns------------------
- -------- Steep 195
With steerable tail wheel- 111
Spins----- 197
a

Effect of wind gusts 112 -----------------------------

--
-
-
-

snow-----------
Mud andprecautions------ !!: ChapterII.-STAGE B,
PRIMARY
113
General SOLO---------------- 202
Primary flight maneuvers---------- 113 ----------------------------
chapter in-stage preci.
!!!

c.

The four fundamentals--------

First flight-orientation- -- 114
SION MANEUVERS---________ 204
-
-

Relaxation-------------- 115
The first flight_-_ 116
Stalls and spins-------------- 204
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

Orientation-------------- 117
360° overhead approach preci
Straight and level flight------- 118 sion landing--------------- 204
Medium and gentle turns_ 121
Steep 720° precision turns----- 204
_
_
_
_

Medium turns_ 131

60° eights around pylons_-_ 206
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

_
_
_

Gentle turns ------------- 133 Spirals---------------------- 207

low altitude----- Spiral approach precision land

at

Turns 134
Coordination exercises-------- 136 ing----------------------- 208
approaches------------
to

Rolling from bank bank- 136 Power 209

Banks without turns------ 137
Power landings.--------------- 210
Confidence building maneuvers- 138
D,

Banking maneuvers------- 138 Chapter IV.STAGE CROSS

Stall maneuvers---------- 139 COUNTRY FLYING AND
FLIGHT TEST_____
of

Overlapping functions 211

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

controls--------------- 140
Spiral stability--------------- 141 Practice maneuvers----------- 211

Two-control airplanes--------- 142 Slips-------------------- 211

Level flight with no horizon_ 146 Forward slips-------- 212

_
_

Climbs---------------------- 152 Side slips------------ 213

Normal climbs----------- 152 “Dragging” the landing
Climbing turns---------- 153 area--------------- 214
 CONTENTS

Page

The cross-country flight------- 215 Dragging the landing area-----

Check-off list for cross Cross country----------------
country flying---------- 216 Night flying-----------------
I. Pre-flight duties--- 217 Flight test-------------------
II. In-flight duties--- 223
III. Post-flight duties. 237 PART FOUR.—SEAPLANE
IV. Precautions______ 238
FLYING
V. Flight errors------ 239
VI. Procedure when Chapter I. —GENERAL__ _________ 291
240
Flight test for pilot certificate-- 242
Chapter II.-TAXIING 293

PART THREE. Chapter III.-SAILING____ _______ 297

SECONDARY
FLIGHT COURSE Chapter IV.-APPROACH AND
DEPARTURE ----- 299
Chapter I.-STAGE
FAMILIAR A,
IZATION AND REVIEW - - -
Chapter W.-TAKE-OFFS 302
Familiarization with new equip
trient---------------------- Normal take-offs__ ______ ___ __ 302
Sequence of maneuvers for Take-offs in rough water__ _ _ _ _ 302
practice------------------- Take-offs with heavy loads in
calm water-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 303
Chapter II.-STAGE B, AD Cross wind and down wind
VANCED PRECISION MA take-offs 304
NEUWERS.-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 248

Pylon eights------------ -- - 248 Chapter VI.-LANDINGS 305

Precision landing with 180°
semicircular approach ------- 254 Determining wind direction____ 305
The chandelle_-____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 256 Landing in normal water------ 305
Precision landing with 360° Landing in rough water------- 306
circular approach----------- 259 Landing in glassy water------- 306
The lazy eight-, - - - - - - - - - - - - - 260 Cross wind and down wind
The wingover---- - - - - - - - - - - - - 263 landings.--------, --------- 307
Spiral approach precision land Emergency landings --------- 307
264
Chapter VII. —CROSS-COUNTRY
Chapter III.-STAGE C, AD SEAPLANE FLYING_______ 309
WANCED CONFIDENCE MA
NEUWERS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 265 Mooring and securing--------- 309

266
267 PART FIVE.—GENERAL
268 INFORMATION
271
The snap roll-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 273 Chapter I.--LOAD FACTOR IN
The loop with quarter-roll re FORMATION FOR PILOTS____ 311
COVery--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 274
The vertical reverse----------- 276 Chapter II.-ENG IN E I D L ING
The Cuban eight---- - - - - - - - - - 277 AND CARBURET OR HEAT__ 321
The split S, or half-roll-------- 279
The Immelmann------------- 281 Chapter III.-AXIOMS FOR THE
The slow roll----------------- 283 326

ChapterIV.-STAGE D, REVIEW, Chapter IV.-FIRE IN THE AIR--- 328

CROSS COUNTRY, AND
FLIGHT TEST__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
APPENDIX
Power approaches and power
landings.--------- Glossary of aeronautical terms---- 329
 Part One
AIRCRAFT OPERATION

Chapter I. THEORY OF FLIGHT

The purpose of this chapter is to enable the student to understand the

principles of flight and the simple scientific facts associated with the various
flight maneuvers. It is written in nontechnical language, and the explanations
are given in the simplest terminology possible. Those who wish to pursue
the subject further are referred to Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 26, AERo
DYNAMICS FOR PILOTs.
At the end of this volume is a glossary of aeronautical terms with definitions
approved by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Emphasis
is laid upon the fact that it is highly important for the student to look up im
mediately any word with which he is not thoroughly familiar. Technical terms
ordinarily associated specifically with aviation will be italicized the first time
they are used. The meanings of these words may be found in the glossary.
Colloquialisms and trade terms will be enclosed in quotation marks when first
used and explained briefly in the context.

AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics may be defined as the science or study of the forces produced
by relative motion between the air and an object. The word “relative” is
used to call attention to the fact that the motion may be that of the air past a
body, or motion of the body through the air. The forces involved and the
effects produced are identical whether the air moves by the body or the body
moves through the air. This is fortunate since it enables a study of the subject
to be made in a wind tunnel, which is simply a large tube through which air is
forced at high velocity. The effect of this moving mass of air on any object
placed in its path is the same as if the object were moved through the open air.
By means of a wind tunnel, equipped with measuring instruments, practically
the flight characteristics
an
all

airplane can
be
of

of

determined from model

a

before the actual ship built.

of is

Air
78

21

mixture percent nitrogen, percent oxygen, and percent

is
a

including
of

miscellaneous gases, mostly argon, but helium and eight others.

Air also contains such things water vapor, dust, and smoke, which are not
as

part
of
it.

considered
a

The air, atmosphere, totally surrounds the earth layer approximately

or

in
a

depth; pressure simply the weight

of

200 miles the air sea level

in

at

hence the
is

1
2 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

of a 200-mile column of air. This pressure is about 14.7 pounds per square
inch and is measured commonly in terms of the height of the column of mercury
which it will support. The normal sea-level pressure thus may be expressed
as 29.92 inches of mercury, or 1,013.2 millibars. The density of air is greatest
at sea level and decreases with altitude. Also, since it is a mixture of gases, it is
subject to the laws pertaining to gases and expands or becomes less dense with
increase of temperature. The density also changes with prevailing meteoro
logical or weather conditions, so that we have large areas of the earth's surface
over which the pressure is below normal at certain times; likewise other large
areas over which the pressure is above normal." The density of the air has
a very definite relation to flying. For example, when the barometric pressure
is low and the temperature high on a given airport, it will be found that take
offs are much more difficult, and rate of climb much lower. The same is true
concerning take-offs from fields at high altitudes. Failure to observe due
-
precautions under such circumstances may lead to serious consequences.

LEADINGEDGE
AIRFOILSECTION UPPER OR TOP CAMBER

TRAILING EDGE

~
ANGLE OF ATTACK

DIRECTION OF RELATIVE WIND LINE

Figure 1.—Terms pertaining to airfoils in horizontal flight. Note.—Angle of attack is the angle between
the wing chord and the relative wind, but the latter is not horizontal except in horizontal flight.

THE AIRFOIL
For of the following discussion, an airfoil is a portion of an
the purposes
airplane, which, when moved through the air, is capable of producing lift.
Lift is explained in greater detail below. In conventional aircraft the parts
which are considered as being airfoils are the wing and control surfaces.
FORCES ON THE AIRFOIL
The airfoil section is the section that would be shown if an airfoil were cut
its

In

through vertically in the direction of motion through the air. the case
wing this section would have the shape wing Many airfoil
of

of

the rib.
a

of

sections various shapes have been tested wind tunnels and their character
in

istics, the air upon them, recorded. These characteristics vary

of
or

the effect
determined only by actual test.
be
of of

with the shape the airfoil and can

moving past the airfoil may resolved into two forces,
be

The effect the air

perpendicular the air stream and approximately perpen
of
to

one the direction

the airfoil, and the other parallel
of

the air stream.

to

to

dicular the surface

Further information pertaining meteorology may be obtained from Civil Aeronautics Bulle
to
1.

tin No. 25, Meteorology for Pilots, for sale by the Superintendent Documents, Washington,
of

D.

C.
called

not

and
as
in

wing,
–
—
The perpendicular force is called lift.

_-T
for

there but

not flow
an

keep out

done
stead
in

by
drag.

be

true
“pants.” around
its

drag
strong
A
as
at

turning
called downwash.
Strange
exactly
upwash. This
These forces

practical amount only

the special features
One
of

these features
smoothly and steadily along
landing-gear

the way
of
of
a

Behind
is

figure
downward,

say, even
to

credible, but the directions

attaching
vertical,
of

A
together

it.

strong.
lift.
second notable feature
these streamlines are downward.
point

horizontally
due
is
in

the line
before
this air
CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL

The force parallel to the air current is

with a number of terms used in connec
tion with airfoils are illustrated in figure 1.
Drag is familiar to anyone who has ridden a bicycle and noted how hard it
is to pedal against a strong wind. Indeed, the Wright brothers tested their
first airfoils on a bicycle. Lift is less familiar. There is no lift on the bicycle
rider's body, nor on such a part of an airplane as one of
though such parts have enough drag
considerable expense
put builders

wings and similar airfoils.

the flow
of
on
if is

gets
having
to

of
air around such airfoils.

such

Good streamlining
of
2,
so

for
landing-gear wheels,
high-speed aircraft

that the flow

to
making landing gears retractable. Lift occurs

in
evidently due

body the flow

a

Figure 2.-Stream lines near

the flow around

example,
that
a
any

streamlined. That
certain lines, such

is
those
wheel with thick tire and

wing

moving
mass

the wing, but somewhat uphill,

had keep out
air below the wing, which previously had been held back like traffic
the way

still earlier downwash. This upwash seems slightly in

carefully

another, and the results are

a
to

curved. And the air takes this curve

*

For more details, see

a
of

built
frame carried
E.

stated.”
Altogether, this streamline, from upwash
P.

of

the streamlines can

weathervane,

high
as

measured.

the airplane, first

downwash,
speed.
on
figure

is
as

practically
is

will leave the wing

it

flight exactly horizontal, this air does

it of

is
to

other
jam,

This can
with its axis horizontal in
one place and then

rather sharply
The effect
Warner, AIRPLANE DESIGN,
at
a

taking
to
to

of
streamlined case,

its
So
the air flows
This could

in
unsteady eddies,

is
a

wing.

horizontally
downhill wind
be

2d Fd. 1936,
it
no

essential for weak drag

that most
a

the curves
Air flowing over the highest point
is

the
in
p.
is
of
in
of
is

39.
a
2. is,
of
in
of
of
a

in
as
of
3

to
to
or
well

as
to
abe
4 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

curve at a high speed is familiar to anyone who has ridden in a car. So the air
in this streamline. like a passenger in a car, seems to experience a centrifugal
force. Whether or not we define the word force in such a way as to include
a centrifugal force as a real force, the passenger in the car certainly has to brace
himself, as if to balance such a force. Just as he may get his balancing force
from the door of the car pressing the side of his body, so any little block of air
near the highest point in any streamline must get

its
balancing force from the
pressure pressure

be
of

the air above This means the

it.
above this block must
greater than that below.

-
mind, we can imagine

an

of
With this invisible tower built such little
in

air, figure from the top the wing some place where the
of

of
3,
as

to
blocks
so in

straight that the pressure must practically normal. Each

be
streamlines are
bottom. Starting with practically
of its

its
top

at
block has more pressure than
at

normal pressure the top the top block, then there

of
the bottom
at

be at
less

is
this block; but this the top the next block, still less pres
of

so
there must
is

its bottom. Keeping down the tower, there less and less pressure
on
at

sure

is
till we arrive top wing,
of
at

the the where the pressure well below normal.

is

Figure 3.−The pressure under each block less than above.

is

This subnormal pressure, the upper surface suction,

the wing, respon
on

of
or

is
this for about three-quarters
of

the lift.
in

sible
at

such case -
a

Under the wing, the streamlines curve much the same way. So another
in

built up there, from place with practically normal

be
of

tower blocks can

a

pressure, far below. From there upward, each block step higher pres
to
is
a

sure, leading considerably above normal the wing.

of
to

the lower surface

at

This excess pressure responsible for the other quarter the lift.
of
is

seems surprising, first sight, that the top the wing should
be
of

lifted
at
It

strongly bottom, confirmed by actual

as

as

about three times the but

is
it

Accepting this firm basis, the explana

on
of

measurements these pressures.

it

simply that the stream lines are much more strongly curved above
so

tion
is

the wing than below, figure Of course, the ratio the lifts
of
as

shown not
in

2.

is

exactly 3-to-1 here, and angles

of

varies with different attack.”

it

Another way above and below the wing

at

these pressures compare

to

to

look
is

them with normal pressures far the wing. This can done by means
of

of
be

front
in

physics called Bernoulli's theorem. This law relates pressures speeds.

of

law The
to

the air just above the wing higher than far front,
as

speed shown by the fact

of

in
is

that the stream lines are closer together above the wing. And the law says that any point
high speed point low pressure. the same way, the speed below the wing
of

of

In
is

is
a

For details, see, for example,

p.

Warner. 1R1'LANE DEs 1(;N, 2d Fd. 1936, For

E.

44.
P.

A
3

of a

typical airfoil for which Warner gives data on this peint, 3-to-1 angle
is

the value when the

only 2-to-1 but
at
8°

4°

attack
at
is

is

is

12° 4-to-1.
it

it
;

;
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 5

abnormally low, so the pressure is high. Bernoulli's law holds only in steady flow along
streamlines without appreciable friction, and under many circumstances (though not
here) it applies only to points on the same streamline. An especially important fact to
bear in mind, if one prefers to look at lift from Bernoulli's viewpoint, is that the lifts
given by his theorem are not in any sense additional to those given by centrifugal forces,
but simply the same lifts, looked at in another way.

Whichever way one looks at lift, the essential condition for it is the
maintenance of steady flow, along streamlines of the right sort. This is im
portant because there are many ways of breaking the streamlines, intentionally
or otherwise, as will appear later, and any breakdown of the streamlines impairs
the lift.
SPEEDING UP
Practically,
so long as the airplane is flying straight and level, the lift
must exactly equal the weight. Any excess lift makes the line of flight curve
upward, and any deficiency in lift lets it curve down. What happens, then,
if you open the throttle wider and want to go faster on the level?

Figure 4.—Stream
T-_
lines at a low angle of attack.

If
you could keep the same angle of attack, the streamlines would keep the
same shapes. So any bit of air, taking one of their curves at a higher speed,
would experience a stronger centrifugal force. All these forces would be
increased in the same proportion, so the lift would be increased likewise and
the line of flight would curve upward into a climb.
The only way to prevent such an increase in the centrifugal forces is to
straighten some of the curves in the stream lines. This can be done by simply
reducing the angle of attack, as shown in figure 4.
The faster you go, in straight and level flight, the lower you must hold the
nose. Because of this, there is no line in the ship that is always level in level
flight.
Strange as it may seem, a good wing will lift even if the chord is inclined
very slightly below the line of flight. So if the engine is powerful enough you
can continue to speed up in level flight, holding the nose lower and lower, until
the angle of attack is definitely negative, though never by more than 2° or 3°.
At such angles the lower surface contributes practically no lift, and may even
be pulled down a little, so the lift is then due entirely to the curvature of the
stream lines above the wing. -

Incidentally, the highest speed obtainable in this way in still air, with any
given airplane, is called its top speed.
6 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Naturally it takes a little practice to know just where to hold the nose
for level flight at any given speed. So it is well to see first that nothing serious
happens if you don't lower the nose when you open the throttle wider, but just
hold the airplane in the same attitude, or position, relative to the horizon.
If you do that, the lift will increase with the speed, and the airplane will start
to climb. With the same attitude still held, this change in the line of flight
automatically reduces the angle of attack, as shown in figure 5.
A common misconception is that it takes more lift to keep an airplane climb
ing steadily than to keep it flying level. This is definitely wrong. What
does take more lift is to change the line of flight from level to climbing;
but once the airplane is climbing steadily and straight, the forces are again
exactly balanced. This fact comes under Newton's First Law of Motion: that
straight motion at a constant speed always means the complete absence of any
unbalanced forces. The airplane, indeed, is like a man in an elevator who
feels a little extra push in his legs when the elevator is starting to climb, but
none when it is climbing steadily. The exact form of the law of balance for
oblique forces will be stated later. For forces so nearly vertical and hori
is,

zontal as in this case, however, it practically, that the lift

in
as
the same

is
then just the angle needed
So

level flight. the new angle give

of

to
attack
is

2°ANGLE
ofAttack
chordLINE cHordunt FLIGHT
PATH
5°

ANGLEOFATTACK
-
|

FLIGHT
PATH LEVEL IEVEIUNET/
Al-TDe-ºw-
- *——º
3°
ANGLE
OFCLIMB
SLOW - (3) FAST
G)
Figure 5.-Effect increasing speed without changing
of

attitude.

lift the new speed. The angle then just the difference
of
at

the same climb

is

angle new, figure

of

in
as

between the old attack and the shown

5.

Evidently, you open the throttle wider and hold the same attitude, you
if

anything make the airplane take the correct angle at

do

of
do not have
to

is to
its

tack for speed. That automatic. You have lower the nose only
if
to

new
you want the airplane not climb.
to

SLOWING DOWN
you pull back the throttle till the airplane slows down its original
on
If

to

original
its

speed, the angle readily

If
of

attack resumes value. this value was

only few degrees, and then you slow down somewhat further, still holding
a

the same attitude, the flight path will incline downward, that the angle
of
so

attack will increase further and again give steady flight.

limit, however, At
as be
to

There what can this direction.

in

done
is
a

angle attack, stalling angle,

of

certain critica/
or

known also the burble

point, air begins rush upward around the trailing edge the wing and
is of
to

it,

break the stream lines above forming eddies. This change called stalling
the wing, and the speed straight and level flight
at

which occurs
in

in
it

still air called the stalling speed. At angles greater than the stalling angle,
is

eddies gets thicker, figure

of

as

the mass shown

in

6.

the stalling angle depends the wing

on
of

of

The exact value the form

section, but usually between 15° and 20°. With wind tunnel,
of in

model
is
it

seen readily by releasing

be

these eddies can thin stream smoke into the

a
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 7

wind, or by exploring with a short piece of string, tied like a little flag to
the end of a stick. In a full-sized airplane, if it is a biplane, they can be seen
almost as well if you tie short pieces of tape to the struts or wires between
the wings. In normal flight, these tapes blow straight and steadily; but in a
stall, any one of them that is in the eddies gets whirled into a shapeless tangle.
The eddies can also be felt, through their irregular pressures and suctions,
which cause the wing to vibrate and to transmit its vibrations through the
structure of the airplane to the pilot. Hence the expressive term, burble.
Stalling comes under the rule stated on page 5, that any break-down of the
streamlines must seriously impair the lift. Stalling does this in two impor
tant ways.
First, the streamlines above the wing run above the mass of eddies, as shown
in figure 6. So they are straighter than they had been when they curved with
the surface of the wing. The centrifugal forces above the wing are weakened,

Figure 6.-Streamlines and eddies near a stalled wing.

and a large part of the lift which occurred there is lost. The airplane starts
to drop.
Second, before the stall the greatest curvature of the streamlines was
over the leading half of the wing, so the strongest suction was there. It is
there also that the most straightening of the streamlines occurs, and the greatest
loss of lift. The trailing half never had so much suction, and in the eddies it
still has about as much as before, even though not so steadily. So the wing is
like a man who has absent-mindedly stepped off the end of a sidewalk and is
missing the expected lift on his leading foot. The nose goes down suddenly.
A third important change in the forces is an increase in the drag. This
comes under the general rule that eddies always increase drag, though the
increase is due to changes in forces at many points, some of them not in the
Practically,
its

importance drag
of

eddies themselves. that the increase

is

airplane still more,

so
to

to

tends slow the and make matters worse.

Fortunately, the wing's insistence nosing down, described above, just
on

is

make the airplane dive and regain speed, like

on
to

what needed car steep

is

a
a

downgrade. So the lift regained and steady flight resumed, provided only
is

is

that there room enough for the dive.

is
8 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

In an airworthy airplane, therefore, a stall is a perfectly safe maneuver if

done high enough above the ground. But inadvertent stalls near the ground
account for about half of civil aviation’s fatalities.
ATTITUDE AND ANGLE OF ATTACK
Returning to normal flight, it is evident that straight and level flight can
be performed with any angle of attack between the stalling angle and the small
negative angle found at top speed. This range of angles is almost 20°, with

57inches

Figure 7.-At 57 inches, each inch means 1°.

any ordinary wing section. Most flying is done fast enough to stay within
about the lowest 5° or 10°. Even 5°, however, is enough to make quite a range
of heights of the nose as seen from a rear seat. In fact, if an airplane was so
designed that the front window was just 57 inches from the pilot's eyes, each
inch of vertical height on that window would mean almost exactly 19, as in
figure 7. (In many light airplanes with tandem seating the window is
between 40 and 50 inches from the pilot's eyes, if he is in the rear seat, so each

: —E _T
-c4.- RELATIVE
WIND
FLIGHTPATH
_T. |
RELATIVE
WIND
(a)
(b)

NORMAL
ANGLEOFATTACK HIGHANGLEOFATTACK
FORCRUISING (APPROACHING
BURBLEPOINT)
GROUND LINE

-- T. --~~~

-
5° ----
_x:y. --
Raswº"
._2~\ -
*—
HORIZONTAL LINE
- 4 =
Hºuoniº, } {
W\GAI PATH
twº- (c)
=== (d) RELATIVE
WIND
4°
3°

CLIMBWITHFULLPOWER GLIDEATSAMESPEEDAND
AT 5° ANGLEOFATTACK ANGLEOFATTACKAS(a).
GROUND LINE
Figure 8.-Angles of attack under various conditions.
1.2

So, level flight, the horizon may

be
in

vertical inch means about

to

1.4°.)
on

seen through any point over range window, the

of

several inches Such

a

a
In

exact location depending on the speed. other words, there

no

in

one line
is

airplane always pointing

of

the direction its motion.

to in

the
all

Not flying confined attitudes within this range, however. Landing

is

involves letting the airplane lose speed until stalls just before the wheels
it

ground. Just before stalls, flight

of

touch the the line level. So the

it

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 9

upper range of angles of attack and of level-flight attitudes is used in landing.

The difference between this and an ordinary level-flight attitude is illustrated
in the upper pair of diagrams in figure 8.
The same attitude as in landing, but with a higher speed and lower angles
of attack, makes the upward flight path shown in the third picture in figure 8.
This flight path is far too steep for an ordinary light airplane, but not for a
-
very powerful ship.
In gliding, the attitude is more nose down, but any given speed again gives
practically the same angle of attack as in level flight, as shown in the fourth
picture in figure 8.
SPEED AND ANGLE OF ATTACK
The accuracy of this rule about the same angle of attack for any given
speed, either in level flight or climbs or glides, might be questioned on two
grounds.
One of these is the very common misconception discussed on page 6, the
belief that climbing requires the lift to exceed the weight and that gliding
requires the reverse. As explained there, what does require the lift to exceed
the weight is not steady, straight climbing, but starting
- from level flight into
a climb.
A better ground for question is the fact that in a climb or a glide the lift
is not vertical, but perpendicular to the line of flight, and there are also other
forces to help support the weight. In the climb, the thrust, or pull of the
propeller, has to exceed the drag, and it is inclined upward, practically along
the light of flight. In the glide, the direction, upward along the line of flight,
is backward, which is again the direction of the drag, but there is no thrust.
Thrust in a climb, and drag in a glide, do indeed help support the weight. In
practically all civilian flying, however, climb and glide angles are small. There
fore these forces are relatively weak, in comparison to the lift; and since they
are only slightly inclined, their upward components, or lifting effects, are
doubly weak.
Practically, therefore, in any straight flight, whether level or at any
ordinary angle of climb or glide, LIFT EQUALS WEIGHT.
This fact makes the relation of the angle of attack to speed, for any given
airplane, practically the same for all kinds of straight flight in still air. This
relation, for a typical modern light airplane, is shown in figure 9.
This graph does not any one light airplane exactly, but compromise
fit

is
a

between data from several sources. illustrates several important points,

It

them summarizing what has been explained above,

of

follows:
as

most
such thing straight flight still air with any speed less
no

(1) There
in
as
is

than the stalling speed Vs.

(2) For any speed very short range above stalling speed, straight
in
a

flight possible two angles, the smaller angle giving normal flight
of
at

either
is

and the larger one stalled.

the angle for normal flight always
of

(3) As the speed increases, attack

decreases.
(4) At first this decrease very rapid, but becomes slower and slower,
of is

it

very wide range higher the angle

of
so

that over the speeds attack changes

a

201073°–41—2
10 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

but little, and all high speeds give angles of attack within very few degrees
above or below zero.
GROUND SPEED, WIND AND AIR SPEED
The restriction to still air, in the laws just stated, raises the question, how
to allow for the wind.
The fundamental law about an airplane flying straight in a wind is this:
Suppose the wind is perfectly steady and perfectly uniform in strength and

ANGLE OF

/
ATTACK
20°

15°

10°

5°

0° –Stºp
0 m.p.h. 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 9.-Relation of angle of attack to speed for a typical light airplane, with V2 = 40 m. p. h.

direction everywhere, and suppose you have inside the airplane a small balloon,
so weighted that when it is released it will neither rise nor sink; then, if you
release this balloon while you are flying straight, and you continue to fly
straight, with exactly the same attitude and throttle setting, the balloon will
always be ea actly behind you, and you will get ea actly as far from it in any

WIND

Figure 10.-Airplane and balloon in a wind.

given fime you would with the same attitude and throttle setting if there
as
awere no wind at all.
Your relation to the balloon at various times is therefore as shown in
figure 10.
This law is a direct consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, that
all

in any straight, steady motion forces must balance exactly. For direct
it,

aeronautical evidence, however, perhaps the best reason for believing that
is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 11

all
it is the basis for allowances for wind navigation, Civil

by as
described

in

C. in
24,
Aeronautics Bulletin No. PRACTICAL AIR Thoburn NAVIGATION, Lyon,
chapter VI, and that the results such navigation are observed

be
to of

to
correct.

all
For now, may the variety

be

of

in
best not consider cases found

it
navigation, but only two, those flight directly with and against the wind.

of
For

80
example, suppose airplane miles per hour still air.

it, in
the makes
an

If 80
hour after you release the balloon, you will

it. be
Then miles from whether
you are flying

an
still air against

or

or
wind with there east wind
in

is
a
of

miles per hour, the balloon will drift west

20

20
you

If
miles that hour.

in
your your

80

60
are heading east miles from the balloon means only miles from
starting point, the upper half figure 11.

of
as

shown
in
In

80
this case, your air speed miles per hour, but your ground speed

is
is
only 60. On the other hand, the wind was west you would get 100 miles from
starting point, ground speed 100 miles per hour
if

of

as
the and have the

in
a
figure 11.
of

lower half
In

general, the law about the distance from the balloon might

be
restated
the form: given setting gives the same air
in

in
attitude and throttle speed
A

any smooth, uniform wind, regardless the ground speed.

of

20 20 40
| | | o
| i | tr

l | t | |

| | |

BALLOON
--- -
X|

O
i

80 MILES
ſ

| | t |

.
..
.
.
i | |

| |
l

—wº-ºo-º-k
20m.p.h.
Balloon

--
i |

80 miles
l - I

--- Milf
t | |

starting H.
| -..
.

Point
|

Figure 11.-Ground speeds against the wind and with it.

The graph angle

attack against speed therefore refers
of

of

air speed,
to

not ground speed; and the stalling speed definite air speed.
is
a

Throughout the remainder this chapter, unless

of

herwise stated, all

of
be

speeds referred will air speeds.

to

COMPARISON OF WING SHAPES

by

When lift and drag are determined wind-tunnel test, the results are
square-foot designer can determine how many
in of on

so

worked out basis that the

a

square feet wing area are necessary support the airplane given speed.
to

at
a

Obviously, airplane given weight, the greater the wing area, the
an

of
a

slower the airplane can fly without stalling.

Generally speaking, different shapes, the one with the greatest
of

airfoils
in

curvature will carry more weight per square foot than the others.
or

camber
At the same time, likely have more drag. Hence, the designer con
to
of to it
is

In

stantly forced compromise. figure 12, three airfoils are shown, with
is

varying amounts camber. The one shown (a) symmetrical section

in

is
a

ordinarily
of

type
of

the for control surfaces. That shown (b) the

in

used
is

general form used for the wings conventional airplanes, while the one shown
of

highly modern aircraft. At

on

an

(c)
in

cambered section never found

of is
a

angle lift, section (b)

no
of

attack zero degrees, section (a) would have

a
12 - TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

fair amount of lift with low drag, and liftº but

section (c) a higher amount of
with much higher drag.
All good wing sections have sharp trailing edges, a condition absolutely
essential for weak drag. For strong lift, however, the most important part
of the wing section is the nose. Changes in shape of the nose have a pro
nounced effect on the characteristics of the airfoil. For this reason, the forward
portion of most wings is covered with thin metal or plywood before the fabric
is applied. It is important that the pilot appreciate the effect of a smooth
contour throughout the leading-edge section of the wing in order to realize
ice

this section the lift the wing impaired seriously.

on

of
-
that when forms

is
lift occurs because many

on
of

of

of
This loss the characteristic shapes ice

So
wings are shapes around which streamline flow impossible. another

of is
_-

it
is
example any breakage
of

of
the adverse effect the streamlines into eddies.

s - T=-9HORD CH
-

(a)

LINE
(b)

—º -
(c)
Figure 12.-Variation
===
camber.
LINE
in

FLAPS AND SLOTS

As previously stated, airplane design always compromise.
of

matter
is

To obtain low landing speed, relatively large wing area necessary. On the
is

hand, wing increased, drag wings

of
as

other the area the the also increased,

is

is

with consequent loss top speed. Flaps were developed order that the lift
in

in

might increased for landing without increasing the drag high speed.
13 be

at

Figure shows three types

be
of

flaps. will noted that those shown (a)

in
It

change wing they pulled

of

and (b) the camber the when are down. The

Fowler flap shown (c) not only changes the camber, but also increases the
in

by

When flaps are used, lift camber and

in

area. increased the increase

is

the drag also The drag desirable since permits

in

increased. increase
is

it
is

much steeper glide and also decreases the landing roll. slightly exagger
of in A
a

flaps landing figure

of

of

ated illustration shown

in

the effect
is

14.
a

.
.

Flaps are combined with slots airfoil. Two

in

sometimes the nose the

15.

types figure The type illustrated hinged

of

slots are shown (a)

in

in

in
is
 -
CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 13

place and remains closed except when the airfoil begins to approach the critical
angle. It then opens automatically. The type shown in (b) is built into the
wing, usually only in the half of each wing adjacent to the tip, and remains

(b) SPLIT FLAP

(c) FOWLER

Figure 13.−Types of flaps.

open continuously. This latter type is referred to colloquially as “eyebrows.”

Slots tend to eliminate burbling until very high angles of attack—30° or
more—are reached, thus preventing a stall. Many combinations of flaps

WITH FLAPS

`sº WITHOUTFLAPS

Sé / -—-SPACE LEFT FOR RUN AND STOP —

-
y
** L.
- *~
|
...

SPACELEFTfor ->
- -- - RunAndstop
.
F-
tI

Figure 14.—Effect of flaps.

and slots have been tried, and claimed that some arrangements increase
is
it

the lift 100 percent. Flaps are used

on
of of

the airfoil all but the

as

as

much
the modern airplanes. Slots are less common, but the use
of

smallest the
fixed slot appears increasing.
be
to
14 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

CHANGES IN PLAN FORM

The plan form of an airfoil is its shape as viewed from directly above or
directly below. The shape and relative dimensions of this plan form affect
the characteristics of the airfoil. Much of the drag of a wing is caused by
spilling of the air and eddies at the tips. Obviously, then, a wing which had
a very short span in proportion to its chord would have a greater tip loss per
square foot of area than a wing with a long span. The ratio between chord
and span is called aspect ratio. Thus, a wing which had a chord of 6 feet and
a span of 36 feet would have an aspect ratio of 6. To summarize, high aspect
ratio means increased efficiency of the wing due to the lower proportion of tip
loss per square foot of total area.
Since in a tapered wing the aspect ratio is the span divided by the average
chord length, higher aspect ratio without undue increase of the span may be

(b) FIXED SLOT

Figure 15.--Types of slots.

obtained. It is partly for this reason that some wings are tapered or made
with a smaller chord at the tip than at the root, or center portion, of the wing.
Tip losses are greater if the ends of the winds are square; consequently in
practically all airplanes the wing tips are rounded and tapered in thickness for
the last two or three ribs.
THE AIRPLANE

For purposes of discussion, the airplane, from a structural standpoint,

usually is considered as being divided into five main sections. These are (1)
lifting
all

the wings, including the actual surfaces and bracing which goes
with them; (2) the fuselage, or, flying boat, hull, which provides space
in

the
a

for pilot, passengers, baggage, etc.; (3) the powerplant, which includes the
engine accessories; (4) the landing gear, which may
be

or

either wheels floats

and includes all braces connected with them; and (5) the control surfaces,
which include the vertical fin, the rudder, the horizontal stabilizers, the eleva
or

tors “flippers,” and usually the ailerons. Obviously, there certain amount
is
a
of

overlap For example, the fuel tank may

be

these divisions. the fuse

in

in
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 15

lage or it may be in the wings. Likewise, the engine controls which are
strictly speaking, a part of the powerplant, must extend into the pilot's
-
compartment.
CONTROL OF THE AIRPLANE
For the purpose of studying stability, flight maneuvers, or any motion
of the airplane, it is considered as having three axes, which are illustrated in
figure 16. These axes may be thought of as rods extending through the center
of gravity of the entire airplane, and about which it may rotate. Each of the
axes is perpendicular to the other two. They are each designated by letters
as indicated in the figure. The vertical or z axis may be considered as vertical
to the ground when the airplane is in its normal flying position. The lateral
or y axis (also called transverse axis) is parallel to the ground when the wings
of the airplane are level. The longitudinal or a axis is parallel to the ground
when the ship is horizontal or in normal flying attitude.
When the airplane moves or rotates around
the y axis, the a. and z axes move with

or it.
This motion, which the nose goes up
in

down, called pitch. When rotates about

or is

it

longitudinal axis, “banks,” the

or

the
a,

z
and axes rotate with and the movement
it
y

called roll. Movement about the vertical

or is

axis, changing the direction

in

in
as
z

which the nose pointing, which necessi

is
of

tates movement the other two axes,

is

called yaw. Figure 16.-The three axes an airplane.

of
Movement about the lateral axis con
is
by

trolled the elevators. Movement about the longitudinal axis controlled

is
by
by the ailerons. Movement about the vertical axis controlled the rudder.
is

ACTION OF CONTROLS
The stabilizer and elevator, taken together, may sym
be

as

considered
a

metrical airfoil. The same true of the fin and rudder. When the movable
is

the horizontal surfaces, and the rudder

is of
in

surface (the elevator the

in

case
line with the fixed surface, the
of

of

case the vertical surfaces) moved out

the airfoil just simple flap increases the
of

as
of to

result increase the camber

is

a
In

wing. fact, flaps their action.

in
to

camber the ailerons are identical

a
In

required them,
to

to

order lessen the effort move controls are often

arranged portion
of

the movable section extends forward

or

so

balanced that
a

of the hinge line. In such designs the pressure the air on the portion
of

of

the
hinge (requiring
on
of

surface aft com

to

the line effort the stick overcome)

is

pensated for, large extent, by pressure the portion

on

the same direction

of in
to
a

the hinge line. Various types figure 17.

of

forward balances are shown

in

The operation
of

of

the Frise aileron

in

these rather obvious except the case

is
or

Flettner type balance, more commonly known

of

as

balance and the tab

“trimming tab.”
or
as

the “tab” balance

In the case the Frise balance,
be
of

will noted that when the aileron

it

moves up, the balance projects below the surface

of

of

corner the airfoil.

a

the wing
on

The purpose this arrangement increase the drag

on
of

to

which
is
16 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

the aileron is up. It has been pointed out that when the camber is increased,
the drag of the airfoil is also increased. Thus, when an aileron moves down,
increasing the camber of the wing at that point, the drag of that wing also is
increased, creating a tendency for the ship to yaw or turn toward the side where
the aileron is down. By increasing the drag of the aileron which is up through
use of the Frise balance this yawing tendency is eliminated.
In the case of the trimming tab, when the tab is pulled down the camber of
the surface is increased which causes the entire surface to move up. This
characteristic renders it possible to move extremely large control surfaces by
moving the much smaller tab. However, the most common use of the trim

©OF HINGE

>=----

ãºy
ENDVIEW SECTION A-A SECTION'A-A
OVERHANG HANDLEY-PAGE FRISE

* OF HINGE

-
--
FORCEOFAIR TENDING
TO PRODUCEC
FORGEOFAIR TENDING WISEMOTION
H–

ACTIONOF BALANCE

—s

== END VIEW
SECTIONA-A
FLETTNER OR TAB
PADDLE
Figure 17.--Types of control balances.

ming tab is to relieve the pilot of maintaining a constant pressure on the con
if,

trol stick, wheel, or rudder pedal. For example, explained

be

for reasons
to

later, ship tends constantly turn toward the left, the rudder continuously
to
be a

the right. However, equipped with trimming

is to

must held the rudder

if

is

tab, the tab that its trailing edge toward the left. This forces
so

moved
is

the entire rudder toward the right and eliminates the necessity the pilot
of

exerting constant pressure the right rudder pedal. Likewise, shifting

or on

if
a

weight, such baggage, causes the ship become nose heavy

of

as

passengers
to
go

(or tending constantly slight dive), pilot

to

into the must exert continuous

a

backward pull the elevators are provided with trim

on

or

If

the stick wheel.

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 17

ming tabs, the trailing edge of the tab may be set slightly down, thus forcing
the elevators up and relieving the pilot.
PROPELLER TORQUE EFFECTS
Thus far, the airplane has been treated as though there were only four
namely, weight, lift, drag, and propeller thrust,

it,
forces acting upon

as
shown
figure 18.
in

-
really
of

of

of

of
Each these, course, resultant vast number little

is

a
forces, which we group together because

of
some common characteristics. The
simplest force, obviously, weight, the sum all the little weights parts

of

of

of
is
the airplane.
lift, the common characteristics are that the force components making
In
up

the lift are aerodynamic origin and are perpendicular the flight path.
of

to
Many parts the airplane that commonly are not considered lifting sur
of

as
the lift under certain conditions. Examples

of
to

faces do contribute these are

LIFT
A

THRUSTFº O --> DRAG

O

GRAVITY
Figure 18.-Forces on the airplane flight.
in

the struts which run from the fuselage the wing oblique angle, the hori
an
to

at

zontal surfaces, and, limited degree, even the fuselage itself. However, the
to
a

lift relatively very small and customarily

of

total such items not consid

is

is

design the airplane. Its effect balance, however, may

be
on
of
in

ered the
appreciable.
Drag, likewise, many force components, namely, those
of

of

sum aero
is
a

dynamic origin, parallel the flight path, the wings, fuselage, and all other
on
to

parts the airplane, except the propeller.

of

The propeller forces, unfortunately, are only approximately represented

by the single force, the thrust. this, there turning effect,
In

or
to

addition
is
a
In

torque. most American airplanes the propeller turns clockwise,

as

seen from
behind. So the air, holding from spinning still faster, exerts counter
in

it

clockwise torque, and this torque transmitted through the engine the air
to
is

plane. we imagine sufficiently powerful engine, readily under

be
If

will
it
a

stood that, were the propeller held stationary while the engine was running, the
18 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

its
airplane itself necessarily would spin around longitudinal axis

in
direction

a
impos

an
opposite propeller. admittedly

of
While this

to
the rotation the

is
sible situation, nevertheless, there tendency for the airplane rotate just

to
is
a
In
offset this tendency, which would call for
as

to
described. order constant

a
pressure toward the right stick, wing usually

on

of
the the outer end the left

is
warped slightly increase its angle attack and consequently its lift.

of
so
as
is to

by
lift accompanied drag, this warping

an

of
in
Since increase increase

in
the wing, “wash-in,” called, makes the airplane tend
or

as

to
turn toward

is
it
tendency, leading

of
the left. To offset this the edge the vertical fin must be
set slightly toward the left small angle

of
so
that the vertical surfaces have

a
attack, the trimming tab

be
on
is or

so
the rudder must the left that the

to
set
the right. Either arrangement creates lift toward the
of to

rudder forced

a
the part the vertical surfaces, thus tending make the tail swing
on

left

to
toward the left right.
or

the nose toward the

In

the foregoing explanation, the rotation the propeller, when viewed by

of
the pilot behind clockwise direction, the usual power
it,

be
to

in
assumed
is

a
plant-design practice this country. Were the propeller, due engine

to
in

design, turning counterclockwise, the exact opposite would,

of
course, obtain.

PRACTICAL CHOICES OF SPEED

Most practical flying keep the angle fast enough

of
attack within
to
is

a
why?
of

But
as

few degrees zero,

stated above. Does this mean that most
people fly only when they are hurry get somewhere? Or
if of

that much to
in

that they are continually afraid stalling they go any slower? Or some
of

thing about the way the ship handles? Or what? -

exactly any suggestions just though re

of

The answer not one the made,

is

primarily drag
of
to

speed.
It

lated more than one. matter its relation

in

to
is

DRAG IN RELATION TO SPEED -

All parts the airplane that are exposed the drag,

of

the air contribute

to

to

already noted, though only the wings give much lift. For this reason, and
as

it,

the drag may conveniently divided into two parts, the

be
to

others related
wing drag and the drag everything but the wings.
of

The latter part includes the drags the fuselage, landing gear, struts, tail
of

surfaces, and any other things, such lights, wind-driven electric generators,
to as
do

etc., which not contribute notably the lift. Such drags are included under
term expressing their lack utility, namely, parasite drag but unfortu
of
a

nately for present purposes the exact up-to-date definition

in of

this term makes

*

part wing drag, the small-type

of

include also certain the defined

it

section (see page 20), called profile drag. Here, therefore, the sum all drags
of

other than wing will called simply the other drag.

be

Any increase speed naturally increases this other drag, and

of

does
it

according simple Suppose landing-gear wheel, for example,

to

that rule.
a

a
40

drag 1.5 pounds miles per hour. Then you double the speed,
of

has
at

if
80 a

miles per hour, you get much drag, and 4× 1.5 pounds
as
to

times
=
4

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Report No. 74, NoMENCLATURE For AERONAUTIcs,
*

1940.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 19

pounds. If you make the speed 3 times what it was, or 120 miles per hour, you
get 9 times as much drag, or 13.5 pounds. The 4 here comes in as 2×2, and
the 9 as 3×3, so this relation is called proportionally to the square of the air
speed. It is illustrated in figure 19.

For some odd speed, not exactly any whole number of times the 40 miles per hour we
started with, the figuring of drags is almost as simple as in the cases described above. Take
72 miles per hour, for example. 72 is 1.8X40, and 1.8X1.8=3.64. So the drag at 72 miles
per hour is 3.64 times as strong as at 40, or 5.46 pounds.
In practice, of course, the starting point for such figuring is the speed of the wind in
a wind tunnel, in which the drag has been measured, either on the object itself or on a
Smaller model. With the model, one has to make a calculation for the difference of size,
which involves another proportionality to a square, the square in this case being that of
any one of the dimensions of the object or model. If it turns out that the drag of the object
at flying speed is a great many times that of the model in the tunnel, then one must allow
for errors in these proportionalities, caused by differences in the shapes of the stream lines
on account of the viscosity of the air.
Further allowance must be made for the fact that the motion of the air itself is not
the same all over the airplane. This is partly because each part of the airplane affects
the flow around neighboring parts (an effect called interference), but especially because the
propeller drives the wind back extra fast, as a slip stream, in the region directly behind it.
Practically, however, for a rough approxima

/
tion the sum of all drags other than that of the dRAGof
WHEEL
wings may be considered to be nearly enough 14lb

proportional to the square of the speed, and the 12"

departures from this approximation can be left 10lb

to the advanced course or to the aeronautical 8lb

engineers. 6lb

–
The wing drag changes with speed in a
very different way, because of the changes + + - SPEED
40mph 80mph 120 ph

m
o
in the angle of attack. Near the stalling Figure 19.-Proportionality the square of the
to

speed the wing is inclined to the relative air speed.

wind at nearly the stalling angle, and its
drag is very strong. But at ordinary flying speeds, with the angle of attack
nearly zero, the wing cuts through the air almost like a knife, and the drag is
weak. At extremely high speeds, the angle of attack changes very little with
any further increase in speed. Then the drag of the wing increases almost like
that of any other object. Such speeds can be obtained with powerful engines,
but they are beyond the top speed with moderate power.
To sum up these changes, for a typical, moderately powered airplane: As
the speed increases from stalling speed to top speed, the wing drag decreases
and the other drag increases. As a result the total drag decreases for the first
part of the range and then increases again. These relations are somewhat as
portrayed in figure 20.
any particular
fit

The data in this figure, like those in figure 9, do not

airplane, but are typical.
There has been amazing progress recent years toward higher speeds, especially
in

in

the heavier airplanes. part progress engine design, but most

of

this has been due

of in
to
A

So all ways reduce drag are pilots, and

of

reductions drag.
in
to

to

to

interest
it

especially prospective buyers of airplanes.

to

Some of the ways reduce parasite drag are fairly obvious. External bracing wires
to

have been practically eliminated and struts reduced number. Wheels are fitted With
in
20 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

streamlined “pants”, landing gears are more streamlined, and engine cylinders are now
surrounded with smooth cowls, rather than allowed to project into the wind. While the
advantages of these changes are fairly obvious, the improvement produced by a well
designed cowl is even greater than one might expect, because it eliminates a less obvious
but very considerable increase in the drag of the fuselage, due to the destruction of its stream
lines by the cylinders. This is an especially striking example of interference. For improve.
ments in this and many other such matters, great credit is due to the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics.5
To see how to reduce the wing drag, and for other reasons, this drag must be analyzed
a little more thoroughly. A part of it, of course, is due to skin friction and little eddies
in the air flowing very close to its surface, and to rivet heads or stitches or other rough
spots. This is practically the part called profile drag.
But there is another part, which is considerably greater except at very high speeds,
and is called induced drag. The downwash, described in connection with stream lines,
persists indefinitely far behind the airplane. By the law of the conservation of energy, all
the energy that is left behind in this downwash must be paid for in energy taken from
the engine. The only way the engine can deliver energy is to pull against drag. So this
requirement of energy is a requirement that there must be a certain amount of drag,
associated with downwash, in addition to the profile drag. This new one is the induced

*
150 HLB,
- / Z

so-Hº
100

- 1– ::::::::::::::::: SPEED
0 m.p.h. 20 40 60 8O 100 m.p.h.

Figure 20.-Drags in relation to speed, for a typical light airplane.

drag. The induced drag can be calculated from the lift and the dimensions of the wing,
so it is defined exactly in terms of such a calculation and the profile drag is defined exactly
as the rest of the wing drag.
The law of the conservation of energy, in this case, as in most others, sets ul) a require
ment without telling how it is to be fulfilled. Details on how are beyond the scope of this
book, but two consequences should be noted.
First, flying faster, and thereby reducing the angle of attack, reduces the downwash
energy and therefore reduces the induced drag. This is another way to look at the reason
why the wing drag as a whole is less at moderately high speeds than at very low.
Second, just as the engine must pay for the downwash, it can collect energy from the
upwash in front of the wing. More exactly, as may be recalled from the description of
the stream lines, the upwash is caused by what was called a traffic jam in the relative
wind below the Wing, and this in turn is caused by previous downwash. In terms of
energy, this traffic jam takes energy from the downwash by slowing its motion, and hands
the energy over to the upwash. The only trouble is that the traffic jam cannot take all the
energy from the downwash and hand it back in this way, because some of the downwash air
escapes to the sides. Anything that can be done to diminish this air's chance to escape,
therefore, diminishes the loss of energy that represents the net payment by the engine.

5 For further details, see any good book on aeronautical enginering. A good cowl also helps
greatly in cooling the engine, as described. for example, in the Pilot's Powerplant Manual, Civil
Acronautics IBulletin No. 28, by L. E. Sheden helm.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 21

The obvious way to diminish this loss is to put the sides farther away : That is, to widen
the wing span, or distance from tip to tip. If you want a given wing area, this means also
shortening the wing chord.
From a structural engineering viewpoint, a wide span is diſlicult to make strong and,
consequently, expensive. So, ordinarily, the ratio of span to chord, or aspect ratio, is only
about 6. But in gliders, where there is no engine to carry and every possible ounce of
drag must be saved, the aspect ratio is very much greater; and it is so for just this reason,
to save induced drag.

THE NORMAL GLIDE AND OTHERS

Returning now to figure 20, it will be recalled that the total drag, for the
whole airplane, is weakest at a certain moderate speed and stronger at either
higher or lower speeds. This principle gives the clue to our choices of speeds
for various types of flying.
The simplest type for such a choice is the glide, because in it the choice
does not depend in any way on the engine. An important question about the
glide is how to reduce the steepness of the glide path as much as possible, that
is,

much ground possible with any given loss

of
as

as
to

how cover altitude.

This does not mean holding the airplane Far from

as

as
“flat” possible.

it
!
This question important for several reasons,

an
of
which obvious one
is
is,

case the engine fails the pilot must know how

is of
make full use
in

to
that
available for choosing place secondary reason
as

such area land.

to

A
is

that this same type glide usually turns out very convenient for making
be
of

to
approaches for ordinary landings. Starting the approach given altitude,

at
a
glide gives path any At
do

this longest which necessary

in

to

the maneuvers.
neither too slow for safety nor cause the air
so

as
to
the same time fast
is
it

plane “float” too far after “levelling off” and make hard for the pilot
to

of to
it

forecast accurately where will finally land. Altogether, this type

he

the airplane—is very convenient.

So
glide—not the flattest attitude
of

has

it
all

been adopted the standard for approaches landings

as

to

this course, and

in

has been given the name normal glide.

Now for why certain intermediate speed, and cannot done be
at

done
is
it

slower. Everyone who was once small boy knows that toy wagon
or

faster
a

pull than much lighter),

to

easier box without wheels (unless the box

is

is
a

and that the wagon gentle slope

he on

will
coast down which the box would
a

sliding.
to he
If
is of

never think has lived the North knows also that

in

sled
an a
ice

glare pull wagon,

on

on

even easier than the and will coast even

gentler slope. the weights are equal, just drag: The weaker
If

of

matter
is
it

a
is,

the drag the gentler the slope can be.

With different weights, between the toy wagon and
an

airplane,
as

is
it

drag per pound weight.

of

of

matter 1,000-pound airplane with 120

A

pound drag will glide without gaining losing speed

on
or

exactly the same

slope 100-pound toy wagon with 12-pound drag. Either
of

them will
as
a

a
up
its

just keep slope that drops

on

speed
12

feet vertically every 100 feet

in
a

along the slope.

difference that the speed the airplane
no

80

keeping up may
be
It

makes
is

miles per hour while the wagon may making only

be

Just
as

the climb
in
8.

long stays
on

"is"lºsºl
6,
so

as

page the speed constant the forces must balance

be.

exactly, whatever that speed may

22 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

In the glide, however, the meaning of the word “balance” is not just simple
equality of opposite forces, as it was in the balance between lift and weight in
level flight, or between thrust and drag in that case. In the glide, there is no
force directly opposite to the drag. The exact meaning, however, is the clue

it,

us
from which to find the slope of the glide. To illustrate let consider

a
flight path inclined

its
1,000-pound airplane with horizontal,

7°
at
below the
figure 21. Since the drag always backward along the flight path,
as
in

is

is
it
now inclined obliquely upward, along this line. The lift, being perpendicu

7°
the flight path,

of
lar

7°
to

forward the vertical.

is
As any reasonable angle glide the lift practically
on

of
9,
page

at
noted

is

by
so.
equal the weight, though not exactly Exactly, the relation denoted
to

the
three forces, lift, drag, and weight,

all
figure

as
word “balance”

in
between
is
is,

21. That suppose arrows are drawn their three known directions, with

in
lengths triangles then rep

of
the sort shown there. Arrow
as
to

W
such form
weight. weight pounds
If

resents the this 1,000 and the arrow inches

is

is
4
HORIZONTAL
ANGLEOF GLIDE

g
CHORDLINE
ANGLE OF ATTACK’

Figure 21.-Forces straight, steady glide.

in
a

of or
long, then the scale this force diagram 1,000 pounds per 4-inch unit,
of

is

250 pounds per inch. Then we can measure the other arrows, and the law
that when they are drawn this way they all represent their forces
in

balance
is

on the same scale.

by

lift arrow
In

this case the (or calculates trigonometry) 3.970

measures
inches, the lift pounds, pounds, confirming the rule
or
so

250 3,970 993

is

that nearly equals the weight. Likewise the drag arrow measures 0.487
it

inch, the drag 250 pounds, 122 pounds. 1,000-pound air

or
in so

0.487
is

plane glide, therefore, will maintain constant speed only the drag
7°

if
a

pounds. drag that, down; will

If

more than will slow less,

if

the
is

is

it

122
it

Speed up.
Looking back figure 20, the graph total drag for that typical 1,000
of
to

pound ship shows 122 pounds two speeds, 43.5 miles per hour
of
at

either one
of

and 82.5 miles per hour. So steady glide possible

7°

at

either
is

these
a

any other.
at

speeds, but not

Possible does not mean necessarily easy. the higher speed,
to It

at

also easy
is

miles per hour; but

82

not nearly steady glide

so

at

easy hold speed

of is
it

within miles per hour the stalling speed. verified easily,

be

This fact can

4
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 23

after practice in stalls, by trying it at a safe altitude; and the explanation for
it will appear in part two, chapter I, in the section, Level Flight with No
Horizon.
Inother ways also, these two glides are notably different. The angles of
attack for these two speeds, taken from the graphs in figure 9, are 12.5° for
the slow glide and 0.7° for the fast one. So the attitudes of the airplane are
very different, as shown in figure 22.
Gliding like the slower airplane in this figure is often called “mushing.”
this term perhaps indicating several things at once. One of these is that the
descent is much steeper than one might expect from the attitude of the air
plane, so that the air seems too soft, like loose snow. Another is the difficulty
of maintaining a steady glide in this way, as mentioned above, with a similar
suggestion of something loose. Perhaps another is the correctly uncomfortable
feeling of being too near to stalling. At high altitudes such glides are safe
enough; but if done near the ground, such mushing as this is sometimes, deri
sively but deservedly, called a “graveyard glide.”

Figure 22.-Two 7° glides.

The normal glide is neither of these 7° glides. Being defined as the

steady glide that covers as much ground as possible with any given loss of
altitude, it is evidently the glide in which the drag is as weak as possible. In
figure 20 the weakest drag is found at 60 miles per hour. So for that particular
airplane the normal glide is a glide at just that air speed and no other. This is
typical. In any airplane the normal glide is neither fast nor slow, but at some
definite intermediate speed, the speed for minimum drag.
is,

To find out how steep this glide one has only force diagram,
to

draw
a

like figure 21, except for the different values the drag, lift, and angles, and
of

then measure the angle glide.

of

For this case, with the drag 100 pounds and the weight 1,000, the glide
This
82

44

glides miles per hour,

7°
so

as
at

steep the and

at
is

5.7°. not
is

speed fairly
In

though not very different. any airplane, any

in
as

this one,
glide, below, gives glide
of

or

at

near that the normal either above almost

a

the same angle.

good. Definitely not. you make
If

This does not mean

as

almost
is
it

approach field too fast, you “float” along the runway too far, slowing
an

in
to
a
24 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

down to landing speed, with the result that you do not land where you meant to.
Suppose, for example, that you approach the airport in this typical airplane
at 70 miles per hour, instead of the 60 milesper hour required for a normal glide.
Your angle of glide is changed only from 5.7° to 6.0°, so little that you would
never notice the difference. But the extra speed means extra energy, which
must be dissipated by moving farther against the drag. In this case the extra
energy is the same as if you had been 44 feet higher in a normal glide. The
drag against which you must move is not much different, so the extra distance
is almost that which would be covered in a normal glide with a loss of altitude
of 44 feet, namely, 440 feet in this airplane. This makes the extra distance at

T-
least 400 feet. When you must land somewhere between two lines only 300

---> =

-
- LEVEL

T-E--->
7

H
CHORDLINE
----
\
-| ==== Eliºt 0.7
v
t
FAST GLIDF
Fair =

--Tº — -- -
-—
LEVEL
| - - -

Wi
(-|-----T CHORDLINE T
..
D| .v --

NORMAL
GIB

Q-–– T- T LEVEL
12.5

-
= |
ERI
ST- |
@) SLOW GLIDF
Figure 23.−The normal glide in comparison with others.

feet apart, to pass a test for a pilot certificate, you cannot afford any 400-foot
errors | -

Some time later, on some bad field, the reason for accuracy may be some
thing even more important than the test.
These figures, like all others in this chapter, are for perfectly still air. The
effects of wind will be explained in chapter I
of part two, but it should be noted
here that in gliding against the wind the flight path is always steeper and the
“floating” distance is shorter. Even so, however, the error caused by an eatra
-
10 miles per hour will completely ruin any precision landing.
One way to make a glide normal, evidently, is to be sure the speed is held
to the desired value. Another way is to hold the airplane in the right attitude.
The two 7° glides, pictured in figure 22, involved very different attitudes. For
the normal glide, the attitude can be found in the same way as theirs. The glide
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 25

angle is 5.7°, and at 60 miles per hour the angle of attack is 5.0°; so the wing
chord slopes downward at 0.7°. This attitude turns out to be intermediate
between those of the 7° glides, just as the speed is intermediate. For compari
son, the three glides are pictured together in figure 23.
As to whether to find and hold the normal glide by speed or by attitude,
that depends on circumstances. Attitude is far easier, if you are over flat
country with no thick haze, because it is just a matter of setting the nose down
so that a certain line on the front window is on the horizon. But among moun
tains, or in thick haze, one must be guided by speed. This is not so easy as it
looks, and the whys and hows of it will have to be examined carefully later.
The important point is that it can and must be learned.
The direct algebraic relations between drag and angle of glide are of more direct concern
to the designer than to the pilot, and can be omitted from a pilot-training course without
serious loss; but for students familiar with algeira they do throw further light on the
subject.
It was stated above that if an airplane weighed 1,000 pounds and had a drag of 120
pounds, it would glide steadily if every 100 feet along the flight path dropped it 12 feet

` /
| _”
90
|

L
W
g

*\}
D
Figure 24.—Force and distance triangles for a glide.

vertically. This rule can be generalized. If the drag is D and the weight W. then the
height H lost in any given flight distance F in still air is givenby the proportion,

H_D
F= W.

This proportion comes from a pair of similar triangles shown in figure 24.
As stated above, in any ordinary glide, the lift L is almost equal to W. So the
ground distance G is almost equal to the flight distance F. Airplanes are often described
as able to “glide 10-to-1,” meaning that either G or F (without saying which is 10 times
is,

such estimates are rarely accurate enough

H,

say which
10

H. The fact
to

times
is

So practically, the glide really A-to-1, either

is.

either
D. or

about times
is

is
if

W
if

as strong as Knowing W, this gives an easy way

D.

it to

calculate
finding this way, though obvious that
in

Some care needed can be measured

is

is
D

with the air-speed indicator and stop watch, and with the altimeter. For any sort
of
by II
a

accuracy the air-speed indicator must timing both ways over

be

checked measured
a

course, as described the chapter on instruments. And the altimeter must be better
in

‘’() ()7:}". —–
A
1

3
(
26 L. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

than many such instruments are. Practically, to guard against its most common errors,
the drop H should be at least 1,000 feet, say, for example, from the 3,000-foot mark to
the 2,000; and the glide should be started several hundred feet above the upper mark, to
equalize the lags of the instrument at the marks. The test Should also be made very
early in a calm morning, to avoid updrafts and downdrafts in the air. With these pre
cautions, any reasonably careful observer can find the drag of any airplane with moderate
accuracy.
Finally, to get the angle of glide in degrees, one may again use the fact that L= W
and G=F' approximately. Because of this fact, the glide angle g is given approximately
by the equation—

o–57%|# or; or:#or #]

This comes from the fact that 57° is the angle at the point of a slice of pie if the
57°
length of its curved rim equals the radius of the pie. For glide angles less than 10°
this equation is accurate to within a tenth of a degree.
This equation is good only for still air, or for a glide path relative to the air, which
might be marked by balloons as in the section, Ground Speed, Wind and Air Speed. For
more about the effects of wind, see part two, chapter I, the section, Landings.
BEST CLIMBING
Even more important than how to make the normal glide is how to make the
best climb. This is true for many reasons. If an airport is small enough to
require any care in approaching and landing, it requires even more care in
taking off and climbing out, because in the average airplane of the present day
the take-off run is longer than the landing run and the best climb is not so
steep as the normal glide. In the air, also, climbing is more important than
gliding, because more climbing is done. This might look contrary to the prin.
ciple that what goes up must come down; but much of the coming down, in
cross-country flying at least, is “letting down” on flight paths much less steep
than glides, with the engine furnishing enough power to maintain the speed
but yet considerably less than in level flight.
Climbing, likewise, is often done at a lower angle than the steepest, with
appropriate power. But full power is used in climbing out of the airport, and
enough in further climbing to make the best climb important.
But first, what do we mean by the best climb! Steepest? Or gaining the
most altitude in a given time? These are not quite the same thing. A steep
climb with an airplane, as with a car, is a slow climb. By dropping the nose
just a little from the attitude for steepest climb we do not reduce the angle of
climb appreciably (just as we did not increase the angle of glide much under
corresponding conditions), and we gain some speed. So actually, if the change
is not too great, we may climb higher in a given time, as illustrated in figure 25.
The difference between these climbs is indeed slight, but the distinction is
necessary for clear thinking. The climb which gains the most altitude in any
given time is called the maa'imum climb.
In addition to the steepest and maximum climbs, a third climb which is
given a name in this course is the normal climb. This is at cruising air speed
(to be defined later, and somewhat faster than that of maximum climb) with
an engine speed to be specified by the instructor.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 27

In practice, the steepest climb is rarely used. The most obvious purpose
for which it might be used is climbing out of airports to clear obstacles. At
such low altitudes, however, the low speed in the steepest climb is not quite
safe for meeting sudden gusts or downdrafts over trees, etc.; and the engine if
should fail suddenly, it would take very quick work to get the nose down from
the steepest climb before the airplane stalled. Even here, then, you don't want
the steepest climb. -

For longer climbs, it is not even the quickest way to get there. This is
obviously true of spiralling up from an airport in bad terrain, to gain a safe
altitude before starting cross-country; but it is equally true of zigzagging toward
a mountain pass, too high or near for a straight approach.
The maximum climb, then, is better than the steepest; but still it is not

==i
always the best. In any sort of flying, and especially in climbing, the pilot
should give consideration to his best friend, the engine, and maintain sufficient
air flow through the cowling and around the cylinders to give adequate cooling.
If he climbs so steeply that the flow is reduced to the point where the cylinders

1 _ l l l
O 44 57 63 82 M.P.H.
Figure 25.-Steepest and maximum climbs, and others.

become overheated, the metal will be considerably weakened,

and detonation.
or explosion of the fuel, will result, seriously overstressing andthe cylinders
crankshaft. Such conditions, if long continued, may result ultimately in struc
tural failure of the engine. To insure against this, it is best to avoid running
the engine at full throttle for longer periods than are necessary. Take-offs
and climbs out of airports are normally made at full throttle; but as soon as
the last obstacle is well cleared the throttle should be reduced.
Over good terrain, the air speed may then be increased to cruising speed
and the throttle reduced almost to cruising throttle, so that the gain of altitude
is very gradual. Even where it is necessary to gain altitude as fast as prac
ticable, the throttle opening should be reduced by a moderate amount. If the
propeller has fixed blades, as in most light airplanes, this amount is indicated
by a barely noticeable reduction of engine speed, as read on the tachometer.
Of course, even a slight reduction of engine speed demands a corresponding
lowering of the nose. The rate of climb, or number of feet of altitude per
minute, is then reduced a little; but the air speed which gives the highest rate
of climb possible with that throttle setting, or with any other throttle setting
that will make the airplane climb at all, is still almost exactly the same as at
full throttle.
The exact calculations of this best climbing speed and of the rate of climb
at it with any given throttle setting are rather complicated; but for present
is,

purposes—that good flying—there

be
of of

learn the art

so
to

to

not much
is

gained from detailed calculations these quantities

as

from nonmathe
a

matical survey the factors which determine the best climbing speed.
of

|
28 tj. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Of these the first in order of importance is the same relation of drag to

speed that was used for glides. The propeller thrust has two things to do in
a climb: First to balance off the drag; and second, to pull the weight uphill.
Or, to put it a little more mathematically, the difference between the thrust
and drag is the net force up the hill; and this net uphill force can be put into
a force diagram with lift and weight, just like the diagrams used for glides.

it,

is,
Either way you look at the less drag there the less you have

to
subtract
from the thrust, left for pulling uphill. Evidently, then,
to
find out how much

is
this consideration alone would put the steepest climb the speed that gives

at
drag, glide. And this pretty nearly

as
minimum speed the normal

in
the same

is
all there to it.
is

But not quite all. you go little slower, you get slightly stronger
If

a
self-evident, but certainly you went

be
thrust. The reason for this may not

if
faster, and then still faster, the propeller eventually would not

be

to
able keep
it,

up with the air coming and the thrust would weaken; and faster still,
to

the
propeller would become windmill, made turn by the wind and causing

to
a

drag. Steepest climb very long way from the speed for zero thrust, but

as
is
a

you get still farther below that speed you get little more thrust. This relation

a
comparison with the relation drag

of

to
minor influence speed, but
in

it
is
a

little lower speed than the normal

at

does make the steepest climb occur

a

glide—say about miles per hour instead

of
57

60.
Finally, there the relationmaximum climb and steepest, dis
between
is

cussed already, which puts the maximum climb little faster—say

63
miles
a

per hour. -

-
These figures make accuracy, but they are typical.
no

pretense The
to

steepest climb always just few miles per hour slower than the normal glide,
is

and fhe maa'imum climb just few miles per hour faster.
is

a
In

climbing against the wind, usual just after take-off. the angle

of
as
is

climb, the ground, greater than still air, but

as

measured relative
in
to

if
the
is

climb, attitude, climbing

of

wind steady and uniform the rate the and the best
is

air speed are all actly still air.

as
as ea

in

gliding, therefore, the air speed for minimum drag, it. or

In

climbing,
in

normal glide, important, and recognizing and holding

of
so

the art
is

is

it

Moderate departures from the best speed make only very small departures
climb, really great departures
of

from the best rate but from either

in
it

direction have very adverse effects.

holding the nose much too low Perhaps too obvious,
of

The effect obvious.

is

indeed, for the angle nearly

is.
of

as

as

climb not lowered much the nose

is

This, angle
of

of

in of

as

course, attack the speed

in

because the decrease

in is

increases, just gliding, and shown for climbing figure 26.

as

is
is it

Holding the nose too high also bad, for the same reasons gliding,
as
in
by

lowers the flight path the same way, increasing the angle
of

attack.
in

since
it

-
This also shown figure
in

26.
is

the height
of

Both errors the nose are common. Excessive caution—or

in

perhaps reasonable caution with incomplete information—leads holding

to

it

too low. Wishful thinking—or plain ignorance without caution—leads

to

holding too high.

it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 29

Hot weather and high altitudes also lead to holding the nose too high,
because they lower the height for the maximum climb and make the usual best
height too high. This effect, and a related need for more engine speed in level
flight, are the causes of many of the “hot-weather accidents” which have become
a well-recognized type; but further details on them will have to be postponed
-
to a later chapter.
A particularly
dangerous reduction in the rate of climb occurs when any
change is made in the airplane resulting in an increase of drag, because, as

__-T
_-VT 12.5°

_-
vut.--
_-T cwoºd

-
\- - 1.5

-- - - ---- - - ----.
–––––
: fugur
--- rºm ,

2–3
-- º
--~~ - - T *-
Li Yt. *— -
_<^T
wi-------------——
.*

_-T
TOO SLOW

--- __ ___
_-T
cº-–------
-E

TT
83. FuGHT PAſ"—
4.3

—h
4
-
--→g, *
LEVEL i

a -, |

MAXIMUM

-
ºf ""
4-~!--if-lifyi
--—------- -----|
\
-
__cHoºp unt ;
**
0.7°

,
25
-
(3)

TOO FAST
Figure 26.-Attitudes climbs.
in

up

noted above, the net thrust available for pulling the airplane the grade
is

what left when the drag has been subtracted from the thrust. The more
is

you subtract, the less left. The practice followed by some careless pilots
is

tying bulky objects, such suitcases and the like,

on
of

of
as

the outside the

airplane, extremely dangerous.
is

CRUISING
Finally, among the important
of

of

choices speeds, that the speed for

is

cruising, which means prolonged level flight, especially cross country.

Cruising not done full throttle. With most big airplanes, cannot be,
at
is

it

because the engines would not last long. Even with small airplanes, for which
30 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

the manufacturers of some of the engines claim to be free from this limitation,
full throttle results in excessive wear and fuel consumption and frequency of
overhauls, also in reduction of reliability,

all

in
without adequate reward speed.
the speed range, the limitation again related

of

to
On the low ends

is

by
Gas consumption primarily energy turned out

of
economy. matter

is
the

a
engine, with minor influences also affecting its relation Energy,

in
speed.

to
by
turn, the product essentially the

of
force distance. The force this case

in
is

is
drag, against which the engine must work, strictly, something calcu

or
more

by
lated from this drag the propeller.

an

of
allowance for the efficiency The
major factor the whole problem, therefore, again the relation drag

of
in

to
is
speed.

44
there are two speeds for which the drag
If

the same, say the

82
and

is
miles per hour which both make the glide angle 7°, and the minor factors are
equal, you will burn just

in
as

as
at
much gas mile the slower speed the

at
a
faster. -

Of course, the minor factors are not equal, but other major factors are even
the cooling the engine, which

be
of

of

to
more different. One these liable
is

is
flying
an

inadequate unduly low speed. Another that your real object

at

in
82 is
go

44
may fast, per hour, you
be

will
so
to

somewhere that between and miles

prefer 82. Also,

82
very easy keep straight and steady miles per hour
to

at
it
is as is

level flight, just

44
the glide, whereas miles per hour airplane

an
in

in
in

at

relatively difficult. Even you are not anxious get

82 at

40,

to
that stalls
if
it

anywhere, miles per hour better. Comparing any two speeds related

in
is

this way, any airplane, the faster one both grounds. So the
on
better
in

is

cruising speed always faster than the speed for minimum drag.
is

Just how much faster than that, how much slower than top speed,
or

depends many other considerations. There wide range between these

on

is
a

limits, good modern airplane, and there are many pros and cons, depending
in
a

whether the flight for pleasure profit, and

on

on

of
or

how either these

is

objectives attained best.

is

Altogether, the only aerodynamically best speed for cruising the speed
is

giving the most miles per gallon aerodynamics

of

of

fuel. Most what has to

that the best cruising speed shall the normal glide,
be

as

as

say fast
at

least
is

even the maximum climb. At that point, aerodynamics yields the floor
or

to

economics and aesthetics.

STABILITY
difficulty maintaining straight
of

of

Theneed for consideration

or

the ease
steady flight, just brings up important subject stability.
of
as

and noted, the

discussing stability, however, preliminary
be

Before some consideration must

given balance, how determined, and how obtained.
to

is
it

CENTER OF GRAVITY AND BALANCE

is,

gravity object simple language, the point

an
of

of

The center
at

which
in

However, gravity
of

of
byto

balances. often desirable find the center

it

it

is

group This may accomplished

be
of

of

objects. the use moments. For those

engineering terms,
be
of

unfamiliar with the use may said that the word

it

“moment,” used here, has nothing with time, but simply force (or
do
as

to

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 31

weight) multiplied by distance. The distance used in calculating a moment is

called the arm or moment arm, and may be thought of as leverage. If we balance
a beam on a single point of support, as shown in figure 27, and then place a
weight of 4 pounds on the beam at a distance of 3 feet or 36 inches from the
support, the moment, about the point of support, 0, is 12 pound-feet or 144

is,
pound-inches, neglecting the weight of the beam itself. The moment arm

of
course, feet.
3

Figure 27.

Obviously, the beam now will rotate the left counterclockwise. To

or
to
by we

prevent this, must produce the opposite direction. This

an

equal moment
in

may placing weight the support.

be

on

of

If
done the other side the
a

weight lighter, further away from the support than the first
be

must
it
is

weight;
If

heavier, 3-pound weight were used

be

must nearer.
if

to
it

it
is

12-pound-feet, then
be
of

12/3=4 feet from

to

offset the moment would have

it

the support figure 28. The point of gravity

of
as

shown then the center

in

is
0

LBS. 3ues.
4

*
|
O

Figure 28.

the two weights. balanced, may

be

of

Since the beam itself left out the

is

it
an

picture entirely, figure 29. additional weight pounds were put

of
at in
0, as

If

6
it,

for example,
of

of

on the left side distance from feet, then its moment

4
a
24

pound-feet,
be

be
of

to

would and countermoment that amount would have

a

done by putting
on

set up. This could 24-pound weight the opposite side

be

foot away from 12-pound weight feet away; 6-pound

of

0:

distance
at

2
a

a
1

weight feet away, by any other combination, the product

of
or

which 24.
is
4
 32 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Or, since the total moment on the left side is 24 + 12=36 pound-feet, the 3-pound
weight on the right side could be replaced by one of 9 pounds, which multiplied
by 4 feet gives 36 pound-feet. Thus, any number of weights may be used on
either side and provided the sum of the moments on one side is equal to the sum
of the moments on the other side, the weights will still balance,

4 LBS. 3 LBS,

Figure 29.

So far, the discussion has concerned itself with moments about a balancing
point. The next step is to find the center of gravity of a group of weights.
This may be done easily by the use of moments about a reference point outside

30.
of the group. Assume the arrangement of weights shown in figure The
weight
of

the beam neglected. The distances from the reference line (left
is

LBS.
4

lates.
O_ LB.
|
t |

zºz.
!

22
30.
!

o
a

Figure 30.

figure), the arms, are given the figure. Tabulating

of

or

side the moments,

in

we have
:

pounds feet=15 foot-pounds

X X X
8 6 3
4 2 5

pounds feet =12 foot-pounds

pounds feet=32 foot-pounds
pound X11 feet=11 foot-pounds
1
12

pounds
70

foot-pounds
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 33

Then the distance, w, to the balancing point or horizontal center of gravity of

the group is 70 foot-pounds/12 pounds=51%g feet, or 5 feet 10 inches.
Before an airplane is built an accurate detailed weight estimate of all the
parts and the loads to be carried is made. The position of the center of gravity
of each of these weights also is determined. From the two sets of figures, it can
be determined just where the center of gravity of the airplane will be and
whether it is in the correct location with respect to the wings (this location
should be from 25 to 33 percent of the wing chord aft of the leading edge).
If not, the design is modified until the desired relation is secured. As the
drawings for each part are made, the weight of the part is calculated accurately
and compared with the original estimate. If
there is much variation, the part
is redesigned or some other part is modified to compensate for the change.

all
The weight of the plane with carry

to
the load intended called the

is

is
it
gross weight. This divided into the weight empty and the useful load. The
is

132"

*— 73,8"—w-e
º

6o"—

Let.
F2

ORIGINAL
G) |NEW BA6GAGE
G
6
G
G

COMPARTMENT
Figure 31.-Effect of carelessness in adding weight.

weight empty, the term implies, the weight the ship with all its necessary
of
as

is

parts but without gas, oil, crew, passengers, These make up the
of or

baggage.
useful load. The pay load that portion the useful load which produces
is
In

revenue. other words, the passengers, mail, express, and baggage only.
Some ships have been produced great
in

as

as

which the useful load was the

weight empty, but not many are
so

efficient.
The practical application the foregoing discussion and the dangerous
of

carrying relatively small amount

of

conditions that may occur from even

a

excess weight may illustrated graphically the instance given below.

be

in

Assume that the airplane illustrated figure weighs 1,300 pounds fully
no 31
in

pilot
do

40

put pounds
of

will
to

loaded. decides that harm

A

careless
it

additional baggage the baggage compartment, which 132 inches from the
in

is

gravity the airplane

of

of

The center inches from the nose,

72

nose. located
is
33

20

percent the chord, inches from the leading edge the wing.
of

of
in or
at

and
is

This percentage
of

the chord most airfoils the maximum safe rearward

is
34 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

position for balance. Using the principles just outlined and making a small
table, we obtain the following:

- ----
1,300 × 72=93,600

- 40X 132 = 5,280

1,340 – 98.88()

We now have a total weight of 1,340 pounds and the sum of the moments is
98,880 inch-pounds. Dividing 98,880 by 1,340 we obtain a quotient of 73.8
inches which is the distance from the nose to the new center of gravity. Sub
tracting 52 inches from this gives us 21.8 inches which is the distance from the
leading edge of the wing to the new center of gravity. Since the chord of the
wing is 60 inches, the percentage of the chord from the nose to the new center
of gravity is 21.8 divided by 60, or 36.3 percent, which is too far aft for safety.
LIFT

DOWN FORCE
ON TAIL

GRAVITY (WEIGHT)

Figure 32.-Balance of moments of lift and tail force about the center of gravity.

Tail-heaviness is an east remely dangerous condition, since the airplane is

much more likely to spin, and much more difficult to bring out of a spin.
As noted in connection with glides and climbs, straight flight at a constant
speed requires that all forces shall be exactly balanced. The kind of balance
discussed there, and illustrated by the force diagrams in figures 21 and 24, is the
kind required to keep the center of gravity moving straight and steadily. To
maintain that balance for long, however, the airplane must obviously be kept in
the same attitude all the time. This, in turn, requires a balance of moments.
So altogether, both conditions of balance must be fulfilled.
The moments to be balanced include not only those of weights, balanced
about the center of gravity, but also those of aerodynamic forces.
An example of this balance is shown in figure 32. Here the lift is slightly
aft of the center of gravity,
so that it has a counter-clockwise moment. There
fore, this moment can be balanced by a moment of a force on the tail, pushing
clockwise around the center of gravity, that
is,

down force. This down force

a
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 35

acts at a very long moment arm, and the lift at a very short one, so only a small
down force is needed to make the moments balance.
For more accuracy the drag and thrust momentsshould also be included
in the calculation of this force. These moments are very weak in an airplane
such as the one pictured here, because the drag and thrust are both weak in
comparison with the lift, and their moment arms are both short.
The moment of the thrust is of practical interest, in spite of its weakness,
because it changes so quickly on opening or closing the throttle. In many
airplanes of this general type, if you are cruising level, with all moments bal
anced, and you open the throttle wider, the airplane instantly starts to nose up.

it,
Likewise, if you close the nose goes down. These changes are due two

to
causes, acting change

on
the same time. One cause the down force

in
at

is
a
the tail with any change strength the slip stream, since the slip stream

of
in

on
The

so
curves downward like other stream lines and pushes down the tail.
the thrust itself, which helps

of
the change

to
other cause
in

moment cause
is

the effects described the line the propeller shaft passes below the center
of
if

gravity. To design airplane that the nose will not move up

an
of

or
so down
instantly changing the throttle, the propeller shaft line must set just

be
on

enough above the center gravity

of

to

make these effects balance.

In

straight flight, especially cruising, customary set the “horizontal”

to
is
or it

page below the exact horizontal,

on

or
stabilizer (described 15) above set
corresponding way, enough furnish whatever up

or
tab down force
in

to
a

not done, part

be
on

of
If

needed the tail. this this force must furnished

is
by is

by

the elevators, which must then steady pressure

be

on
held the stick. The
need for such pressure nuisance, especially when the pilot wants both hands
is
a

operation changing the folds

an

free for such

as

chart. So the stabilizer

in
a

great convenience.
or

tab
is
a

POSITIVE, NEGATIVE, AND NEUTRAL STABILITY

all

With forces and moments balanced straight, steady flight, the next
in

by
question what happens this flight disturbed slightly, for example,
if
byis

is

a
gust, temporary push the controls. Will the airplane return
on

of
or

one
a

straight, steady flight, will depart farther and farther from such flight
or
to

it

is,

pilot does something about it? That stability does

of

unless the what kind

the airplane have?
The term stability, general, applies only
to

bodies which have some state

in

motion, the body

of

which all forces and moments are balanced.

to or

If

rest
in

returns this state after temporary disturbance, has positive stability.

it
a

An example this type stability cone resting upon its base.

If
of

of

the cone
it is
a

its

tipped immediately will settle back

on

few degrees and released, base.

is

example positive stability pendulum, eventually

in of

Another which will come

is
a

rest hanging vertical position

no

matter how far

to

moved.
is
it
a

Certain objects tend remain definite position but when disturbed

in
to

may come new position. Such objects have neutral stability. An

to

in

rest
a

its

example but, dis

of

sphere, which will not roll

or

own accord
if

move
is
a

placed, will come rest again after the force removed, though not
to

the
in
is

original position.
36 U. S. DEPARTMENT
—
OF COMMERCE

A third type of stability is negative stability, which is really instability,

its
An example is a cone standing on pointed end. The tendency

of
such an

its
object change position disturbed the slightest degree.

to

to
if
is

its
airplane, positive stability means that the airplane will return

an
In

to
normal flying attitude, without effort on the part the pilot,

of

or
with controls
released, regardless may put, deliberately

be
of

or
the attitude into which

it

its
accidentally. An airplane with neutral stability will not change normal
flight its own accord, but disturbed will take up new attitude and will
of

if

a
the original without proper use

of
An unstable
to

not return the controls.

airplane constantly endeavoring

in
to
assume some attitude other than that
is is

by
flying the pilot.

be
which and must restrained
it

An airplane, straight flight

be
of

in
course, can disturbed from normal
many different ways, such pulling the nose up, pushing
as sidewise, rolling

it
about its fore-and-aft axis, slowing down, etc. The motions resulting
or
it

it
from such disturbances are very different. these motions change

of
Some
quickly, and others very slowly.
"

the quickly changing motions, positive stability

In

very important, and

is
possessed by any airplane that considered airworthy.

be
The
to
be

must is
slowly changing ones, the other hand, give the pilot plenty
on

of
time correct

to
them, very moderate degree instability permissible and
of
for them
in so

is
is
a

found some good airplanes, even though not really desirable.

is
it

AIRPLANE STABILITY
Longitudinal stability.—Longitudinal stability stability around the is

lateral axis. For normal flight this important type stability. An air
an

of
is

plane which longitudinally will, the controls are released, recover

if

stable
or is

from dive climb and resume normal flight automatically. This will not
a
a

happen instantly. the ship diving and the controls are

In

most cases,
if

is

the dive and begin climb until the speed drops

of

released, will come out

to
it

appreciably. then will dive again but much less steeply, and once more
It

begins climb, but angle the first case. Any alternating

to

smaller than
in
at
a

motions are known technically osci//ations, these ones from dive

as

to

climb
being called phugoid osci//afions. name phugoid The
derived from the Greek
is
by

word for flight, and was given Lanchester, who dis

to

these oscillations
covered them with models before there were any airplanes. Most airworthy
airplanes will resume normal flight after three
to

five oscillations.
Friction the elevator hinges and the stick must almost entirely
be
in

appreciable friction,
no

eliminated hold. With

to
if

the above statements are

the elevators move slightly during each oscillation, response
to

changes
in

in

the angle attack, and the stick moves with them. With more friction, how
of

ever, they move only during fairly big oscillations. When the oscillations
get too small, the elevators stick, usually some position above
or

below their
in

position for level flight. Then the final steady flight

or

shallow climb dive.

is
a

When they are stuck, they are held fixed all the time, the oscillations
or
if

occur little faster and die out little sooner than the elevators are free
if
a

and frictionless.
Similar principles apply the ailerons and rudder other free motions.
in
to

very confusing got

be

and some inconsistencies can from control friction.

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 37

Excessive control friction is very bad anyway, in interfering seriously with

the pilot’s sense of feel of the controls. So it will be assumed here that control

all
friction is reduced to the minimum amount possible in airplanes used

in
this course.
The simplest method obtaining longitudinal stability arrange the

of of

as to
is
weights and the location wing design require

so

32 to
in
the the basic

It be a
tail, figure

on

as

to
down force described above and shown and

in
the
sure that the horizontal stabilizer has certain calculable area.

at
least

a
this point that the relative wind

on
be

should mentioned the horizontal

at
tail surface usually

as
the same direction the relative wind on the

in
not
the airplane. is that the air passing under the
is of

rest The reason for this

is
wing given the downward motion called downwash. Because

to of
this down
path striking tail, angle
of

of
ward the air the the the surface the relative
wind may negative, even though the surface the airplane
be

on

at
set

is

a
positive angle the longitudinal center line the airplane.

of
to

Since the horizontal surface negative angle, produces negative.

at
is

it
a
or

downward, lift. that “lift”

be
In

this connection should remembered

it
may exerted either upward downward, since simply whatever force
or
be

is
it
perpendicular the flight path. The combination positive lift

of
to

there
is

-, \-*
d
c

----.
-—
t
-,

-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
A

"T---------------
•

-
-
ºnT

G
1-
-
*

TT sºn TT Tasman ;:
-

for -- -
T

-
-
---- 3- 38-
+

--
****

*
73
-r- m.p.h.
---
Figure 33.−Phugoid oscillation.

the wings and negative lift the tail frequently “longi

on

on

as
to
referred
is

tudinal dihedral.”
this arrangement producing stability can
be
of

The effect understood

in
by

most easily less common but equivalent design,

at
reference which in
to
a

cruising speed the lift exactly zero.

of

the stabilizer takes more area

It
is

achieve stability this way than with negative lift, but

to

the stabilizer
in

in

the principle For simplicity will

be

the same. assumed also that the

of is

it

the thrust and drag pass exactly through the center gravity.
of

of

lines action
so that their moments are both zero. With all these moments zero, the lift
is,

the wings must have zero moment also.

be

on
of

That too must line

it

passing through the center gravity. All this for cruising speed.
of

is

Now suppose the airplane has been cruising straight and steadily, with
the pilot's hands off the stick, and for stability gives the stick
is he
of

test
a

little pull back and then lets go again. The airplane point
in
at

A
it
a

figure 33.
The temporary pull noses the airplane
climb, up into
he
as

B.

But
at
a

has not changed the throttle, not strong enough

so

the thrust maintain

to
is

climb and the airplane loses speed. This causes temporary loss
of

such
a

lift, making the flight path curve toward the horizontal again,
C.
as

Since
at

nothing has been done yet nose the airplane down, this change the flight
to

in

path means the angle fact, this

an

of

In

attack. like the sort

in

increase
is

angle attack that was described away back

on
of

of
in

change page where

6

pilot changed.
to

the took care hold the same attitude while the speed
38 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Now, however,

it,
he is not holding and something else begins happen.

to
The change angle change

of
in
attack the direction from which the

in
is
a
air seems approach the airplane, and this affects the stabilizer,

as

as
to
well
the wings. Before the change, the stabilizer had zero lift, because was lined

it
up exactly the relative wind. Now, with the greater angle

of
the direction

in
attack, the air seems come from somewhere below that line,
of

so
to
hits the

it
This gives the stabilizer positive lift, causing
of
lower surface the stabilizer.

a
the airplane nose down, point

D.
as
to

at
The nosing down continues until the airplane has recovered cruising speed
again, and the air longer lifts the stabilizer.
no This condition reached

is
E,

point when the airplane has come down nearly

of
at

to
about the altitude
(Nearly, but not quite, because the drag has been
of

the start the oscillation.

little less than the thrust while the speed was below cruising, and that
a

difference has helped the airplane regain speed.)

By this time, the nose has already got down below the cruising attitude,
the flight path The speed increases then, faster than cruising
at so

to
downhill.
as is

point
F.

such -
a

This, lower angle

of

of
course, means attack. So now the air bears down
a

the top the stabilizer, giving negative lift and bringing the nose up
on

of

it
a

again into point

G.

climb
at
a

This climb much like the first, point now the whole cycle
B,
so
at
is

is
well-designed airplane, however, the climb
In

as
repeated. not steep

at

is
G
a
B,

the second cycle does not take the airplane high

or
as

so

so

so

as
low the
at

gradually out, pendulum.

of

first. The oscillation dies like that

a

this way and fol

In

some airplanes, phugoid oscillations can

be

started
in
by

lowed, watching the slow ups and downs the nose, through five
of

or
six
While the heights the swings get less and less, the period,
of

or
cycles. time
from the top the top the next, stays the same. (E.g., one air
all to of

of

in
to

one
plane, tested get typical data for this book, the periods
of

six successive
28

30

swings were
of
to

test, course,
be

found between and seconds. Such

a
In

requires very smooth air.) other airplanes, the oscillations may become too
recognize before the second cycle
In to

weak over.
is

some light airplanes

In

any good airplane, the period long.

is
is

it
20

usually longer.
or

seconds; ones,
15

about heavier So the actual distance

in

from the top the top light airplane

of

of

one oscillation
in
to

the next
is
a

roughly mile, and ships may

is of be
of

third heavier whole mile.

in

it
a

Throttle changes are among the common causes phugoid oscillations.

airplane longitudinally stable level flight, glide.
an
If

also stable
in

in
is

it

Moreover, the propeller shaft goes just

of

the center line little above the

if

gravity (so explained page 35), the

on
of

as

as
to

center balance moments

steady gliding
of

speed for
as

without use the elevators level

in

the same
is

flight. When the throttle closed, however, the airplane does not simply nose
is

down just enough for the glide and then hold that attitude. Instead, first
it

speed gradually.
to

loses little. Then starts nose down Then the nose

it
a

acquires too much downward speed, and goes beyond the gliding attitude. This
up

makes the airplane pick too much speed, and the nose comes up, somewhat
to
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 39

above the gliding attitude, but not as high as at first. Then it starts down
again, and so on, in a series of phugoid oscillations above and below the final
glide path, as shown in figure 34a.
Opening the throttle, the change to a climb is through a similar series of
phugoid oscillations, as in figure 34b.
If
the propeller shaft line goes below the center of gravity, or too little
it,
any change balance,

of

of

of

as
above throttle throws the moments forces out
on

of
described page 35. This unbalance accelerates the first movement the
after the change throttle, increasing the range

of

of
nose the oscillations. Also
makes the final straight glide steeper and faster than the level flight, and the
it

climb steeper and slower.

more exact analysis the forces of
phugoid oscillations should take account of the

in
A

fact that as the angle of attack increases the line action of the lift (or center pressure)

of

of
shifts forward. This tends

so
nose the ship up, and on this
to

to

It
make unstable.

is
it
nonlifting tail has

at

to
of
account that certain amount
to

to
have least area enable

it
a

a
-
stabilize the airplane.

CRUISING
CLOSE
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
THROTTLE

CRUISING
OPEN FULL
Figure 34.—Effects of changes of throttle.

the tail lift not zero at cruising speed, the analysis of the oscillations little
If

is

is
a

more complicated. still rests on the changes the angle attack of the stabilizer,
of

in of

But
it

those of the wings, just as before, with resulting changes its lift, much like those
to

due
The chief difference that the lift now has be judged, not as simply
to

discussed above.
is

up or down, but as more up or more down than cruising speed. The essential principles,
at

however, are the same.

One very important result such an analysis positively lifting tail.
of

for its
If
is

angle of attack as great as that of the wings, there trouble. For then, when the
is

is

airplane loses speed and the angle of attack increases, the stabilizer still lifts only as much
as before, and the airplane fails to nose down. In fact, the change the center of pressure
in

nose up. Such an airplane, therefore, left itself, will

If

to

then makes unstable.

is
it

it

go into either stall or nose dive.

a

The departure from straight flight such an airplane fairly slow, like the return
to
in

is

Straight flight stable airplane. fact, most of the air

not uncontrollable.
In

So
in

is
it
a

this way. But such instability

at

planes nuisance,
of

in

in

were unstable best

is

1917
a

demanding constant intervention by the pilot. extreme cases, or any

of
In

in

the hands
pilot not trained such airplanes, dangerous.
to

is
it

This type instability the explanation the dauger overloading rear baggage
of

of

in
is

compartment, pointed out on page 33. Such loading requires positive tail lift all the time,
and so causes this instability.
40 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

ROLLING STABILITY
In any phugoid oscillation the motions may be analyzed into three com
ponents: One, the rising and falling of the nose, or pitching; a second, the
rising and falling of the ship as a whole; and a third, the changes of speed.
Of these, only the pitching is a rotation. The others, which move the center
of gravity, are called translations.
Lateral motions, on the other hand, involve only one translation, side
slipping, but two rotations: rolling, about the longitudinal axis; and yawing,
about an axis that is normally vertical. Each of these rotations affects the
position of the axis of the other one. So lateral motions are more compli
cated than longitudinal. First, therefore, we shall consider motions so re
stricted that only one rotation can occur.
For one such motion, let us assume that the pilot keeps the airplane from

is,
yawing, by the use of the rudder. That point

he

on

on
shall fix his eyes

a
horizon, directly point, regardless

on
the over the nose, and hold the nose that

B-B'
Is

A-A" THE FLIGHT

IS

THE NORMAL
FLIGHT PATH PATH DURING THE
SIDE SLIP
Figure 35.-Effect of dihedral.

anything the airplane may want may roll and slip then, but
it of

It
to to

do.
do

cannot yaw. He will nothing start any pitching, and the lateral
if

motions are not too violent the airplane will not pitch appre
be

tempted
to

ciably. The motion, therefore, restricted pure roll and slip. Stability
to
is

called rolling stability.

be

this motion will

in

Rolling stability may The most common proced

be

in

obtained two ways.

build rig the wings with dihedral varying from The
or
of to

to
18

ure 3°.
is

dihedral may understood more readily small paper model

be

action
if

is
a

made, similar figure 35. When ship banked without turn

to

that shown
in

is
a

ing, sideslip the wings

or

If
to

tends slide downward toward the low side.

it

dihedral, wing greater angle

of

have the air then strikes the low much

at
a

attack than the high. This, course, increases the lift the low wing, and
on
of
its

restores the ship normal position. remembered that although

be
to

should
It

the ship slipping sideways also moving forward. By moving the model
is

is
it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 41

wing shown in figure 18 along a line B–B' instead of its normal path .1—A’
the action may be readily understood. In extreme cases the air may even
strike the top surface of the high wing.
Rolling stability may also be secured by the use of sweep-back, though the
effect of sweep-back is not as pronounced as dihedral. Sweep-back usually is
used to obtain better visibility, better balance, or both. Its action may also
be understood much more readily by use of a small model such as that shown
in figure 36, moving the model along the line B–B' as before. It generally is
considered that 5° of sweep-back have approximately the same effect as 1° of
dihedral. -
-
Practically, an airplane with an ordinary amount of dihedral or sweep-back
will stay more or less right side up if kept to a fixed heading with the rudder,

A-A IS THE NORMAL B-B'. Is THE FLIGHT

FLIGHT PATH PATH DURING THE
SIDE SLIP
Figure 36.-Effect of sweep-back.

without any use of ailerons; but that is not the best way to fly. If the wings
it is,

do get banked, that slanted position resulting from rolling, for example,
in
a
an

angle long time before the action the dihedral will

be
of

of

will
at

10°,
a

on

get them nearly level again. Meanwhile, the side-slipping has been
a
by

downgrade, causing climbing.

be
of

loss altitude that must compensated

a

power.
of

That useless waste

is
a

Why not make the dihedral angle bigger, that the airplane will right
so

big
do

itself without such loss? Gas models have dihedrals. So pigeons when
they glide. The trouble with big dihedral would come landings.
If

side
in

airplane just
an

gust struck such touch the ground,

as

to

the wheels were about

would lift one wing and drop the other. This would make the airplane
it

201073°–41—4
42 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

land on one wheel and then bounce over onto the other and possibly go into
the disconcertingly sharp curve on the ground called a “ground loop.”
If
an airplane is built that way, each time it rights itself in the air it is
rolling fast enough, when it reaches the level position, to go beyond and have
to come back again. This causes a rolling and slipping oscillation. With
small dihedral, on the other hand, the rolling is so slow that it and the slipping
die out together as the wings approach the level position, and the motion is
nonoscillatory. Airplanes of both kinds have been built, but most modern
ones are nonoscillatory.
YAWING STABILITY
A for stability against yawing, with no rolling, may be made by a
test
skillful pilot, by keeping the wings level with the ailerons, while he kicks the
suddenly

be
tail He has

to
it.
sidewise with the rudder and then releases
skillful for such test, because the tendencies roll change quickly.

to
a

does prevent rolling, however, good airplane simply wags its

he
If

a
period seconds for each complete oscillation,
of
tail few times, with
to
a

5
and settles down again straight flight. Stability
to

this motion called

in

is
directional stability, though the airplane does not stop the- motion with its
the original direction.
in

nose
This motion which stability especially important, because any
in

one
is

is

instability would throw the airplane right into spin. Fortunately stability a
by

very easily achieved, simply giving the airplane enough vertical area
in in
it
is

the tail fin, and the fuselage behind the center gravity,
of

of
in

the sides
and not nearly much forward, weathervane, arrow,

an
acts like

or
so

so

that
it

pointing itsnose into the relative wind.

When seaplane floats are installed the conventional landplane, large
on

a
gravity. This may
of

of

of

amount side area thus added front the center

to in
is
by

readily observed referring the pictures seaplanes part four

be

of

of
in

gravity means
of

of

of

this book. Such addition side area forward the center

fin

Ordinarily this fin

an

usually that
be

extra must added the tail.

at

is
mounted below the fuselage, since seaplanes require
no

tail skid. Sometimes

small auxiliary fins are mounted near the ends
of

the horizontal stabilizer

In
of

of

instead below the fuselage. rare cases the size the rudder also must
be increased.
FREE DIRECTIONAL OSCILLATIONS
Suppose the pilot kicks the rudder, the test for yawing stability, but
as
in
by

leaves the airplane completely free, exerting any pressure

on

not the stick

prevent rolling. What happens?
to

Suppose, for example, The tail starts swinging

he

to

kicks the left.

it

right, right wing swinging forward, and the left wing

so
to

the the starts

backward, pilot, him. Actually,
or
as
at

least, relative
to

to

looks the
if

the
it

miles per hour and the left wing swings back violently,
80

airplane making
its is

tip seems
10

going backward miles per hour, for example,

so

to
be

that
at

still really going forward However, the right wing then going
at

70.
it
is

is

forward As noted under yawing stability, takes lively work with

at

it

90.
keep the ship level
to

the ailerons the directional oscillations restricted

in

to
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 43

pure yawing. Clearly, it must, with such differences of speed between the
wings.
Now, if the pilot does not use the ailerons, and the right wing goes notably
faster than the left, the right wing climbs and the left wing lets down.

its
When the tail reaches the end of swing, so, the wings

or
in
second

a
in its do

they But now the airplane has

of
so
the same, lose their difference speed.
right wing somewhat ahead the left, point figure 37,

of

as
shown

B, in
at

B
which point was where the rudder was kicked. At point then, the
airplane skidding, like A turn too quickly

on
car that has started wet
is

a
pavement. This gets the dihedral (or sweep back)
into action, just side-slipping would, the right
as

so

|
-
wing continues
to

rise.

|
SINKING RISING
Not for long, however. Within another second the

\.

)
"
.
|

|
-
swinging back past the normal position toward
tail
---
is

tº
*
C,

the left, and the right wing letting down.

as
at

is
where the airplane skid
to

at
It

continues sink
I)

is
...
the

ding toward left. Then starts to climb again

it

º,
.
r|
with the next swing forward,
E.
at

and the cycle

is
repeated. ‘sº SINKING

This peculiar motion has sometimes been called the

“Dutch roll.” However, really not primarily
is
it

lº
|
roll, any more than primarily Dutch. pri-
It
is
a

marily tail-wagging oscillation into which rolling

|
esno
a

|
secondary sort way, just described.
as
of

enters
in
a

.
.
.

.
In well-designed airplane these free direcţional ~~
a

oscillations, like phugoid oscillations, die out auto-

| |
matically very few cycles.
in
a

they did not die out, the apparent motion

If

of

the ºne
|
**
by

right wing tip, the pilot, would

be
as

seen some- SINKING

thing like the inclined ellipse drawn with dotted
a
A,
B,

D,

indicating
C,

line figure 38, with points

in

its positions corresponding points

of

the times
in
at

*|
figure 37. Actually,
as

the oscillation dies out the

}*
N
-

apparent motion like the full line this figure.

in
is

...—--
.
..
A ..
.

Relate.—The quickness
of

of

the changes direction

---
.
.
.
.

free directional oscillations, and the surety

of

their
in

dying-out, bring up impor

of

automatic one the most

*::::::...”
Figure
tant principles flying: Rela.r.
of

the art
in

Free directional oscillations are one of the most

little gusts and eddies To the novice, the quick
of

common results the air.

in

gust may bit startling, and the subsequent quick changes

be
of

action
in

such
a

complex motion may easily change his surprise nervous tension. He may
to
a

something equally quick, stop the motion, and

he

think then that

to

to

has do
may try
do

never good. swinging

he

The result the tail

to

to
it.

If

the
is
is

right and stop with right rudder, likely

he

he

get around
to
to

to

decides
it

is

using the rudder about when the tail has already started swing the other
to

let

way. Then his use motion,

he
of

the rudder causes more had the

if

whereas
airplane take care the problem alone the motion would soon have died out.
of
44 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

In general, hasty action with the controls turns a moderately rough ride into
very rough.
This applies, not only to directional oscillations, but to other quick motions.
There are bumps and drops caused by gusty updrafts and downdrafts, and to
a less extent, by gusts from ahead or behind. Such motions come under the
head of longitudinal stability, along with phugoid oscillations. Any airplane
is stable in them, provided only it is not stalled, and they die out so quickly
that almost anybody soon learns that there is nothing for him to do about them.
Quick rolls—plain ones, not “Dutch”—are common results of eddies in the
air. Any airplane is stable in them also, provided it is not stalled; and they
die out so quickly, without oscillation, that the ailerons can hardly be got into
action before the motion stops anyway. Many novices try to fight plain rolls
with the ailerons, however, with the result of causing opposite artificial motions

Figure 38.-Apparent motion of the right wing in the free directional oscillations.

after them, as violent as the natural ones—making two lurches grow - where
only one grew before.
To ride smoothly, Relaa'ſ
Don’t fight bumps. Nor plain rolls. Nor free directional oscillations.
Nor any mixture of these motions, occurring all at once.
In general, the immediate effects of gusts and eddies are mixtures of these
motions. If left alone, any bump or plain roll, or mixture of them, resulting
from a single gust, dies out within a second or two, while the directional oscilla
tions persist for only 5 or 10 seconds more. After they are gone, if the speed
or height of the nose is not quite right, there will remain a long, slow phugoid
oscillation. That can be stopped with the elevators, or left to die out by itself.
If
it,

you you do choose to stop hurry.

no
so

as please. slow that there

is

is
it

persistent all,
of

The most one that does call for intervention

at

motion
Some time, one that has not been mentioned yet. This long, steady turn
or is

is
a

spiral, remaining even after the phugoid whenever any plain roll
in

circle
a

practically
In

has left the wings banked. many modern airplanes this motion
is
 Civil PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 45

a steady circling without any appreciable change in the radius of the turn.
Such an airplane has neutral stability in this motion, neither returning to
straight flight nor departing farther from Other airplanes are slightly

it.
unstable, turning gradually sharper and sharper tightening spiral; and

in
a
airplanes can made positively stable, that the flight path spiral

be

so

is
a
that gradually straightens out.
Spiral stability unimportant, however, except that

be
must not exces

is

is it
no
sively negative, because airplane

an
matter how stable this respect, the

in
spiral leaves headed some wrong direction. stopped

be
So this motion must

be in
it

by
and the heading must corrected the pilot anyway. But not any hurry.

in
The conditions for spiral stability are closely related the theory

of
to
turns
general, and throw valuable light good turns. So they

on
how
in

to
make
will chapter.
be

connection with turns later

in

in
discussed

a
Here, the important points for smooth flight are these:
(1) Relaw.

-
(2) Don't fight bumps, nor quick, plain rolls, nor free directional oscilla
tions, nor any mixtures
if of

these short-lived motions.

by
let
(3) Stop phugoids you wish,
or

them die out themselves.

your airplane starting circle, bring

to
(4) See when and back the to

it
is

proper heading reasonably soon, but without haste.

(5) Anyway, Relaw/
For the mathematical aspects of these motions, should
in

readers who are interested

it
he added that the five motions described above constitute the complete set of normal modes
motion for an airplane not too violent for approximation by linear differential
of

motions
in

equations.
these equations, both the fourth order, one for the longitudinal
of

of

There are two

motions and the other for the lateral. Although some of the motions had been discovered
previously, the equations were first set up Bryan and solved by Leonard Bairstow."
by

H.
G.

For stable airplane, the longitudinal equation gives the phugoid oscillation as an
a

exponentially damped harmonic motion, and the bump as an overdamped motion,

or
sum
two exponential subsidences, both with extremely short, but very different, time constants.
of

an exponentially damped
as

The lateral equation gives the free directional oscillation

harmonic motion; also the plain roll (with little yaw it) as single exponential
in
a

subsidence with an extremely short time constant; and also the spiral as an exponential
motion with an extremely long time constant. The reciprocal
of

this last time constant

is

difference between two terms, one involving the dihedral and the other the tail fin area.
a

Large dihedral makes the motion subside, so that the airplane stable, whereas large
is

fin area makes The physical reasons for this rule will appear the later
in

unstable.
it

discussion of this motion, part two, chapter section, Spiral Stability.

in

to I,

In practice, as stated above, motions due individual gusts are usually “mixtures,”
or superpositions, of all these motions. However, easy get each the more pro
of
to
is
it

longed motions practically pure form, by the methods described above. The short ones
to in

are not so easy get pure by use the controls, because they are so short-lived that
of

is
it

neutral before the motions are damped

be

hard sure the controls have been returned

to

to

beyond recognition. Occasionally, however, gust makes the test for us.
a

PERFORMANCE
There are certain principles aeronautical engineering which do not enter directly
of

piloting pilot
so

into but which well for know what claims may

to

to

understand as
is
it

See STABILITY AVIATION by G. H. Bryan, London, 1911, and APPLIED AERody NAMICs by
IN
*

Leonard Bairstow, New York, 1020.

46 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

reasonably be made for an airplane of known weight, wing area, power, etc. These principles
relate to performance, which includes:
The term “performance,” as applied to airplanes, includes:
(a) High speed at sea level and at altitude.
(b) Rate of climb at sea level and at altitude.
(c) Time to climb to altitude (this is included since the “rate of climb” is not
constant, but decreases with altitude).
(d) The service ceiling, or altitude at which the rate of climb has fallen to 100 feet
per minute.
(e) The absolute ceiling, or the altitude beyond which the airplane
-
will not climb.
(f) Landing speed.
(g) Usually one or both of the following:
1. Range at high speed and cruising speed.
2. Endurance at full throttle and at cruising speed.

The factors affecting performance may be roughly classified as follows:

(a) Power.
(b) Drag.
(c) Weight.
1. Power loading.
2. Wing loading.

All of these factors are interrelated closely and a change in any one affects all of
the others. The power referred to means the actual power produced, allowing for losses
due to inefficiency of the propeller and other reasons. Changes in power have a Sur
prisingly slight effect on the top speed of the airplane. The reason for this may be
understood, however, by examination of the formula for the horsepower required, which
DX U
is: Horsepower required
375
In this formula D is the total drag of the airplane in pounds, V its speed in miles per
hour, and 375 a constant to change this product of pounds and miles per hour to horse
power. For example, if the drag is 125 pounds and the speed 75 miles per hour, the power
25 × 75
delivered by the propeller is
75
horsepower, or 25 horsepower. If the efficiency of

the propeller is 70 percent this 25 horsepower is 70 percent of the power delivered by the
engine, which is then 36 horsepower.
At the top speed of any typical airplane, as illustrated in figure 20, any further increase
of speed increases the drag very fast. If the drag was pure parasite drag, a 10 percent
increase of speed, say from 80 to 88 miles per hour, would make a 21 percent increase of
drag. Since the drag is partly due to the wings, and the wing drag changes but little at
such speeds, the change in total drag is not so great. Even if it is only 14 percent, however,
as in figure 20, for 80 to 88 miles per hour, the product DV in the formula is then increased in
a ratio 1.14 for D and 1.10 for V, or 1.25 when they are multiplied. To increase the speed
by 10 percent, in this case, therefore, the power has to be increased by 25 percent. In
general, the percentage increase in power is from two to three times that in top speed.
Although increasing the power has comparatively little effect on the speed, it does
make a marked difference in the rate of climb. Climb depends upon the reserve power.
Reserve power is the difference between the total power available and the power required
for horizontal flight at a given speed. Thus, if an airplane is equipped with an engine
which, allowing for loss of efficiency from the various causes mentioned above, produces
100 total available horsepower and the ship requires only 50 horsepower at a certain speed,
the power available for climb is 50. Since 1 horsepower is 33,000 foot-pounds per minute,
50 horsepower provides 1,650,000 foot-pounds per minute of energy. If this is divided by the
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 47

weight of the airplane which might be, for example, 2,000 pounds, the rate of climb at that
particular speed would be 825 feet per minute at sea level.
In connection with the maximum climb it was explained on page 28 that this could be
obtained at some speed a few miles per hour above the speed for minimum drag. The exact
calculation of this speed is a matter of calculating rates of climb in terms of power, as just
illustrated, for various speeds, and then seeing what speed turns out to be the best.
Weight also has a pronounced effect on performance as may be realized readily from
a study of the foregoing paragraphs. If weight is added to the airplane, it must fly at a
higher angle of attack to maintain a given speed. This increases the drag of the wings
and usually of the fuselage also. Increased drag means that additional power is needed
it,

which turn means that less power available for climb. Designers go
in
to overcome

is
great effort reduce the weight since marked effect on the other factors
to

to

has such

it

a
pertaining performance.
to

In discussing performance, frequently use the terms “power loading”

to
convenient

is
it
and “wing loading.” Power loading expressed pounds per horsepower and

in
obtained

is

is
by dividing the total weight the airplane by the rated horsepower the engine. Wing
of

of
loading expressed pounds per square foot and obtained by dividing the total weight
is

in

is
of the airplane pounds by the wing area (including ailerons) square feet.
in

in
Obviously, the wing loading determines the landing speed. The lift the wings,

of
course equal the weight they carry, determined by the formula Ky AV*.
of

which must

is
In this formula the wings square feet. the air speed. Ky
of

the area in
is

in is

is
A

a
quantity known as the lift coefficient. lift pounds, produced by

of
the amount
1 is
of It

1
square foot of airfoil area speed mile per hour. varies of course with the
at

It
a

angle of attack.
As an example, assume that the lift coefficient of given airfoil at an angle of attack
a

this airfoil (the wing area) were 250 square feet and
of

of 15° the total area

If
is

0.003.
its speed through the air were 40 miles per hour, the weight which would support would

it
0.003×250×40–1,200 pounds.
be

other words, the landing speed of ship weighing

In

a
1,200 pounds, which had total wing area of 250 square feet with lift coefficient of 0.003,
a

would be 40 miles per hour.

AIRPLANE STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

force per unit area, usually indicated this country pounds per
or by in

Stress
in
is

square inch; strain the deformation produced load. Regardless how

is

light always These dis

or

small the stress, there strain deformation.

is

the two words,

be

of
as

tinctions should understood there much misuse

is

particularly the word strain.

stress.-There are five generally accepted types stress: Tension,
of

of

Kinds
compression, torsion, bending, and shear.
the type stress which resists being pulled apart. An example
of

Tension
is

the conventional airplane flying wire lift strut.

of

or

this tension
A
in

is
a

pull apart.
to

load load which tends member

is
a

Compression the stress which resists being pushed together

or

compressed.
is

Examples are some the landing-gear struts, interplane and drag struts, and
of

or

similar bracing.
be

so

strut can installed that resists either tension

A

it

compression loads whereas wire can resist only tension.

a

Torsion the stress which resists being twisted apart, and correspond
is

ingly torsion load An example

of
to

load which tends twist member.

is
a

a
an

member designed elevator torque tube.

or

resist torsion aileron

to

is
a

Bending the stress which resists deformation by side load. An ex

is

ample member which resists bending wing spar.

of

is
a

a
48 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Shear is the stress which resists being cut or separated on one plane.
Examples of parts which resist shear forces are clevis pins and, usually, bolts.
Simple structures.—For those unfamiliar with engineering, it seems advis
able to give a little information on structures. Each part of an airplane is
designed carefully to withstand certain loads. Further information on how
these loads are applied will be found in part five of this book under the
heading “Airplane Load Factor Information.”
A truss is an assemblage of members forming a rigid framework, each

--
member being designed to resist end load. An excellent example of a truss is

—- COMPRESSION LOAD
HTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT
SIDE LOAD

Figure 39.-Loads in a wing truss.

a steel-tube fuselage. Some trusses have members in them which can resist
either side or end loads or both together. An example of Such a truss is the
wing of an externally braced airplane. Here the wing spar resists bending
from the vertical load of the air and also resists compression caused by the
flying wire or lift strut. The diagram in figure 39 illustrates the loads in a
wing truss.
A bay is one section of a truss and is illustrated in figure 40. This truss
is of the type known as a Pratt truss in which the diagonal members carry only

LOAD

->
| Figure 40.-Pratt truss.

tension. Hence there must be two such members in each bay so that loads
from either direction may be properly sustained. The drag bracing in many
wings uses this type of truss. In figure 41 is shown a type of truss known as
the Warren truss. In this type the diagonal members can resist either tension
or compression. Most steel tube fuselages employ the Warren truss. It will
be noted that trusses are invariably a series of triangles. Such triangulation
is the sole method of insuring that the members carry end loads only. Great
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 49

care should be observed in handling the ship on the ground not to put side
loads on members designed only for end loads.

CORRECTION OF PRECONCEIVED IDEAS

The average person has certain deep-rooted, and usually wrong, ideas
regarding the actual mechanics of flying and, more particularly, regarding the
hazards incident to flight. The average student pilot is no exception to this
when he starts his actual flight training, for, unless he has the proper back
ground of school instruction, he, too, is very likely to have certain preconceived
and erroneous ideas. The source of these ideas is of little consequence but
their results frequently are very important. They may be the motivating
impulses that guide the student throughout the training period or the basis of
fears, fixations, or inhibitions that will all but nullify his instructor's efforts
to teach him to fly. They may, indeed, form a mental barrier preventing the
student from accepting the instructor's teaching.
LOAD

T T ,
G T C T G

--> G C

| Figure 41.-Warren truss.

The student who starts his air work with an understanding of the theory
of flight will, of course, be free of this handicap. The fundamentals of the
subject have been covered in the foregoing, but for added emphasis several of
the more prevalent of the erroneous ideas are discussed here. They are as
follows:
(1) That the airplane will “fall” if not given the closest attention or if
its

engine fails complete/y.

Flight
its

airplane depends speed through the air. As long

an

on
of

as
a

maintained, impossibility for the airplane

an

sufficient minimum speed

is is
it
is

“fall.” Even when this minimum lost, airplane will drop only
to

speed the
it,

regain regained the airplane

as

as

the distance necessary and

to

soon
is
it

will again flying, even though straight down, and normal flight easily can
be

be

resumed.
go
an

airplane will spin the slightest lapse

of

(2) That into attention

at
a

the part the pilot.

on

of

fact, most airplanes, rigged properly and left strictly

of

As matter
if
if
a

flying
do

alone, will job spin merely

of

better than the student can do.

A

is
a

another maneuver, and the controls are simply turned loose the airplane will
if

normal flight its own accord. The worst that can happen even
of
to

return
if

an improperly rigged ship simple (live

be

its own devices will

or

left
to
is

a
a
50 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

spiral dive, and the student will have ample knowledge after the first few
minutes in the air to recover from either of these.
(3) That the airplane is maintained in flight by a combination of brute
strength and constant violent manipulation of the controls.
Nothing could be farther from the truth. It requires more physical
exertion and actual movement to drive an automobile than to fly an airplane
through any normal maneuver. The more violently the pilot moves the
controls, in fact, the less actual control he has over the airplane.
(4) That the wind has a definite effect on the speed and control of the
airplane in flight.
This is a very prevalent fallacy. However, under ordinary conditions,

its
once the airplane is free of the ground, only speed relative the air

to
its
(airspeed) has any bearing flight. The velocity and direc
on

in
sustention
the wind do affect the path and the speed the airplane over the
of

of
tion
ground, and very definite effect

on
addition have the craft while on
as in

is
it
a

ground, brought taxiing.

on

of
the out the discussion (The relation
in
to is

take-offs, landings, and turns close

of

to
wind direction the execution the
ground, and the effects gusts (sudden wind currents) are explained
of

in
taxiing).
of

discussions these maneuvers and

(5) That the airplane will drop uncontrolled should fly into

an
air

it
is up

pocket, mysterious vacuum eatending into the afmosphere from the earth.
a

such thing
no

air pocket.

an
as
“Nature abhors vacuum”—there
a

up

There are, however, both air, which are perfectly

of
and down currents
atmospheric phenomena, thermally mechanically (by
or
natural induced either
-
mountains, buildings, etc.)
(6) That “bumps” are dangerous and easily may cause loss

of

of
control
the airplane while flight.
in

Bumps the airplane strikes the up

or

are caused when down currents

explained above. The air may bumpy, just
be

be
or

smooth may the sea as

it

may rough.
be

or

calm
Under certain conditions, particularly over moun
or

thunderstorms
in
up

terrain, extremely powerful down drafts (currents) may of be

of or

tainous
the airplane, and may even
be

encountered. These can affect the control

damage structurally. However, the student will never,
to

sufficient violence
it

all probability, encounter such conditions during his training period, and the
in

bumps which merely annoyance rather

he

be

of

will encounter will source

a

than danger.
The study meteorology' covers the phenomena
of

of

violent air currents.

See Meteorology for Pilots, Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 25.

*
Chapter II.-INSPECTION AND CARE OF AIRCRAFT AND
ENGINES

For efficient operation, any piece of mechanism must be kept in good con
dition. In the case of the airplane, not only efficiency, but the lives of the
pilot and passengers depend upon frequent and thorough inspection and
servicing. As a secondary, though important, consideration, proper care will
add materially to the useful life of the ship.

INSPECTION

The controlled Elementary flying course calls for a daily flight inspection
record on each airplane being used to train the students, and every student is
required to learn how to make such an inspection. It is the purpose of this
chapter to outline the procedure to be followed. It is also felt that the infor
mation contained in this chapter will be of great value to private pilots who
own airplanes or who take courses other than that mentioned above. Emphasis
is laid on the fact that the average pilot should not attempt to make repairs.
When damage is discovered in the course of inspection, the services of a certifi
cated mechanic should be enlisted immediately. The instructions following
presuppose only a very limited knowledge of the aircraft and its powerplant.
They cover only preflight inspection, which is in no way intended to replace
the regular required inspections which should be conducted by a competent
mechanic. For convenience, the airplane is divided into main groups, and
instructions are given for each item in the group as the item is mentioned. all
At the end of the explanatory material will be found a condensed list of the
handy reference for checking.
be

This list
as

intended
to

items. used
is

SAFETYING METHODS
Before attempting actual inspection, the student should know the various
methods and devices used for preventing attachments from being loosened
as

No matter how tight nut may bolt,

on
of is of

be

result vibration. drawn

a

unless properly safetied, almost certainly will work loose.

it

it

the most commonly used and satisfactory types safety device

of

One
pin. pins employed
to

to

the cotter Cotter are lock castellated nuts the bolts

on is

which they are screwed and prevent clevis pins from coming out. They
to

Figure
42

also are used occasionally other places. (a) shows the proper
in

using cotter pin nut, and (b) illustrates the proper safe
of

to

method lock
a

be a

tying clevis pin. mentioned here that clevis pins are not
of

should
It
a

any place where there

be

on

of
is or
to

at

control wires reversal loads.

is

used
a

clevis pins tie rods and other bracing

of

of

The chief use for the attachment

cotter pin has been removed, replaced by
be

wires. When should new

it
a

The old one probably will break again.

if

one. used
51
52 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Where the safetying device is likely to be removed frequently, a safety

pin is commonly employed. Aircraft safety pins are made of spring steel wire,
usually bent into the shape shown in figure 43. In an emergency, the ordinary
commercial safety pin, with which every father should be familiar, may be
used. Safety pins are used frequently to hold cowling on the small round
headed studs to which it is often fitted.

l
Fº
(a)
Figure 42.-Use of cotter pins.
(b)

Safety wire is soft brass, copper, or galvanized steel wire, usually about 18
gage in diameter. It is used in certain cases for locking castellated nuts,
particularly on studs which are screwed into some part such as a crankcase.
Cotter pins cannot be used in such a location, since, even though the nut might
be locked to the stud, the stud itself could unscrew and work itself out of its
hole. Safety wire also is used to lock cap screws. For this purpose, a hole
is drilled through the head of the cap screw. It is common practice to lock
two or more nuts or cap screws with the same wire,
when wire is used for this purpose. The wire should
be inserted in such a manner that it tends constantly
to tighten the nut or cap screw, as illustrated in figure
44 (a). Turnbuckles are invariably locked with safety
wire. Here also the wire should be used in such a
*.*.**
its

tendency tighten rather than

to

manner that
is

44

buckles, figure (b).

as

loosen the turn illustrated

in

As matter information,
be
of

of

may stated here that the forked end the

it
a

turnbuckle always carries right-hand thread.

a

“jam” nut plain nut screwed down against another plain

or
A

lock nut
is
a

by

part accomplishes its purpose

or

as

nut threaded tie-rod clevis.

It It

such
a

“jamming” the threads between the two nuts. not particularly depend
is

safetying and should not parts which are not

be

on
of

able method used

sufficiently accessible for frequent inspection. Tie rods are invariably safe
tied with lock nuts. Two types are used figure 45. The
as

illustrated
in

type shown simply against

of

(a)
in

forced down the end the clevis.

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 53

The rule commonly used for tightening nuts of this type is to run them down
as tightly as possible by hand, then turn them one-sixth of a revolution with a
wrench. The type shown in (b) screws on the end of the clevis and achieves
its purpose by squeez
ing the split portion
of the clevis tightly
against the threads on
the tie rod. In this
connection, attention
is called to the fact
that the threads on tie
rods must extend a
certain minimum dis
tance into the clevis.
Otherwise they might
be stripped and cause
failure of the tie rod
under its rated load.
In order to determine LEFT HAND THREAD RIGHT HAND THREAD

that an adequate num

ber of threads are en-
( b)
-

gaged. a small hole is Figure 44.—Safetying with safety wire.

provided in the clevis,

about one-half inch from the outer or threaded end. When inspecting tie rods,
an ordinary dressmaker's pin or needle should be pushed into this hole. If the
pin passes through the hole, an insufficient number of threads are engaged
and a mechanic should be called to make the necessary adjustment.
NSPECTION HOLE
A particular type of lock nut is manufac
|

tured under the name of “Palnut.” This

nut is made from sheet metal and is cupped
in the center so that as it is tightened a
tension is put on the threaded member. The
Palnut is shown in figure 46. It is used
only for safetying plain nuts. Like cotter
pins Palnuts should be used only once, unless
in the opinion of a competent mechanic they
have not been damaged sufficiently to render
them unsafe.

ºITT
1U'u'll
lu
mºiſtTim
There are a number of patented safety
nuts on the market and others appear from
time to time. The merits of any such de
|

vice should be ascertained carefully before

using
it.

(b) One nut which apparently en

is

Figure 45.-Lock nuts on tie rods. tirely satisfactory provided with fiber
is

ring near its outer end and sold under the

is

Stop determining
no
of

of

trade name “Elastic Nut.” There way whether

is
by

such nuts are tight visual inspection. They must

be

checked with wrench.

a

The elastic stop nut shown figure 47.

in
is
54 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

For safetying of unimportant parts, interior trim and small pieces

such as
of cowling, lock washers are sometimes There are two main types of
used.
lock washers, the split type shown in figure 48 and the star type, of which
there are two varieties, shown in 49. Lock washers must not be used to safety
any structural members, and should never rest directly on aluminum without
a plain steel washer between the lock washer and the aluminum.
One other method of safetying may be mentioned. It is used to prevent
a plain nut from working off a bolt and consists of upsetting, peening, or batter
ing the threaded end of the bolt after the nut has been tightened. This pro

PALNUT º
|
FIBER COMPOSITION

GADMIUM PLATED
STEEL

%
PLAIN NUT t
Figure 46.-Palnut. Figure 47.-Elastic stop nut.

cedure sometimes is used for the attachment of parts not likely to be removed,
such as internal wing fittings. If it does become necessary to remove such a
bolt, both the bolt and nut should be thrown away and not used again.
There are a number of different types of fasteners used for cowling and
other detachable sheets. Because of the wide variety of such fastenings, they
are not discussed here individually. The pilot should familiarize himself with
the particular type used on the airplane he is flying, determine
its

of
method
operation, and how its safety may inspected.
be

The foregoing covers most the approved methods safetying. How

of

of

ever, aviation progressing constantly and new developments are continuously

is

Figure 48.-Lock washer (split type). Figure 49.-Lock washers (star type).

coming Any
be
to

front.
the new devices,
not mentioned above, should
by

scrutinized thoroughly capable mechanics before their use accepted.

is

INSPECTION PROCEDURE
The following items should day before
be

as

inspected directed each

-
flight.
Powerplant.—(1) Check ignition switch OFF, and the
to

see that
it
is

ground wire connection tight.

to

see that
is
it

(2) Inspect the propeller blades, particularly near the tips, for dents and
In

nicks caused by gravel other foreign objects.

of
or

the case seaplanes,

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 55

particular attention should be given to this portion since the action of water,
especially on metal propellers, often causes serious pitting. The remainder of
the blade should be examined for cracks or other damage, and should be moved
back and forth to see that there is no looseness. The main hub nut should be
examined to see that it is properly safetied.
(3) Examine the engine cowling to see that there are no cracks and that
all cowl fasteners are secured properly. A piece of cowling blowing off in the
air may cause a serious accident.
(4) See that the exhaust stacks are tight. If a collector ring is used it
should be examined carefully for cracks and burned spots. If the ring should
burn through, or if a piece should come out of it in the air, a fire quite possibly
might occur. Cabin heaters should be checked at the same time.
(5) The attachment of the ignition wires to the spark plugs should be
examined to see that the wires are on and locked in such a manner to prevent
their coming off in the air. The ignition wires themselves should be examined
where they are accessible, and particularly where they pass through the cowl
or conduit, for chafing and deterioration. A short circuit through the cowling
not only may cause one cylinder to cut out, but the spark possibly may start
a fire.

(6) The condition of the fuel strainer should be determined and a small
quantity of fuel drained from the bottom. Water and other impurities will
collect in the bottom of the strainer bowl and draining it may prevent a
forced landing.
(7) Accessible portions of the fuel and oil systems should be checked and
the vents to the tanks inspected to see that they are open. If the fuel tank
vent is partly closed, the engine may warm up satisfactorily on the ground,
but cut out shortly after the take-off. The tank caps should also be examined
to see that they are secured properly. If the cap comes off the fuel tanks in
the air, several annoying, and possibly hazardous things may happen, espe
cially in rough weather. The gas may blow back in the pilot's face, it may
drip down into the engine compartment and create a serious fire hazard, and
enough of it may escape so that insufficient fuel will be left for the completion
of the flight, particularly in cross-country work.
(8) While checking the security of the tank caps, it is desirable to check
also the amount of fuel and oil with a clean stick, as even the most reliable
gages sometimes do not function properly.
Landing gear.—(1) The tires should be examined for severe cuts, and for
proper inflation. With respect to the latter, particularly in the case of low
pressure types, it is not sufficient to walk around the plane and kick the tires.
Use a pressure gage, after determining what the pressure should be. The
pressure usually is printed on the side wall of the tire.
(2) Inspect the wheels for cracks or other damage and examine the hub
caps to see that they are safetied properly. The alinement of the wheels
usually can be roughly checked by standing directly in front of the airplane
some 30 feet away and noting whether or not both wheels look the same.
Faulty alinement of the wheels will cause difficulty in taxiing and is extremely
likely to cause ground-looping immediately after landing.
56 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(3) Inspect the shock-absorber units. If the shock absorber is of the oleo

oil
type, any leakage of

be

of
should noted and called the attention

to

a
mechanic. Visible parts

be
of
the brake mechanism should also examined.
other fastenings attaching the landing gear

or

to
(4) See that the bolts
the airplane and the various members each other are safetied properly.

to
If tie rods are used for bracing any part the landing gear,

of
or
(5) wires
they should proper Only experience
be
examined for tension. will indicate
how tight such bracing should be, but any noticeable looseness should

be
reported.
the airplane equipped with floats,
If

to
(6) desirable examine the

is

is
it
watertight compartments

of
for

If
water. the presence
more than few

a
spoonfuls found, the compartment being examined probably has
of

water
is

by

by
puncture
be
This leak may

or

in
leak. caused loose rivet the

a
a

a
skin below the water line. rare cases the water
In may through

in
come

a
to
loose hand hole cover. These covers should be examined see that the
gaskets are good condition and that the covers are tight.
in

Wings.--(1) Inspect the covering for holes chafing. Wrinkles

or
the

in
fabric are an almost certain indication of some internal failure and should
competent mechanic. Small holes are
of

receive the immediate attention

a

necessarily dangerous, but should patched

be

as

as
not soon convenient.
wing trailing
on

of

The ventholes the lower surface the near the edge should
open, particularly any high-altitude work contemplated. The ribs,
be

if

is
especially the trailing edges wings which are fairly close the ground,
of
at

to
by

taking trailing attempting

be

of

edge

to
should checked hold the and move
up and down. Any movement observed, when moderate force applied,
it

is
probably indicates broken rib. The wing tip bows should also

be
examined
a

by
for damages. These bows and the trailing edge frequently are injured
contact with other airplanes the hangar. the airplane has been used
If
in

for violent maneuvers has been subjected

rough landings,
or

to

advisable
is
it

wing procedure
of

of

this
If
to

it.

take firm hold the end the and shake

produces rattle possible that there are broken drag wires inside the
is
it
If a

wing. undue flexibility, one the spars may damaged.

be

be
of
to

there seems
airplane immediately grounded
be

Either condition means that the should

-

until repairs have been made.

the wing hinge bolts are visible without the removal fairing, they
If

of

(2)
see that they are properly safetied.
be

or to

should checked
(3) The bolts pins which are used
be or
to

attach the struts wires should

they inspected
be

Tie rods should

to

to

examined see that are secure.

determine adequate engagement previously described. As
of

to as

the threads
information, common practice install tie rods, where one
of

matter
is
it
a

lower than the other, with the right-hand thread

on

end the low end.

is

see that the hinge pins are properly

be

(4) The ailerons should inspected

to

cottered and lubricated; that the connection between the control cable and the
safe; and that the tabs, such are provided, are proper
in

aileron horn
if
is

- operating condition.
(5) Visible parts cables, push-and-pull tubes,
of

as

the control system such

torque tubes, and pulleys, should see that fastenings are secure
be

inspected
to

and that the members themselves are undamaged. Control cables commonly
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 57

show wear first at a pulley or where they pass through a fair-lead. Often the
wear is not visible and may be detected only by passing the bare hand over the
cable. Broken strands of wire usually work through to the surface and may
be found in this manner.
Empennage.—(1) The covering of the tail surfaces should be inspected in
the same manner as the covering of the wings. The leading and trailing edges,
particularly, should be examined for bruises and dents.
(2) If the attachment fittings are visible, they should be examined for
security.
(3) Struts and tie rods should be checked in the same manner as those on
the wings. Stabilizer brace struts are particularly subject to damage from
stones thrown back from the propeller, and abuse in lifting the tail of the
airplane while putting it in and out of the hangar. It should be borne in
mind that a strut which is even slightly buckled or dented on one side has
lost nearly all of its strength.
(4) The hinges, control horns, and trimming tabs (if provided) should be
inspected as in the case of the ailerons.
(5) Visible portions of control cables or other operating mechanisms
should be inspected as in the case of those in the wing. This also applies to
the stabilizer adjustment mechanism.
(6) Although the tail skid or wheel is not strictly a part of the empen
inspection naturally goes along with that
of to is its

of
the tail surfaces.

If
nage, the
caster, swiveling type, swung

be
of

the tail should

or

wheel the back and

see that the wheel swivels freely. does not, there great likeli
If

forth
it

is
ground-looping after landing and difficulty taxiing.
of

in

hood
Fuselage.—(1) The covering should inspected for damage, particularly
be

near the tail post the fuselage. any sign

of

of
or

or
If

rear there looseness

is

wrinkling thorough investigation

be

the fabric
in

should made before the

a

ship flown. Such wrinkling usually indicates

If
bent longeron
or

strut.
is

the fuselage the all-metal, stressed-skin type, any buckling

of

of

the skin
is

incipient ship
be
an

indicates failure and the should not flown.

(2) Visible parts the control system inside the fuselage should
to be
of

examined for safety, wear, and proper lubrication. always desirable

It
is

cockpit the proper

in

move the controls and see that the control surfaces move
no

play The stabilizer adjustment

in

direction and that there the system.

is

and rudder pedals should the control-system check.

be

in

included
(3) The fire extinguisher and first-aid kit should
be

located and the

by

extinguisher checked shaking

be

it.

see that filled. This may

to

done
is
it

After little experience, the difference weight full extinguisher

in

between
a

empty one will readily

be
an

and noticeable.
(4) Any removable cowling, fairing, inspection doors should in
be
or
by

procedure engine cowling.

of
in

spected the same followed the case the

any likelihood using the lighting system the flight
on
of
If

(5) there
is

made, operation
be

be
of
to

about the the system should checked.

(6) The fastenings the safety belts should that they
be
of

to

examined see
are Secure.
201073°–41—5
58 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(7) Cockpit enclosures or hatches should be operated to check their func

tioning. If adjustable seats are provided they should also be operated while
sitting in them.
Warming up the engine.—(Detailed instructions for starting and warming
up are given following this section. The item is included here because it
is definitely a part of the inspection.)
(1) See that chocks or blocks are under the wheels and that the tail of the
airplane is pointed so that the slip stream will not blow into the hangars or
against other airplanes.
(2) Start engine, warm up and check proper functioning. [Note.—Unless
oil pressure is indicated within a few seconds after starting, cut the switch
-
and investigate the source of trouble.]
(3) Test engine(s) on each magneto and on all tanks.
(4) Check engine controls for proper functioning and lost motion.
(5) Check position of carburetor air preheater.
(6) Check operation of carburetor mixture control.
(7) Check radio equipment for proper functioning.
of oil

(8) Check and record temperature, oil pressure, revolutions per minute,
fuel,
of

amount and amount oil.

Fire while starting.—This seems appropriate place mention the pro
an

to

If
starting the car
be
is to

followed fire occurs while engine.

if

cedure the
a

pumping the throttle too violently,

of

or
as

buretor flooded result because

a
of

leaking float needle valve, appreciable quantity gasoline may collect

In an

of
a

addition, gasoline may

of
the carburetor air scoop. certain amount
in

drip the ground. Under such circumstances, the engine backfires there
on

if

great likelihood igniting the gasoline

If of

the scoop and sometimes that

in
is
a

ground engine
on

the has started when the fire occurs the

in
also. the
carburetor, OPEN THE THROTTLE IMMEDIATELY. This causes the
harm. Many inex
no

sucked up into the engine where

be

do
to

fire can
it

perienced pilots
or

mechanics cut the switch when such fire occurs, which

is
a

exactly the wrong thing

on

the gasoline the ground ignited,

If
to

is

do.
obviously the ship must engine running
be

If

moved back. the not when

is

the fire occurs, pull the pressure fire extinguisher release valve the ship
so
if

is

equipped. Otherwise, use the hand extinguisher quickly possible.

as

as

STARTING, RUNNING, AND STOPPING THE ENGINE

STARTING
The duties and the technique and proper procedure observed by the
be
of to

student the cockpit while starting the engine the most important
in

one
is

parts training safety angle.

of

his from
a

The student first should learn that the propeller the most dangerous
is

part the airplane, and accordingly, not only with regard

of

to

respect
to
it

well, and realize his responsibilities with regard

as

to
it.

himself but others

the engine cannot
be

as

Certain details discussed here since there are

in

as

many different methods required there are different engines, starters, and
some cases, propellers. The instructor will explain the steps pertaining
in

to

the engine hand, and always will supervise the starting.

at

Students should
 CIVIL PILOT. TRAINING MANUAL 59

never start the engine in the absence of the instructor. The following pro
cedure should be followed until it becomes a habitual routine from which the
-
student never deviates:
(1) Before getting into the airplane see that the wheels are blocked with
“chocks” and that the ship is pointed so that the slipstream will not blow into
the hangar or on other airplanes.
(2) Immediately upon getting into the seat adjust and fasten the safety
belt.
(3) Turn on the gasoline from the tank or tanks recommended for starting.
(4) See that the switch is off.
(5) See that the mixture control is fu// rich.
(6) See that the throttle is closed.
(7) If a spark control is used, see that it is set at the recommended starting
position.
(8) The carburetor should be flooded by pumping the throttle or the
engine should be primed, if a primer is installed. As a rule, if a primer is
used the carburetor should not be flooded. Care must be taken so as not to
overprime the engine, particularly if it is hot.
From this point on, the procedure will vary depending on whether a
starter is used or whether the engine is to be started by someone swinging the
propeller.
If
a starter is used the student should always call “All clear?” and wait
for response and assurance before turning on the switch or pressing the starter
control. Upon receiving assurance that all is clear he then calls “Contact.”
and engages the starter.
With many engines it is well to engage the starter and get the engine
rotating before turning on the switch, particularly if the engine is one that
requires heavy priming.
The student must learn how to “catch” a feebly starting or sputtering
engine with the throttle. In this, too much or too fast an action with the
throttle is as bad as not enough or too slow an action. The sensing of the
exact amount necessary is something that comes only with experience.
Should the engine fail to start the student must always cut the switch
immediately and call “Switch off.” He must be impressed with the necessity
of never calling “switch off” unless he actually has cut the switch- off or has
checked and is absolutely certain that it is off.
If
the engine is to be started by swinging the propeller, the procedure is a
little different. After turning on the gas and priming the engine, the student
should check the switch to be sure it is “off” and close the throttle. The
person who is going to crank the engine will call “Gas on—Switch off—Throttle
closed,” and the student shall repeat this, after which he must not touch the
switch or throttle again until the person swinging the prop calls “Contact.”
The student will repeat “Contact” and then turn on the switch, never in the
feverse order.
This procedure is to be followed until the engine is started. Of course,
in cases of flooding, etc., the procedure will be varied with the throttle but
the “all clear,” “switch off,” and “contact” calls are always the same, and
the student must understand thoroughly the sequence of the procedure and
60 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

realize the importance of being absolutely certain that he calls correctly, and
that the controls are as he says they are before he calls.
Too much importance cannot be attached to this. The long list of injuries
and deaths from propellers show that all too frequently the man in the cockpit
has failed to observe one of the foregoing rules.
There is also a long list of accidents due to failure to turn on the gas or
failure to see that it was on. Almost every pilot knows of one or more
instances of this carelessness.
The student must also learn factors to be considered in choosing a place
to start the engine. Too many careless pilots start their engines with the tail
of the ship pointed in the hangar door, toward parked automobiles, or toward
a crowd of spectators. This is not only discourteous and thoughtless, but
results ofttimes in much serious damage to the property of others. Such
actions are on the same plane as those of automobile drivers who deliberately
go out of their way to drive at high speed through a mud puddle, splashing
persons standing nearby.
The ground or surface under the propeller should be solid, a smooth turf
or concrete if possible, for otherwise the propeller will pick up pebbles, dirt,
mud, cinders, or other loose particles and hurl them backward, not only
injuring the rear of the ship, but ofttimes inflicting various degrees of injuries
to the propeller itself. The inspection of the leading edge of almost any
propeller which has been in use for any period of time will show the result of
neglect of this precaution.
The student must, of course, learn the use of any particular starter with
which the engine is equipped, and any peculiarities of the engine that must
be taken into consideration in starting. These will come more or less as a
matter of course, with experience, as he goes from one aircraft to another,
but the safety precautions and the courtesy requirements always remain the
same and the fundamental importance of strictest adherence to each and
every one of them cannot be emphasized too heavily.
Swinging the propeller—Under the direction of the instructor, every
student should learn the proper method of swinging a propeller, realize thor
oughly the hazards incident thereto and the necessity for constant care in
order to avoid them. Too many students are prone to minimize these dangers
either from a lack of understanding or because they have grown careless
through association and never have had an accident. It is important that
this be understood thoroughly, for sooner or later every pilot will be called
upon to swing a propeller and a serious accident is likely to occur if it is
improperly done.
is:

The first rule in swinging the propeller When touching propeller

a

always consider that the switch on.

is

remembered, and the attendant precautions taken, propeller

If

this rule
is

should give only the careless unwary who have

If no

cause for fears.

or
It
is

by

in

accidents. the rule observed, neither mistakes the person the

is

cockpit nor mechanical troubles will ever cause an accident.

Before taking hold propeller, the student should examine the ground
of
a
or

standing mud, slippery

be

he

be

will not
to

surface under foot sure that

in
or

grass, grease, gravel any other substance that might cause him
on
or

to
 * CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 61

slip and fall into or under the propeller. If such a surface is present the air
plane should be moved to a different spot before an attempt is made to “swing
the prop.”
After examining the ground or surface, the wheels should be checked to
see that they are securely “chocked.” A competent person should be in the
cockpit.
Having taken these preliminary precautions, the student should then
call “Gas on—Switch off—Throttle closed” and wait for the reply, “Gas on—
Switch off—Throttle closed,” before touching the propeller.
In airplanes of low horsepower, the propeller may be swung with one
hand, while standing behind it and holding on to a strut with the other hand.
In this position the propeller is thrown sharply downward over a compression
or two by one hand while the other hand clutches the strut and keeps the
body from being overbalanced or falling toward the propeller as a result of
the efforts exerted.
In the case of higher horsepower, the student must stand in
of engines
front of the propeller on one side, close enough to be able to reach it without
stretching forward so far that he is in an unbalanced position, and far enough
away to be well clear of the path of the propeller at the bottom of its arc.
If the engine has high compression or is stiff, it may be necessary to gain

is,
additional force by stepping sharply back with the right foot. That the
weight the left right slightly
to

shifted leg, the foot raised and kicked

is

is

is
down and backward, almost simultaneously with the movement the arms,

of
bringing the blade down. This action causes the bending

of its
the body and
of
in

the arms, impart most

of

backward movement, rather than contraction

to
the force.
In

doing this, the foot leg should never

or

to

get under the

be

allowed
the propeller, and well back before the propeller starts
be
of

to
blade should
it

move. As the blade comes down, the body bent, thrown backward, and
is

turned, all time, away from the propeller when

so
at

the same that well

is
it

the engine starts.

The student should never push the propeller with his shoulder and never
allow any portion his body the plane the propeller’s rotation.
of

of

get
in
to

This applies even though the propeller not being cranked.

is

On engines over 300 horsepower, different technique should

of

be

used.
a

This technique requires that one two other persons pull the man
on
or

the
by

propeller out way, help contributing enough

of

as

as

to

the well him force

pulled sharply through the compression point.
to be
to

allow the blade

Any tendency grip the blade too tightly should eliminated, since
in
be

backfire and the propeller turning backward the student may

be
of

event
a

by

snatched into the propeller and hit the opposite blade, have his fingers
or

torn from his grip.

as

skinned the blade

is

placed upon adequate and proper instruction

be

Too much stress cannot

swinging propellers. There are many broken legs, battered knees,
of
in

the
shoulders, arms, and hands bearing witness
of
to

the carelessness someone

during this operation.
starting many engines not equipped with impulse
an
of

of

One the secrets

coupling the magneto, pulling propeller compression
on

of

the the over the

is
62 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

point with a sharp snap. The faster this can be done and the more force
applied to the propeller, the greater the chance of the engine starting. Except
where impulse couplings are installed, slow movement of the propeller rarely is
effective in trying to start an engine. It seems that the only time it is successful
is when the start is neither wanted nor expected.
The student must realize the necessity for wheel “chocks” and a competent
operator in the cockpit. Innumerable pilots and mechanics have neglected
these precautions to their sorrow. Almost every pilot knows someone who, as a
result of such neglect, has been forced into a race with an airplane during which
the airplane and the pilot alternately chased each other until a crack-up called
a halt to the proceedings.
Emergency starting.—It is strictly against the Civil Air Regulations to
start an engine unless a competent operator is in the cockpit. However, it is
permitted to waive the regulations in case of emergency. Such an emergency
may be considered to exist when a landing is made on a field other than an
airport, where there is no adequate assistance, and it becomes necessary to start
the engine. While this is a bad situation, nevertheless it is realized fully that
it sometimes occurs and that instructions for the proper procedure should be
given. UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES SHOULD AN ENGINE BE
STARTED WITHOUT SOMEONE IN THE COCKPIT
-
IF HELP IS
AVAILABLE.
The instructions below apply, of course, to ships not equipped with a
self-starter and brakes.
See that the wheels are chocked with blocks which are large enough to
prevent any possibility of the airplane running over them. Strap the stick or
wheel hard back with the safety belt. Be sure that the switch is off before
sucking in a charge or moving the propeller for any other reason. Suck in the
charge as usual by turning the propeller several revolutions with the throttle
closed. As quickly as possible, crack the throttle (not more than one-eighth of
its full travel), turn on the switch, and pull the propeller. As soon as the
engine starts, run back to the cockpit, taking care to avoid the propeller.
After the engine has been warmed up, tie the stick back again, and remove the
chocks, after which the pilot can resume his seat in the cockpit and take off as
usual. * .
RUNNING (WARMING UP) º
This isa procedure which plays an important part in the proper care of the
engine. All of the older engines required that the
oil

temperature
or

water
temperature proper operation
be

be
at

certain levels before could depended

upon, and many modern engines still require warming-up period.
a

Many air-cooled engines are cowled closely and equipped with pressure
the proper places sufficient quantities
of

air
to

baffles which direct the flow

is in

during flight. On the ground, however, insufficient air forced around these
baffles and through the cowling due the design propeller blades near the
of
to

hubs, and any prolonged running causes serious overheating long before any
by

rising temperature
oil

given temperature gage.

of

indication the
is

engine followed strictly

be
of

The recommendations the manufacturer should

cracked heads, stuck rings, and the warping other parts are
be
of

to

avoided.
if
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 63

Many modern engines are designed to be operated with very short warm-up

oil
periods, the initial sluggishness of the being taken care their design.

of
in
good rule follow head temperature gage religiously

in
to

to
or A these cases use

is

a
engine full throttle without

be
as

as
to eased open

to
take off soon the can
faltering spitting. procedure

be

of
or
Where the latter would serious abuse

a
an
the engine ex

in
some cases, absolute necessity others. Even
in

in
it
is
tremely cold weather, the engine may overheat badly before any indication

oil
of

In
temperature gage. fact, this

on
such condition shows the more

is
a

likely happen very cold weather than warm. With such engines the

in
to

in
preheated damage
be

be
oil must

to
cold weather avoided.
in

if

is

on
prolonged running any engine high the ground

of
The

at
speeds

is
a
serious abuse. Competent engineers estimate that one hour's running high

at
the ground imposes the engine
of on

on
as

as
speed much wear and tear several
hours full throttle operation the air.
The student must realize that in
his best friend during his
the engine

is
flying career and should such. Too many students acquire the
be

as
treated
having only two positions for the throttle—closed and wide open.
of

habit
Wide-open operation the engine.

of
serious and needless abuse
is
a

prevalent engine are saving the engine.

of
The idea also that low speeds
in is

a
This may not. The engine designed
be

true some cases, but most

in

is

is
it
operated between the limits certain speed range recommended by
be

of

as
to

The engine should revolutions per

be

at

the manufacturer. run the speed

in
(r.
p.

this range which affords the smoothest and most efficient

in

minute m.)
operation. The manufacturer responsible for the service his product and

of
is

his recommendations should be followed.

USE OF THE THROTTLE
“power control”
be

The throttle
or

to

control used and coordinated

is
a

the rudder. With the exception vertical banks,

of
or
as

the same the stick

maneuvers executed the same horizontal plane will not require its use, but all
in

others should have the power coordinated properly throughout the maneuver.
The ability use the throttle properly applying the proper amount power
of
to

in

proper will, developed during practice

be
of

of
at

the instant course, the

advanced maneuvers.
used abruptly, even when necessity requires
be

The throttle never should

quick application full power. must always used smoothly and deliber
be
of

It

ately even though the action required may

be

immediate. There difference

is
a

between fast smooth operation and abrupt operation, which very much akin
is

or

many cases, due the design

of

similar use
In
or
to

to

the stick the rudder.

slight operating maladjustment carburetor, setting
of

of

some the the the

mixture control, the design the particular
of
or

in

some mechanical feature

engine, will not respond quickly abrupt action
as

as
to

to

smooth use.
it

Another reason for gradual opening the throttle, common engines

of

to
In

higher horsepower, the torque effect

on
of

some aircraft. these, the

is

application power impart airplane rolling

of

will tend
to

sudden the violent

a

ency which may result disastrously happens glide close the ground
It to
in
if
it

a
by
or

bad landing. also may

of
as

the result throttle use necessitated

a

uncontrollable ground loop during the initial period

an

of

cause the take-off

64 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

or while taxiing, because the rudder is too ineffective to overcome this tendency
at such low speeds.
The main reason for smooth operation of the throttle, however, is the
mechanical abuse which attends abrupt and sharp use. This is more or less
true of all engines but particularly in the case of supercharged engines or
engines equipped with rotary induction systems. Many engines have these
“blowers” geared at 10 to 15 times crankshaft speed. Taking, for example, an
engine with top speed of 2,000 revolutions per minute and a blower geared 10
to 1, the sudden opening of the throttle from idling position of say 800 revolu
tions per minute to full throttle of 2,000 revolutions per minute, causes the
crankshaft to accelerate almost instantly 1,200 revolutions per minute. This
abrupt acceleration places severe loads on all the moving parts while their
inertia is being overcome. These loads are increased many fold on the much
lighter and more delicate parts of the impeller system, since in the same length
of time they must accelerate 10 times as much as the crankshaft or from 8,000
revolutions per minute to 20,000 revolutions per minute. Since the stresses
and inertias increase in more than direct proportion to the increase of speed
and more particularly to the relative rapidity to this increase, it may be seen
readily that parts which are probably the lightest in the engine are subjected
to severe abuse. Such treatment, if continued, can only lead to mechanical
trouble, and even may cause structural failure. Even though most blower
systems are equipped with clutches to lessen the shock of sudden acceleration,
abrupt opening of the throttle is still highly dangerous and if practiced habitu
ally will sooner or later result in trouble. Habitual smooth handling of this
control will eliminate such hazards.
STOPPING
Improper procedure in stopping the engine after flight may be almost as
injurious as incorrect methods in starting The instructor will give direc
it.

pertaining particular engine being used. The notes below will,

to

tions the
however, serve general guide.
as
a

On earlier types airplanes, the engines were not equipped with close
of

fitting pressure cowling and baffles. The customary procedure these ships,
in

upon reaching the line the hangar, was

of

front
in

to

turn the fuel shut-off

the closed position and allow the engine “run the gas out” simply
or
to

to

valve
stopped from lack fuel, after which the switch was turned off.
of

idle until
it

The purpose this procedure was allow the engine cool and, by using
of

to
to

up all the fuel the lines and carburetor,

to

lessen the fire hazard when the

in

ship was the hangar.

at to in

Due the fact that that the engine was not closely cowled and was being
operated idling speed and that the temperature generated inside the cylin
ders was comparatively low because mixture, the cyl
of

of

the reduced volume

inders would cool quite rapidly. The lubrication the cylinders, however,
of

very good turning too slowly

to

was not because the crankshaft was throw

much oil on the cylinder walls.
In

modern aircraft equipped with engines that are closely cowled with
pressure cowling and baffles, necessary have considerable forward speed
to
of it
is

air sufficient keep the cylinder temperatures

in

to

to

order obtain volume

a

within the desired limits. The engines themselves are very efficient and are
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 65

sensitive to variations in the oil film on the important rubbing surfaces. These
engines should be stopped as soon as possible after reaching the line. The
procedure recommended when the ship is to be used again shortly is to idle
the engine for a very brief period, turn the switch off, and open the throttle.
In some types, the manufacturers recommend opening the throttle until the
engine speed is about 1,000 revolutions per minute, then cutting the switch
and opening the throttle wide.
Objections have been made to this procedure on the ground that a large
volume of cold air will warp the valves or damage the head. However, the
induction system and the cylinders are at such high temperatures that the
incoming mixture is warmed enough to prevent any detrimental effect. Oper
ating the engine at slow speeds without sufficient air velocity to give adequate
cooling to the cylinders is likely to be much more injurious than opening the
throttle after the switch is turned off. The purpose of this opening of the
throttle is to cool the spark plugs, valves, and particles of carbon below the
point of incandescence, thus preventing automatic ignition or “after-firing”
when the switch is cut. After-firing is particularly dangerous on engines of
large displacement which use heavy propellers, for the inertia of the propeller
creates serious stresses in the crankshaft and other parts. To eliminate this
hazard, such engines frequently are equipped with a device known as an idle
cut-off, mounted on the carburetor. This device balances the pressure at the
discharge nozzle and the pressure on the fuel in the float chamber. With these
pressures equalized, no fuel will flow into the engine. To stop such engines
the speed is brought to about 800 revolutions per minute, the mixture control
moved to the idle cut-off position, and the switch turned off after the engine
stops. In any case, the recommendations of the manufacturer should be ascer
tained and followed.
The fuel shut-off valve should be left OM unless the ship is to be put in
long-term storage.
INSPECTION CHECK LIST

Check Ignition Switch. To See That It Is “Off”

A. Propeller
(1) Inspect blades for pits, cracks, nicks.
(2) Inspect hubs and attaching parts for defects, tightness, and safetying.
(3) Check propeller for track.

B. Engine
(1) Inspect engine cowling for cracks and security.
(2) Inspect exhaust stacks and collector ring for cracks and security.
(3) Check valve-gear mechanism and lubricate as necessary.
(4) Check spark-plug terminal assemblies for cleanliness and tightness.
(5) Inspect accessible ignition wiring and harness for security of mounting.
(6) Clean main fuel-line strainers.
(7) Drain small quantity of fuel from bottom drain and inspect.
Check fuel and oil systems for leaks, vent openings, and
fit

tank caps.
of

(8)
Check fuel and oil supply (do not rely gages).
on

(9)
(10) Check all bolts and nuts on engine and mount.
(11) Turn propeller; check compression cylinders.
of

º
66

O. Landing gear
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Inspect
Inspect
Inspect
Inspect
–— U. S. DEPARTMENT

shock-absorber
OF COMMERCE

tires for defects and proper inflation.

wheels for cracks and distortion and hub caps for security.
units and brake-linkage gear.
strut-retaining bolts and fittings for security.
Inspect brace wires for tension and security.
(6) Inspect main float(s) for leaks and security of hand-hole covers.

D. Wings
(1) Inspect covering for damage, buckled ribs, and end bows.
(2) Inspect attachment fittings for security.
(3) Check struts and flying wires for security of terminal connections.
(4) Check aileron hinges, pins, horns, and tabs.
(5) Inspect accessible control cable, tubes, and pulleys for security.

E. Tail control surfaces

(1) Inspect covering for damage, buckled ribs, and bruised edges.
(2) Inspect attachment fittings for Security.
(3) Check struts and brace wires for security of terminal connections.
(4) Check control-surface hinges, pins, horns, and tabs.
(5) Inspect control cable, tubes, and pulleys for security and lubrication.
(6) Check stabilizer adjustment assembly mechanism.
(7) Check tail skid or wheel assembly for condition and lubrication.

F. Fuselage
(1) Inspect covering for damage and distortion.
(2) Inspect control column assembly and accessible parts of control system for freedom
-
of movement, security of attachments.
(3) Inspect rudder pedal assembly and control system as above.
(4) Check stabilizer adjustment mechanism for freedom of movement.
(5) Locate fire extinguisher and first-aid kit.
(6) Inspect all removable cowling, fairing, and inspection plates for security.
(7) Check proper functioning of lighting system.
(8) Inspect for security of safety belts.
(9) Check functioning of enclosures and adjustable-seat mechanism.

G. Warming up
(1) See that chocks are under wheels.
(2) Warm up and check proper functioning of engine.
(3) Test engine(s) on each magneto and on all tanks.
(4) Check engine controls for proper functioning and lost motion.
(5) Check position of carburetor air preheater.
(6) Check operation of carburetor mixture control.
(7) Check radio equipment for proper functioning.
(8) Note oil temperature, oil pressure, revolutions per minute, amount of fuel, and
amount of oil.
 Chapter III.-INSTRUMENTS

The instrument panel of modern airliner, carrying more than 100

the
instruments of various sizes, presents a rather alarming picture to the novice
who may be somewhat dismayed to think that he must learn the functions of
each one in this mystifying array. Actually, the situation is not as bad as it
appears. For one thing, the transport airplane has 2 or more engines and a
separate set of instruments must be provided for each. For another, a primary
training plane needs only a few relatively simple instruments. As need for
others develops, familiarity with their use is acquired automatically.
In the early days of flying, pilots claimed that they could fly in any kind
of weather “by the seat of their pants.” Experience in handling an airplane
will show the beginner just what is meant by this expression. For example, in
making a turn without sufficient bank the occupants of the ship tend to slide
across the seat to the outside of the turn. In banking too much for a given
turn, they tend to slide to the inside of the turn. The student pilot soon begins
to recognize these sensations and govern himself accordingly. However, it has
been demonstrated that sense of balance and any outside sensations such as
those described cannot be depended on when flying “blind,” or without being
able to see the ground or the horizon. (Often, as when flying in clear weather
above a layer of clouds, the horizon is visible though the ground is not.)
The pilot should be thoroughly familiar with his instruments, know what
agencies of deterioration are most likely to affect them, and what indications of
this condition will be evidenced. He then can interpret signs of trouble, and
will not be led into difficulty by erratic pointer readings. For while the
adjustment and repair of instruments must be left to the skilled specialist, the
pilot's knowledge should enable him to report developing defects and to recheck
operation after repairs.
Instruments may be placed in three general groups according to their func
tions. The first is the flight group, containing the altimeter, airspeed indicator,
turn-and-bank indicator, rate-of-climb indicator, artificial horizon and in
clinometer. The second group is made up of instruments which indicate
the tachometer, oil
its

conditions in the engine, and supply system, such

as

oil

pressure gage, oil-temperature gage, manifold-pressure gage, and fuel and

of

quantity indicators. The third group consists navigational instruments,

gyroscope,
as

as

such the compass,

directional and such other instruments are
the pilot flying the plane from place
of

to

in to

place.
in

assistance
all

contact flight, some

of

the pilot
be

of

While instruments can value

to

them have been designed for special uses. An airplane use for primary
in

flight instruction, including the required cross-country, must equipped with

be

the following minimum instrument equipment: tachometer, oil-pressure gage,

67
68 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

oil-temperature gage, altimeter, magnetic compass, and an airspeed indicator.

These instrument are included in the descriptions on the following pages.
Although the bank-and-turn indicator usually is not installed in primary
training airplanes, a discussion of this is also included since it is one of the basic
types of gyro instruments.
THE ALTIMETER

The altimeter, as the name implies, is used for determining the altitude of
the aircraft. Since the pressure decreases with altitude, the instrument is
simply an aneroid barometer calibrated to read in feet of altitude instead of in
barometric pressure. The part of this instrument directly affected by atmos
pheric pressure is a small hollow steel aneroid boa, or diaphragm, shaped some
what like a watch. This is shown in the two diagrams of figures 50A as 0.
This diaphragm has been carefully pumped to a good vacuum and sealed.

it it,
The atmospheric pressure, therefore, tends to crush

in
and would succeed
doing so, because the surfaces are very flexible, were not for the stiff spring
S,

which holds its face and back apart.

As the airplane climbs, the atmospheric pressure weakens and the spring

S
pulls the face and back the diaphragm farther apart. This motion very
of

is
C

small, magnified. This done by lever system beginning

be
so

to

at
is

has
it

by
the spring
M of

M
This the link

to
L.

the corner with lever connected

is
S

a
bearings. rigidly
on

the cross

to
cross-shaft mounted delicate Attached

R,
P,

of
to

shaft the arm the end which fastened delicate chain which
is

is

wraps around the spindle The indicating hand mounted rigidly

D.
or

drum
small hairspring shown is
of

on the end this drum. the front view keeps

in
A

the mechanism taut, that even the slightest motion the diaphragm
of

in
so
be

either direction will

is of to

transmitted the hand.

or
In

allow for changes sea level,

to

at

order barometric pressure on

the airport from which the take-off
be

be

so
to

made, the instrument can set

This accomplished by the knob which,
at

that the hand the zero mark.

K
is

on is
or

through gear, rotates the face dial which the figures are printed.
a

the type just described, the hand makes

In

of

most altimeters whole revo

a

lution climb from sea level (or zero altitude)

to

10,000 feet and then starts

in
a

second revolution. So you are up 11,700 feet, for example, reads only
if

it
a

1,700. Of course you know whether this means 1,700

or

or

21,700; but
if

11,700,
only 1,000 feet, you might lose track
of

the hand made whole revolution

in
a

how many had made.

it

you need great accuracy, however, reading such

an
If

altimeter like
is
by

telling time
of

the hour hand clock that has lost its minute hand. The
a

sensitive altimeter, therefore, has “minute hand” that makes whole revolu
a

only 1,000 feet. picture

an
of

of

tion the face instrument shown

in

such
is

figure 50B.
in

inaccuracy
of

of

friction
to

The chief sources the altimeter are due

in

the
parts
of

mechanism and failure This latter condition

to

the due vibration.

may result from loose mounting the instru
of

of
or

the case excessive vibration

ment panel.
The interior susceptible vulnerable part.
to

corrosion and the chain

is

is
a

together, readings will result. Frequent

If

the links become corroded erratic

 Figure 50A .–Simple
altimeter.

-
ZŻŁĘZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
|

…affær=

201073°–41
Ž

(Facing
zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzŻſſíſ
p. ſÝMW

68)
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 69

flights to high altitudes tend to strain the diaphragm so it expands excessively

and does not return to normal. This action also affects the lever system. On
some altimeters a barometric scale is provided so that the pilot, while in the
air, may set the altimeter to the barometric pressure as given by radio for his
destination. It
might be emphasized here that the instrument reads zero for
point

to.
of departure, whichever it has been set

It
sea level or the does not
necessarily show the height above the ground. This fact should

be

of in
borne
landing made upon field higher than the point

be
to
mind when

is
a

a
-
departure.

Figure 50B.-Sensitive altimeter.

the operation the instrument may caused by dirt clogging

be
of

Errors
in

the instrument,
of

the hole which admits the outside air into the case
as

well
by
as

the other troubles mentioned above.

THE AIR SPEED INDICATOR

best type speed by the pressure

of

The air speed indicator measures the air

by

it,

produced impact like the altimeter, really

be

of

which can the air. So

is

sensitive pressure gage, and therefore its moving parts are almost the same
as

the altimeter's, figure 51.

in
as

shown
this instrument, however, the aneroid diaphragm (D
In

fig. 51) not

in

is

big spring
no

evacuated, protect from crushing. Instead,

so

to

there
is

is
it

it

connected through the opening long copper tube essentially

to

and what
A

is
a

just pointing for

an

airplane
of

open end the tube, mounted outside the and

70 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

ward like a fixed gun. Since the diaphragm has no other outlet, there is no
flow of air through this tube, but there is a pressure, in excess of the atmos
pheric pressure outside, built up in it by the impact of air against its open end.
This excess of pressure is called the dynamic pressure, and the tube near the
open end is called after its inventor a pitot tube.
Naturally, the faster the airplane flies, the greater is the dynamic pressure.
So although the instrument is really a pressure gage, it is graduated in terms
of speed, as shown in the picture of its face in fig. 52.
The pressures measured in this gage are small even at high speeds. At 100
miles per hour, for example, the pressure is only about equal to the hydrostatic
pressure under 5 inches of still water; and at 200 miles per hour, only 20 inches.
All the moving parts, especially the diaphragm, are therefore very delicate,
as indeed they are in the altimeter also. If not well built, they may be seri

----------|| |D

Figure 51.-Air speed indicator.

ously impaired in the course of time by vibration. The result is a failure to

move smoothly or to return exactly to zero when they should. These troubles
are often found in both instruments. In the air speed indicator an additional
trouble sometimes results from the temptation into which it leads childish
people, to challenge the airplane to a blowing contest, with the result that
the instrument is ruined. Airplanes and their instruments are built for
grown-ups, and this instrument especially must be handled with care.
Since the pressure difference to be measured is so small, special care must
be taken to give the inside and outside of the aneroid diaphragm exactly the
same pressures as the inside and outside of the pitot tube. The inside pressure
is the same if the tube transmitting it is clear and has no bad leaks. For the
outside pressure, another tube runs from opening B in the case of the instru
ment to a static tube, mounted alongside the pitot. This is a tube with a plug
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 71

in its end, pointed to insure smoothness of stream lines, and with holes on the
sides to equalize the pressure inside with that outside.
At any given speed the dynamic pressure may have different values
in places where the air has different densities, that is at different altitudes or
temperatures. To standardize the instrument, therefore, it is calibrated for
some definite air density. This is the density found at lea level when the
barometer reads 29.92 inches of mercury and the temperature is 59° F. (or more
exactly, 15° C.).
At sea level with any other temperature, the true air speed may be found
with satisfactory accuracy by adding to the indicated air speed 1 percent of
itself for every 10° above 59° (or of course subtracting likewise for below).
Thus at 89°, if the indicated air speed is 80 miles per hour, 1 percent of it is

Figure 52.-Air speed indicator.

0.8, and you add 3 percent, or 2.4 miles per hour, making the true air speed
82.4 miles per hour.
For altitudes up to 10,000 feet, at 59°, you add 1 percent for every 500
feet. At 6,000 feet, then, to this indicated air speed of 80 miles per hour
you add 12× 0.8, or 9.6 miles per hour, making 89.6.
Now if the temperature at 6,000 feet is 89°, you simply add both the 2.4
and the 9.6, making 92 miles per hour.
Finally, if
the barometer at sea level is down 0.6 inch below the normal
29.92, you add another 1 percent.
The rules are not strictly accurate, but they come within 1 percent of the
correct answer at any altitude up to 10,000 feet with any ordinary temperature,
and at sea level even for such unusual temperatures as 40° below zero
and 140° above.
201073°–41—6
72 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

For more extreme conditions, see Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 24,
PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION, by Thoburn C. Lyon, page 149.
The need for correcting the indicated air speed as described might suggest
the desirability of using some other type of instrument, perhaps some windmill

its
device analogous to a seagoing ship's log; but for some of most important
uses the quantity you want not the true air speed, but the uncorrected

is

-
indicated air speed.
This because the dynamic pressure which measures the fundamental
on on is

is
it

is,
pressure which all aerodynamic forces depend. for example,

It
the
pressure the leading edge the wing,

of

of
the line division between stream

at
lines going above the wing and below. All other pressures and suctions

on
the wing are directly related As the air density changes when you fly

to
it.
temperatures, therefore, although you need different
to

different altitudes and

true air speeds any given aerodynamic forces, you need the same indicated
to

get
air speed. For this reason, for its simplicity, the pressure gage
as

as
well
and pitot tube make the best type
of
air speed indicator.

an
With known relation between speed and pressure, air speed indicator
a

ground, against simple pressure

on

as
gage
be

can calibrated the such

a
a
U-tube full water—provided the pitot and static tubes are properly made
of

and mounted. Very often, however,

to
more convenient mount them
is
it

wing,

be
of

under the where the speed the air not what should for this
to is

it
purpose; and sometimes attempts are made offset this error with makeshift
on

on
The
as

the static tube,

it.
metal collar create suction
to

devices such
a

by

best way calibrate the instrument, therefore, timing the airplane over
to

is

speed course.
a

For this purpose good speed course straight stretch highway,

of
is
a

three miles long, flat country far from any town. The distance
or

two
in

intersecting roads can measured with

as

between two good landmarks such

be

good automobile speedometer, which has been checked against longer known
a

Then the airplane can height

be

of

be or

so
flown 1,000 feet so,
at

distances.
a

that its shadow travels along the highway, and the shadow can timed
between the landmarks with watch.
a

Of course both directions,

be

of

timed eliminate the effect

in

no to

must
it

gentle wind
be

This should
or

wind. done when there either wind

is

practically along the road. Then the speed must figured for each direction.
be

The average
of

these speeds the true air speed.

is

may seen by considering an

be
as
to

average the times,

It

not correct
is

In

extreme case where the wind speed equals the air speed. this case, the
it,

ground speed flying with the wind twice the air speed; and against zero;
is

they average right. But the time against the wind forever,
so

so

the times
is

obviously average wrong.

test early the morning, when the air
to

smooth
It

in

best make such

to is
is

a
So

steady. practicable, always easy

to

and the wind

if

make see the

it

shadow, the highway should point somewhere between north and northeast.
Finally, having got the true air speed this way, and preferably having
repeated the test several times average out slight changes the wind, the
to

in

by given
be

indicated air speed.

to

result can corrected back the rules above

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 73

THE TURN-AND-BANK INDICATOR

The turn-and-bank indicator is an instrument used in the directional

control of an airplane when flying “blind.” It is practically impossible to
maintain a course in the clouds by the compass alone, which indicates correctly
only on steady courses or very slow turns, nor is it generally possible to main
tain a perfectly straight course by the turn indicator alone, since, before the
instrument indicates a turn, the turn must have started. The use of the two
in combination, however, enables the pilot to detect his departure from a
straight course before his compass develops any serious and confusing swing.
Likewise, the turn indicator enables a pilot to bring his airplane out of a turn
and steady on a straight course while the compass is still swinging.
The most common type of turn indicator is illustrated in figure 53. Its
action is as follows: The gyroscope G is rotated by stream of incoming air

ŠSN
a

-
*NS
Figure 53.−Turn-and-bank indicator.

from the jet J. Air is sucked out of the case by the venturi tube V, which is
connected by tubing with the outlet M, thus causing air to rush in through the
jet J. The axis of the gyro is carried in the frame F, which is mounted on
pivots front and rear so that the frame can rotate as shown by the arrow at Q.
A round disk or plate P is mounted on the frame. At the top of this plate is
fastened a spring, which tends to prevent rotation of the plate and keep the
part marked T at the top. The pin S at the bottom of the plate rides between
the prongs of a fork R in such a way that the hand rotates in a direction
opposite to that of the plate.
The gyroscope possesses a peculiar property known as precession. Preces
sion may be explained as follows: When a gyro is rotating about its own axis
and the direction of that axis is changed, the gyroscope attempts to put itself
in such a position that it will be rotating in the same direction in which its own
74 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

axis is being turned. To illustrate, let us assume that the gyro in the sectional
view in figure 53 is spinning in a clockwise direction and that the airplane in
which it is mounted turns to the right. The gyro will attempt to bring its
axis in to a vertical position by rotating the axis in the direction of the arrow Q,
shown in the front view. Its movement in this direction is restrained by the
spring P which, however, is weak enough to allow a certain amount of twist.
This twisting of the gyro together with the frame in which it is mounted causes
the hand H to move in a clockwise direction. The amount of movement is
determined by the rapidity with which the turn is made. When the turn has
been completed the spring restores the frame and consequently the hand to
its normal position.

Figure 54.—Turn-and-bank indicator.

While the instrument illustrated is equipped with a venturi tube to produce

the necessarysuction, most of the large aircraft provide suction pumps driven
by the engine and operating all of the gyro instruments. This arrangement
has an advantage over the venturi type in that there is no venturi to be affected
by ice or other obstructions.
No mention has been made of the bank indicator which is a part of this
instrument as ordinarily supplied. The bank indicator is simply a small
inclinometer such as those discussed in the next section below. The bank
indicator or inclinometer may be obtained as a separate instrument, and is
much less expensive than the combination turn-and-bank just described.
These instruments in a single case are shown in figure 54, and a separate
bank indicator in figure 55.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 75

THE INCLINOMETER OR BANK INDICATOR

The most common type of inclinometer colloquially known as a “ball bank”,

consists of a curved glass tube containing a steel ball. The tube is filled with
liquid and the ends are sealed. The liquid damps motion of the ball so that it
does not roll around from vibration. This type of inclinometer is illustrated
in figure 55. In most such indicators, the surface of the tube away from the
pilot is painted with luminous paint. This enables the position of the ball to
be determined at night. Unless affected by centrifugal force, the ball will,
of course, always roll to the low side. Therefore, with the instrument mounted
on the instrument panel in a horizontal position, the ball will roll toward the
low wing if the ship is banked without the proper radius of turn. On the
other hand, if a turn is made without enough bank, the ball will roll toward
the outside of the turn. In a perfectly executed turn the ball will remain in
the center. Occasionally, inclinometers are mounted on the side of the cockpit
so as to indicate whether the ship is diving, climbing, or flying level.

Figure 55.-Ball bank indicator.

THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

There probably is no aircraft instrument which has been the subject of

more careful study than the magnetic compass. But with all the attention it
has received, there still is much room for improvement, for the airplane places
severe handicaps upon the instrument and subjects it to conditions not met by
its marine prototype.
At present, we have the “Vertical-Card” instrument, which is the most
common type of magnetic compass, and the “Aperiodic,” the “Earth Inductor,”
and the “Sun and Directional Gyroscope.” These latter devices are not similar
to the former and are adapted to a particular need.
The vertical-card, liquid-damped type is used most commonly. The indi
cations are on the side of the card for convenience in reading when mounted
directly in front of the pilot or when suspended from the under side of the
top wing. The markings are reversed for the same reason, the M appearing
on the south side of the card so the pilot will be able to read his course from a
position aft of the instrument.
The pivot of the card is supported by a jeweled cup bearing on the end of
the pedestal. A shoulder on the pivot and a collar on the pedestal prevent the
76 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

former from leaving the bearing when the compass is placed in an abnormal
position, such as would occur during acrobatic flying.
The liquid used is varnolene, the expansion or contraction being taken
care of by a flexible, flat container under the bowl. The use of alcohol has been
discontinued generally, because it damages the paint on the card, reducing the
legibility of the markings, and also leaves a deposit of sediment on the bearings
which introduces a friction error. The liquid serves to damp-out oscillations
of the card and to remove part of the weight from the pivot point.
Between the frame and the bowl are felt washers to take up vertical vibra
tions. Flat coiled springs offset horizontal vibrations. In some types, com
pensating magnets are placed in fore, aft, and athwartship holes in a cylinder

=EE
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|
Figure 56.-Six types of magnetic compasses.

attached to the bottom. The card usually is illuminated by a small globe in a

reflector attached to the top of the bowl.
The four major causes for inaccuracies are: Permanent and residual mag
netic fields of the steel parts of the airplane; magnetism in the soft iron induced
by the earth's magnetic field; vibration; and turning motion of the airplane.
Errors due to the first two causes may be eliminated largely by proper com
pensation, and vibration errors may be eliminated partially, though not en
tirely, by suitable construction.
While subjected to jarring during fabrication and fitting in place, the steel
parts of an airplane acquire a certain amount of permanent magnetism which
is induced by the earth's magnetic field. Vibration of the engine, landing
shocks, and the major repair or incorporation of additional metal equipment
provide further cause for the change of the machine's magnetic properties, and,
for these reasons, frequent compensation of the compass is necessary.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 77

Compensation of the compass is accomplished by inserting small magnets,

only a little larger in diameter than a large pencil lead, in the compensating
chamber which usually is below the bowl. Compensation should be performed
by an instrument service mechanic who is thoroughly familiar with the problem
and who is provided with adequate facilities and equipment. It is extremely
important to remember that metal objects or electrical equipment put into
the ship after the compass has been compensated may throw it entirely off.
Since it is impossible, in most cases, to compensate a compass so that it will
read exactly on every bearing, a deviation or compass error chart or card is
mounted with the compass. Such a card gives either the degrees of error for
each 30° of bearing, or gives the compass reading necessary to obtain a given
magnetic course. For example, if the devation at 240° were plus 2°, the devia

Figure 57.-Compass.

tion card would state “for 240°, steer 242°.” Figures 56 and 57 show a number
of magnetic compasses of various types. The one in the top center of figure
56 has the figures on the card reversed and is intended to be mounted behind
the pilot, who reads it from its reflection in a mirror.

THE TACHOMETER
The tachometer indicates the number of revolutions per minute of the
engine crankshaft. The instrument is usually driven by a flexible shaft from
the accessory drive of radial engines and direct from the camshaft on vertical
or in-line engines. Its chief purpose is to enable the pilot to adjust the engine
speed to the desired revolutions per minute although it also serves as an indi
cator of engine trouble since a reduction in the revolutions per minute without
78 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

change of control setting or of the attitude of the ship means malfunctioning

of Some part of the powerplant. Certain types of tachometers, known as elec
tric tachometers, have no mechanical connection between the instrument and
the engine. In these a generator is mounted on the engine, and the output
of the generator is measured by a voltmeter which is calibrated to read in revo
lutions per minute. Electric tachometers are used when the engine is located
at some distance from the cockpit. Under such circumstances, the flexible
drive shaft used on mechanical types is not only quite heavy, but due to its
length, tends to whip and make the hand of the instrument oscillate, rendering
accurate reading difficult. In the electric tachometer, the only connection
between the engine and the instrument consists of two small wires.
There are several types of mechanical tachometers. By far the most
common is the centrifugal tachometer which, accordingly, will be described
here. This instrument is illustrated in figures 58 and 59. Its operation is

Figure 58.-Centrifugal tachometer.

as follows: The shaft from the engine is connected to the gearshaft S. The -
gear G meshes with the pinions P, rotating the shaft to which the pinion is
attached. This shaft is provided with a fixed collar F at
its

upper end and

a

movable collar near its lower end. As the shaft rotates, centrifugal force
0

causes the weights

W

of

the arrows. The

to

move outward the direction

to in

links which extend from these weights the collars pull the lower collar
0

up against the compression the spring which

of

between the collars. As

R,is

moves up,
on

the collar carries with the roller which mounted the

it

it

is
C

arm extending from

an
of

of

end cross-shaft shown the front view the

in
a

This shaft also provided

to

instrument. with another arm connected

is

gear segment. The gear segment pinion

on

turn meshes with the shaft

in

small hairspring this shaft

to

to

which carries the hand. attached take

A

is

play
of

the system.
The main sources of error are: Friction in the mechanism between the
revolving weights and the pointer; lack the movable system; time
of

balance
in
by

lag and lost motion produced loose parts and the inertia the system; and
of
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 79

change in calibration caused by wear. Friction or worn bearings will cause

the device to give a reading which is too low, and if the governor spring
becomes weakened, the reading will be too high. A defective shaft, or worn
gears at G and P, will cause the needle to vibrate. The instrument is damaged
by vibration and corrosion.
A tachometer should be handled with the care given a good clock. High
grade clock oil should be used on all parts of the indicating mechanism. Bear.
ings, and the main drive gears, may be treated with a high-grade grease which
is free from alkali and acid, and does not congeal at temperatures as low as 50°
below zero centigrade, nor run at temperatures of 40° above zero centigrade.

5.
ſiliº
Figure 59.--Tachometer.

PRESSURE GAGES

Pressure gages are used on all airplanes to indicate the pressure under
which the lubricating oil is being forced through the engine. On ships
equipped with a fuel pump, a more delicate gage is used to indicate the fuel
pressure at the carburetor. Other uses for pressure gages are to show the
pressure in hydraulic systems operating retractable landing gears, flaps, etc.,
and in such items of equipment as automatic fire extinguishers and the like.
Practically all pressure gages employ the same principle of operation.
This is illustrated in figure 60. A line of tubing is led from the point where
pressure is to be measured to the connection N at the back of the case of the
instrument. The pressure is transmitted through the hole O to the inside of
the Bourdon tube B. The Bourdon tube is made of spring brass or bronze.
Its section, as may be seen in the cross-section drawing of the instrument,
usually is flat with rounded ends, or approximately elliptical. The entire tube
80 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

B
|
§

2. Z2

-
N
Figure 60.-Pressure gage.

is curved into an approximate semicircle as shown at B in the front view of the

instrument. When pressure is applied to the inside of the tube, it tends to
straighten out. The loose end of the tube is connected to a gear segment
which meshes with a pinion mounted on the shaft which carries the hand.
The various parts of the arrows shown in the front view.
move in direction
Pressure gages,like all aircraft instruments, must function under extreme
temperature conditions and under sever vibration. subjected to a greater If
pressure than they are capable of recording, the tube becomes overstressed

| y
W

ºf
N \o 100 ºf Z. Z \ .

ºr
N 60
OIL
40

Ł33, 3 º' Nº.

60°
RIGHT ENGS. -
O

Figure 61.-Dual pressure gage for two engines. (Right engines of 4-engined airplane.)
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 81

and the hand will not return to zero when pressure is released. An over
stressed tube will not hold its calibration, and should be replaced.
Vibration will cause wear in the small gears with resultant needle inac
curacy. The bearings will rust if not lubricated properly. The pin and screw
holes at points of attachment of the multiplying mechanism are likely to wear
into oblong shape and destroy the accuracy of indication. These instruments
may be tested by placing them on the same oil-pressure line with a master
gage of known reliability, and making a comparison of the readings.

TEMPERATURE GAGES

Temperature gages, or thermometers, of the vapor type employ the same

principles of operation as the pressure gage just described. Electric ther
mometers are used on some of the larger airplanes but seldom are found in the
smaller types and hence will not be discussed here.
The illustration of the pressure gage shown in figure 60 serves equally well
for illustrating the principles of the vapor thermometer, though naturally the
parts of the thermometer are much more delicate since the pressures to be
measured are very low. The only other difference between the standard
pressure gage and the vapor thermometer is that the thermometer is provided
with a capillary tube permanently connected at the inlet O. At the other end
of the capillary tube a finger-shaped bulb is attached permanently. This bulb
contains a highly volatile nonfreezing liquid, usually methyl chloride or methyl
ether. The bulb is provided with a threaded sleeve so that it may be screwed
into the crankcase of the engine for indicating the temperature of the lubri
cating oil and into the header tank on liquid-cooled powerplants for showing
the temperature of the coolant.
As the temperature at the bulb the liquid evaporates and
increases,
creates a pressure in the tubing which is transmitted to the instrument, the
face of which is graduated in degrees instead of pressure units. The higher
the temperature, the greater the pressure developed.
Since a pressure gage of this type always measures the difference between
the pressures inside it and outside, rather than the absolute pressure inside, the
instrument is affected by a change of altitude. At 20,000 feet this error may
be as much as 6° C.
Corrosion and rust are the chief sources of deterioration, and vibration is
the main cause of wear. The ratchet and pinion gear in the indicating system
are likely to develop looseness and cause sufficient vibration of the hand to
destroy accuracy. Wear at the point of attachment of the lever arm on the
end of the Bourdon tube, and at the end of the ratchet, also will result in hand
vibration.
In case the Bourdon tube is subjected to temperatures in excess of those
it is designed to record, there will be sufficient stress to distort
it.

When this
occurs, the hand always will indicate temperature greater than actually exists.
a

The capillary tube

T,

running from the bulb the instrument, will develop

to

properly the engine mount

to

to

leaks due vibration stress not secured

A is
if
it

and other parts this tube will put the instrument

of of

the structure. kink

in

In

completely out commission. Occasionally, the tube seam will open.

82 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

case of any damage to the capillary, it is more economical to replace the entire
installation than to attempt repairs. Oil should not be put inside the case as
it may clog and damage the delicate parts. The gage may be tested by immers
ing the bulb in a liquid of known temperature and comparing its reading with
that of an accurate thermometer immersed in the same medium. A rough
check can be made by noting the ground temperature at the airport and check
ing it with the temperature indicated on the gage before the engine has been
started for the day.
RATE-OF-CLIMB INDICATOR

Rate-of-climb instruments are used to indicate the rate of ascent or descent

of an airplane. They are valuable in determining whether or not the machine
is climbing at its maximum rate or, with an inoperative or throttled engine,

Figure 62.-Rate-of-climb indicator.

whether or not it is descending at its minimum rate. Both factors, with

variations, enter into longitudinal control when flying “blind.”
The most satisfactory instrument in common use is the capillary-leak type
illustrated in figure 62. The instrument illustrated uses a separate air bottle.
Later models incorporate the air chamber T within the case of the instrument.
The separate air bottle is shown here to simplify the explanation. In effect,
the instrument is a sensitive, differential-pressure gage consisting of a metal
diaphragm D, one side of which is directly connected to the atmosphere through
the vent V, and the other side of which is connected to it through a capillary
leak tube 0. The latter is a length of glass tube with a very small hole
through the center. The diaphragm also is connected to a thermally-insulated
tank T. so the indications of the instrument are not affected by changes in air
temperature.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 83

As stated before, atmospheric pressure varies in a known relation to alti

tude. As the altitude increases, pressure decreases and vice versa. This is
the basis for the functioning of the instrument. -

When the device is at a given pressure for any period, the same pressure is
exerted on the inside as exists on the outside of the diaphragm, since the inside
of it is connected to the air by the capillary C. When the airplane starts to
climb it enters a region of lower pressure. This pressure finds its way at once
to the outside of the diaphragm through the vent V. However, the air inside
the diaphragm is at practically the same pressure corresponding to the previous
altitude, since the pressure of the column of air in the tank and diaphragm can
not equalize immediately due to the small capillary hole which connects it to

|
-

cline
ºusanº Fº. PER MINUTE

Figure 63–Rate-of-climb indicator.

the outside air. While the airplane continues to climb, the internal diaphragm
pressure remains higher than that existing externally, because it is not possible
for it to catch up with the latter. The difference, being proportional to the rate
of climb, causes the diaphragm to expand and move the mechanism, as shown
by the arrows, so the hand reads “climb.” As the airplane levels off, the pres
sures equalize and the hand moves to zero. During descent, a similar action
occurs, except the high and low pressures are reversed and the readings are
opposite.
This type of instrument is self-contained and, therefore, easy to install.
The main precaution is to make certain the vent is not intefered with. This
admits air for actuation of the mechanism. On most airplanes, the pressure
back of the instrument board varies only with altitude changes and no vent
84 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

connection is required. In some cabin machines, however, fluctuating pressures

are found in this location, and a special vent connection is necessary.
If
the instrument gives erratic readings, a rubber tube 6 feet or more
in length should be connected to the vent on the case, and when in flight, the
open end of the tube moved about the cabin until a location is found which
gives satisfactory operation. A permanent copper tube then may be installed.
This same process can be carried out for open planes if similar difficulties are
encountered.
A zero-adjusting for shifting of the indicator
screw is provided to correct
hand. Should the hand not register zero when the plane is on the ground, the
screw should be turned very slowly until it does. The hand should be watched
carefully, as a very slight adjustment is sufficient. The glass should be tapped
lightly with the finger while making the change to overcome any possible
friction.
THE SPERRY GYRO HORIZON

It is an acknowledged fact that a pilot's sense of balance is confused

when he no longer has recourse to the natural horizon and must fly without his
customary reference to the surface. His sense of position, in respect to the
earth, is inaccurate, because the resultant pull of centrifugal force and other
acceleration forces of turning cannot be distinguished from the pull of gravity.
For these reasons, it is essential to have adequate instrument aid when
negotiating fog or dense clouds.
The artificial horizon is designed to give the pilot an instrument which
simulates natural conditions, and enables him to fly instinctively without the
necessity of interpreting indications. This is accomplished by a representation
on the dial of the earth, sky, horizon, and a rear-view silhouette of an airplane.
The instrument shows the degree of tilt when turning and the airplane's
position, either level flight, climb, dive, or glide.
The indicator has a circular face 4 inches in diameter, which consists of a
background H (fig. 64A). It is blue on the upper half to represent sky,
shading to a gray on the lower half to denote the ground. The bank indicator
pointer W (fig. 64B) is fixed to the background. The upper half of the mask,
which surrounds the dial face, is graduated from 0° to 90° to the right and left.
Horizontally across this field is the horizon bar B, both ends of which project
beyond the mask. In front of the bar and field is a silhouette of an airplane
which tilts with the craft. If
the machine climbs or noses down, the horizon
bar falls or rises in the same manner as the actual horizon appears to move
with the pilot looking over the nose of the machine. When a turn is made, the
bar remains horizontal, while the dial and silhouette tilt with the airplane.
Some of these changes are shown in figure 66. In each picture the long
white line is the horizon bar. The pilot must think of this bar as if it were
the real horizon, and of the face of the instrument as a window with a silhou
ette of an airplane painted on it and the horizon showing through
it.

When
flying level, the horizon shows through the middle
he

of

the window.
is

climb, the window

he

When raises the nose for raised and the horizon

in is
a

Shows near the bottom of it. So the horizon bar the instrument does the
Sal Iſle.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 85

AIR
INLET

L
2
2
2.
SS s A.

G
AIR,

S
S
S
S
N
S
S
S
N
Exhaust

S
N
S
S
N
S
S
N
S
N
2. S
S
º
%
N
2

Figure 64 (A and B).-Sperry gyro horizon.

A–Rotor chamber. M–Pendulous vanes.

B—Horizon bar. N—Exhaust ports.
C—Rotor casing. R—Gimbal ring.
D–Horizon link. S–Horizon link pivot.
E—Exhaust chamber. X—Rotor axis.
F—Instrument face. ZZ—Gimbal ring axis.
G—Gyro rotor. T—Horizon link guide pin.
H–Background dial. Y—Casing axis.

NotE.—Figure A is not a normal position of the gyro case C but is rotated 90° from its
normal attitude to illustrate path of air through instrument.
Figure B shows gyro case tipped left of vertical to illustrate action of the pendulous
vanes M and link D.
86 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

When he banks the airplane to make a turn, he lets his body bank with

As
it,
explained later (part two, chapter

I,
or
“rides with the ship.”

be
will
Turns), centrifugal force

he on

of
section Medium and Gentle the action such

is
turning correctly feels just were sitting vertically

he

he

in
as
that if

if
is

a
So the instrument board, including the gyro

on
level chair the ground.
horizon, looks level him, and the horizon bar looks tipped,

in
as
to
shown
figure 67, which illustrates right turn.

a
However, the real horizon would look tipped the same way,

is he
could

in

if
thing,
So

being quite
it.

of
he,

to
used that sort knows that

is it
see
tipped, just doing.

he
reasonable for the horizon

to
look and knows what
climbing turns gliding turns, the gyro-horizon
In

or
shows both the
height the bank, figure 68.
of

in
as

as

as
the nose well illustrated

Figure 65.-Gyro horizon.

'

So again glance.
to

at

enables him take the whole situation

in
it

The instrument receives its actuating force from air-spun gyroscope

an

approximately 12,000 revolutions per minute

at

at

which turned normal

is

flying speed, by means through through

of

suction created the air flow

a
or

the slipstream by suction pump operated by the

in

venturi tube mounted

a

engine. Two properties the gyroscope are employed, namely, precession,

of

and rigidity the plane Precession has been previously ex

of
in

rotation.
plained
of

the turn indicator.

in

the discussion
G,

The bar the horizontal position by the rotor

in

in

held mounted the

is

pivots XX, and having

is,

spinning axis vertical. The casing

on

on its

casing
0

turn, mounted gimbal ring pivots YY. For the spinning gyro
in

in

scope axis, have gravity act upon

to

maintain true vertical necessary

to
it
is
a

this device, gravity

In

friction bearings.
in

to

some manner due

it in

the
it

acts indirectly
on

the gyroscope the correct direction from

in
so

precesses
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 87

any tilted position to the vertical without

passing through a period of oscillation.
This is accomplished by utilizing the same
air which drives the gyro to create an
erecting damping torque, causing it to
seek and hold the axis vertical.
The gyro casing consists of two cham
bers,A and E. The gyro is mounted on
the upper element and is spun by air from
two nozzles striking the blades of the
rotor tangentially. The air enters the
casing and passes through a passage inside
the gimbal ring, as indicated by the
arrows. Figure 64—A shows the gyro
normal oper
its

casing rotated 90° from

ating position, solely illustrate the path
to
of

air flow through the instrument.

From chamber A, the exhaust air con
is

where four posts,

to

N.

ducted chamber
E

(figs. and B), spaced angles 90°,

of
at
A

divide the exhaust into four escaping jets

of

of

equal volume. Each these cov

is
by

pendulous vane M, swinging

in

ered
a

can enlarge de
or

such fashion that

it
of

as

crease the size the orifice moves,

of it

thereby controlling the volume the es

caping air jet. The normal position
of

the vanes, with the gyro vertical, permits

four equal air jets escape, and their re
to

active forces balance each other. But

when the gyro tends tilt
or
to to

precess,
from the vertical due acceleration (or
centrifugal forces) and assumes posi
a

figure (exaggerated),
in

tion shown
B

these vanes will alter the volume of the

jets
so

the reactive force unbalanced.

is

This force precesses the gyro directly

to

follow the vertical-seeking pendulous

The arrow figure shows the
in

vanes.
A

precession when the gyro case

of

direction
the illustrated position.
in
is

The gyro and its casing are balanced

so as

unit and are but slightly pendulous,

a

impossible into periodic

to

throw
it

it
is

Figure 66.-Gyro horizon climb, level

in

acceleration forces. On
to

oscillation due flight, and glide.

201073° —41–7
88 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

long, slow turns of less than 360°, there will be

a slight error induced, which is of little conse
quence, and the instrument will immediately
correct itself upon resuming straight flight, or
if the turn is continued through 360°.
After installation in a given airplane, the
position of the horizon bar, as regards climb or
dive, will vary slightly under different condi
tions of load, speed, and altitude. The reason
is understood when it is realized the bar defines
a plane which always is horizontal to the cor.
-
Figure -
67.-Gyro horizon - responding plane of the earth, and an airplane's
in a correctly - -
banked turn to the right. angle of attack, relative to this plane, depends
upon its loading, speed, and altitude. An air
plane flying light will ride tail high, and the instrument will record a slight dive

fly
when the actual flight path is level, and conversely, a heavily loaded craft will
tail low, and the device will indicate slight climb. The angle incidence be

of
no a

tween the wings and fuselage has The pilot

on
influence the indications.

by
may verify the position the bar for different loadings checking the
of

artificial horizon against his other instruments. -

When taking off thick that the instrument will

be
in

so

weather needed

up
started until the gyro
or

immediately,
be
steep bank climb should not

is
a

speed and the horizon bar has nearly at

to

its

tained central position. This will require

minutes. Such maneuvers, under these
3

conditions, might make the instrument in

operative due the gyro hitting its limit
to

stops. For this reason, exceeding the limits

of

or

bank (90°) and climb dive (60°)

gyro
be

hits the limit

If

should avoided. the

stops and precesses off, the air erection con
trol will bring normal position
is in
to

back
it

If
the air valve
to

from 10 minutes.
8

turned off when the instrument not needed,

is

greatly prolonged.
do be

its life will also

It
is

this when acrobatics are per

to

essential
formed. Loops and rolls, with the air on,
on

will impose excessive loads bearings and

pivots. Ten twelve minutes are required
to

for the gyro wheel stop

to

to

decelerate
a

º
after the valve has been turned off.
the rarefied air high altitudes,
to

at

Due
supplied the instrument de
to

the vacuum
creases with Where such practice
ascent.
is

º
frequent, provision
be

com
to

must made º
º:
pensate for the pressure loss. With 4-inch
a

sea level, the service ceiling

of

vacuum
at

the
instrument 7,000 feet. High altitudes
is

Figure 68.-Gyro horizon climbing (top).

in

require vacuum control,

so

the excessive and gliding (bottom) turns.

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 89

vacuum will be reduced at lower altitudes. For this reason, it is advisable to

state, when ordering from the manufacturer,
the device the likely heights at
which the airplane will fly most frequently.

THE SPERRY DIRECTIONAL GYRO

Among the defects of the magnetic compass, one of the most disconcerting
in rough air, is the ease with which it gets swinging and rotating out of

its
the airplane south, and banked, the
If

or
normal direction. headed north

is

is
because the magnetic field

of
compass card starts rotate. This to the earth

is
not horizontal, but steeply inclined, and when the compass banked the
is

is
-
vertical component This effect especially bad
is of

turn

to

it.
the field starts

is
when the airplane headed north, because then the card turns

in
the same

–- - - -- --- - - - ----------- - - - -- ----- - -

...

–
-

-
-
-
-

-
-
-
*

"
"

- V
t

...(1) Rotor (12) Nuzzle

(2) Gimbal - (11) Caging

.
ring arın
*

(3) vertical (10) Spring

ring. plungers

(4) Carºl —º
tº Synchronizer
ring
wrºve

"
J

(5) Caging (8 i.ever

knoh pins

-
`s
/

-
i.

`-- (7) Synchrºnizer;

!

`--
(6) Synchronizer
--------- gear
V

pºntºtt
:

.......... ------
|
-
.
.

Figure 69.-Principal parts gyro.

of

the directional

the airplane, and faster. On this account, the airplane turns

as

direction
if

turning west. This might

be

toward the east, the compass says allowed

is
it
by

for pilot, perhaps, single But rough weather, with the

in

it in

the turn.
a

compass swinging first one way and then the other, gets hopelessly confusing.
The directional gyro, therefore, built meet the need for steady com
to
it is

the principle that gyro will

on

pass card. Like the gyro-horizon, works

a

quickly acting exactly rigid,

on

precess
It

not the forces are small. not

if

is
it

but practically so.

The working parts figure 69, and the
of

this instrument are shown

in

figure 70.
in

whole instrument
(1), and
or
In

figure the rotor, gyroscope, the wheel designated

as
69

is
by

jet (12), striking

an

driven air from nozzle the buckets that look

it
is

a
its

its

somewhat like gear teeth bearings, one

on

of

rim. The shafts are

in

ends
90 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

of which is H, in ring (2), which is itself pivoted on bearings G–G

a gimbal
in a vertical ring (3) on pivots V–V. With this sort of mounting the axis
of the rotor is free to point in any direction, horizontal or oblique, within
reasonable limits of obliquity. Or conversely, since it is usually horizontal,
it can stay so and hold a given directionwhile the airplane banks and turns.
It does stay this way, actually, because the rings turn easily and apply only

it,
already noted, this the condition for gyroscopic

as
Small forces to and

is
“rigidity.”
The of purposes. One

to
rest the mechanism serves three keep the

is
no
forces pushing away from the
of

axis the rotor horizontal. There are

it

Figure 70.-Directional gyro.

horizontal, excellently balanced.

of

because But there the rotation

is

is
it

the earth. Give time, and gyroscopic rigidity, and nothing else, and the
it

horizontal plane will rotate away from

be

to
it.

So there must forces make

stay horizontal. These are applied by air jet reactions con
so
as

precess
to
it

by

pendulous vanes, much the gyro horizon, which, incidentally,

as

trolled
in

following
of

has even more need for the rotation the earth.

the mechanism, notably the caging knob (5) synchronizer
of

The rest
pinion (6), and gear (7), and the things they work, serve the other two purposes
mentioned above.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 91

First, they can “cage” the gyro, or hold it firmly by clamping the gimbal
ring. It would indeed go wild when the airplane banks far enough to hit
its stops, if it were loose, so the word “cage” is well chosen. Finally, with it
caged, these mechanisms can shift the axis around to any desired horizontal
direction.
This last point brings up the fact that, while this instrument is used like
a compass, it does not get any directive
force from the earth's magnetic field
or anything else but gravity. So before it will work as a compass, the pilot
must set it to agree with his magnetic compass. Needless to say, he does this
when he is either on the ground or flying straight, and the magnetic compass
is fairly steady.
He must also reset it occasionally, to keep up with another component
of the earth's rotation. To see why, suppose he was at the north pole. Then
the gyro would not require any precession to keep it horizontal, but its axis

In
would hold a fixed direction in space while the earth rotated under

it.
the
gyro axis. To
24

every point along

of

in
course hours meridian turn would the
the pilot, though the gyro axis was turning half the speed
as

would seem

at
it
of

clock. Its apparent speed, therefore, would

be
of

the hour hand 15°

a

per hour.

no
the equator, there would have been There,
he
If

had been
at

such effect.
the gyro axis pointed along meridian, would never try point anywhere

in to
if

it
a

else, because that part

If
of

meridian keeps fixed direction space. the

a

axis pointed east and west, would require action the pendulous by
vane
it

horizontal, but still would stay pointing east and west.

to

mechanism keep
it

it

do

points direction, obvious, but

If

some other what will not so

in
it

it

it
is

will hold its direction. So equator, pilot

to
the the does not need
at

reset
the gyro all.
at

the United States, nearly halfway from the equator

In

the pole, the

to

gyro change its direction varies with latitude, from

at

to

rate which the seems

per hour about 11°. Practically, therefore, the pilot resets the
7°

to

about
if

right. And unlike

2°

gyro every will always

be

of

within
or
3°
15

minutes
it it

the magnetic compass, steady.

is
 Chapter IV.-PARACHUTES

The instructions herein pertain to the conventional circular type parachute.

However, only fundamental are being dealt with and consequently this
procedure can be applied to any type of parachute for the purpose of
familiarization.
PARACHUTE CONSTRUCTION

The complete parachute assembly consists of 3 major units: the canopy,

the pack assembly, and the harness. These units are manufactured in various
types and sizes, depending upon the purpose for which they are to be used.
The following table lists the various types of parachutes in use, together with
other pertinent data:

Description. Pººr Weight of wearer

. Seat--------------------- ——————- -
..— ------ 24 Under 180 pounds.
Do--------------------------------- 28 Over 180 pounds.
Back----------------------------------- 24 | No limitation.
Lap------------------------------------ 24 Over 180 pounds.
Double training (exhibition).--------------- 22, 28 || No limitation.

The canopy, which is constructed of high-grade silk or pongee fabric,

constitutes the lifting surface of the parachute assembly, and has a framework
of cords, or lines, known as suspension lines, by which the load on the parachute
is suspended. These lines vary in number, depending upon the size of the
canopy. Each line extends from a connector link on one side of the harness
riser to the skirt of the canopy, thence through a channel in the fabric covering
entirely across the surface of the canopy to a point on the skirt diametrically
opposite, and thence to the riser on the other side of the harness. This permits
each line to be a continuous length from one side of the harness up to and
entirely across or over the canopy and down to the opposite side of the harness.
The lines cross each other at the apex of the canopy. That part of the canopy
between any two suspension lines is known as a panel.
The panels are subdivided further into sections. The fabric of each
section is cut on a bias, with the warp of the fabric running at a 45° angle to
the center line of the panel. This arrangement not only permits greater
economy in cutting the fabric, but also prevents any runs or tears extending
beyond the seams that are formed by joining the sections together.
Completely encircling the panels at both the skirt and apex of the canopy
are bands of 300-pound reinforcing silk tape. These are known as lateral
bands, and serve to reinforce and strengthen the body of the canopy.
92
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 93

A device at the apex opening, known as the puckered vent, functions to

relieve the initial opening stresses on the canopy. This operates by means of
an elastic cord, which permits the vent to open wide under the excessive
pressure caused by opening the parachute at high speed, and then closes as
the parachute reaches the normal rate of descent.
To facilitate the opening of the canopy, a small parachute, 36 inches in
diameter and known as the pilot parachute, is attached to the apex of the
canopy. The pilot parachute is constructed in much the same manner as the
canopy, except for the inclusion of a spring-operated quick-opening device.
When the ripcord is pulled, the pilot parachute is projected into the air stream
and immediately filled with air, drawing the canopy out of the pack into posi
tion for opening. While the canopy will open without the assistance of the
pilot parachute, the opening is slower and not as positive. In some makes of
parachutes, the cover or pack is used as a pilot parachute.
The pack is that part of the parachute assembly in which the canopy is
packed and carried. It is manufactured in various sizes, depending upon the

is,
purpose for which it is to be used; that lap, seat, etc., and the size

of
the
canopy that pack semirigid con
of
will contain. The bottom

in
is
the
it

struction, being reinforced by solid-drawn wire. An

of
wire frame made
a

inner bottom, containing loops made rubber, provided for holding the
of

the pack are constructed is

of
folded suspension lines. The sides and ends

so
as
enclose completely the folded canopy and release instantly the pilot
to

to

-
parachute and canopy when the ripcord pulled.
is

The ripcord consists length,

of of

$42-inch flexible steel cable, which varies

in
a

grip

or
depending upon the type pack employed. On one end attached
is

a
by

ripcord pulled. opposite

of

handle means which the The end has two solid

is

drawn-wire prongs approximately 2% inches length, which serve

as
the
in

locking device for the pack assembly, and which are withdrawn
to
release the
canopy. flexible housing, one end
of

The cable which

in

enclosed
is

is
a

grip readily accessible

so

to

attached the harness that the the wearer.

to

is

This housing provides protection for the ripcord and prevents any possibility
premature releasing the parachute.
of

of

To insure positive opening the pack after the ripcord has been pulled,
of

cords, pack-opening elastics, are used. These cords are in

so as

elastic known
stalled, under tension, that when the ripcord pulled, the sides and ends
of
is

the pack are pulled away from the folded parachute, thus permitting the pilot
parachute projected into the air, drawing the canopy from the pack and
be
to

into position for opening. Directly under the side flaps the pack are two
of

flaps known pilot parachute flaps. When the canopy

in of as

folded and the

is

the pack are place, these superimposed flaps form separate

in

sides and ends

a

compartment which the pilot parachute placed. This enables the quick
is

the pilot parachute and also serves separate the pilot parachute
of

to

release
from the canopy, lessening the danger entanglement.
of

webbing that secures the parachute

of

of

The harness consists fabrication

a

the wearer. The principal element the main lift web, which
of to

composed
is
is

three-ply linen webbing sewed together provide

of

two pieces
to

continuous
a

length double webbing swing. When descending

of

of

or

the form cradle

in

a
by

parachute, loop this swing, with the

of

of

the aid the wearer sits

in

the
a
—
94 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

suspension lines of the canopy attached to the upper ends. The additional
webbing comprising the harness is for the purpose of preventing the wearer
from slipping out and to provide a means of adjusting and securing the harness
to the individual. These additional members consist of two leg straps, which
are sewed approximately midway on the main lift web so as to extend around
the legs of the wearer to another point on the main lift web just above the hips.
Two additional supporting webs extend from a point on the main lift web
opposite the hips, crossing the back of the wearer, to the main harness adapter
at the shoulders. From this point, these supporting webs extend down the
front of the wearer and thence around to the rear at the Small of the back where
they are interlocked and fitted so as to be adjustable for size. A D ring and
attaching snap are fitted to these bands at a point near the center of the chest,
which keeps the entire harness assembly in position and the main lift webs from
slipping from the shoulders.
The foregoing applies to the older type of harness used on parachutes
generally in use at present. While constructed along similar lines, the latest
type is constructed of lighter and stronger webbing, with simplified devices
and attachments.
To provide a means for carrying and transporting the parachute con
veniently when not being worn, there is provided a suitable container. This
bag is constructed of 12-ounce double-filled duck reinforced with linen webbing.

INSPECTION OF PARACHUTES

Routine inspection of all parachutes issued for service should be made for
general condition and serviceability. These checks, which will be as complete
and thorough as possible without breaking the seal and opening the pack
assembly, should be conducted at frequent intervals. The parachute log should
be checked for dates of repacking, also date of last drop test.
Observe carefully the external condition of the pack and harness assembly
for any visible defects or deterioration, protruding fabric at the corners, and
oil

for any acid or stains likely

of

of
to

cause deterioration the contents the

pack. Note particularly the condition
all

stitching.
of

Check the harness

webbing for any damaged weak spots and for any rusted
or

or

defective harness
fittings condition, elasticity, proper
of
or

snaps. Check the and attachment

the pack-opening elastics.
Open the rip-cord flap and note whether not the rip-cord prongs are
or

properly the cones, that the prongs are not corroded bent, and
or

inserted
in

that the rip-cordseal intact and applied properly.

is

Grasp the harness webbing point the riser just above the rip-cord
on
at
a

grip pocket and jerk mildly against the weight the pack assembly
of

to

see that
by
no

possibility the rip-cord seal's being broken

of

there excessive stretch

is
by

improper location the rip-cord housing.

of

Also check
or

to

see that the

rip-cord ring pocket holds the ring securely and permits the grip protrude
to

sufficiently instantly accessible.

be
to

allow
to
it

Remember the parachute costly piece equipment designed for your

of
is
a

safety and preservation/ Handle carefully and properly and treat with
it

it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 95

all
respect and possible consideration. Then when the time comes that you

do
you will

be

so
to

to
have use able with utmost confidence!

it
NOTE.-Additional information on the subject of parachute inspection contained

is
the Administration's Certificate and Inspection Release No. 51, obtainable from the
in

Publications and Statistics Division, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Washington, D.

C.
MAINTENANCE OF PARACHUTES
prolong the life and maintain the reliability
In

parachutes,

of
order
to

they must unpacked, inspected carefully and thoroughly, and repaired

be

as
Mildew, rust, water

60
of
at
found necessary, but maximum intervals days.
stains, battery acid, deteriorate rapidly.

If
and oil etc., will cause fabric

to
any exist, repairs will

be
of

of

evidence these conditions the necessary made,

after which, any doubt the serviceability, the parachute will

as
to
there
if

is

drop-tested reported for complete overhauling.

be

or

The pack assembly must inspected frequently and carefully for any
be
to

defects or deterioration due wear and tear Pack assemblies

in

be in
service.
which holes have been worn, show other signs deterioration, must

of
or

replaced. Stains from water, oil, etc., which may cause deterioration

to
the
by

fabric, must possible washing the discolored area with warm

be

if

removed
water and Ivory soap.
be

of
remove all traces
to
- Care must taken soap.
weak spots, especially
be

The harness must for damaged

or
inspected
those that may produced from rust battery acid.
be

the harness web

or

If
bing shows evidence wear, deterioration, etc., the harness assembly must
of

Harness fittings will examined for breakage, rust etc., special

be

be

replaced.
being given harness snaps and fasteners, the
of
to

attention the condition

tongue and spring
of

this
or

If
which sometimes become weakened bent.
found, the snaps replaced.
be
or

trouble fasteners must

is

fit
After the parachute has been packed properly, will necessary

to
be
it

the harness to the wearer.

New parachutes are drop-tested by manufacturers prior
In
delivery.
to

overhauls, each parachute must drop-tested upon completion

be
of

the case
Subsequent drop tests should
be
of

at

12
the overhaul. made least once each
drop testing. drop testing, the parachute must
of

months from date last After

given thorough inspection and repaired where necessary. para
be

of

Date
a

chute drop test will parachute log.

be

on

entered
dry place, protected from the sun's rays.
be

Parachutes must stored

in
a
no

damp condition, parachute may any time placed

be
in If

or
at

left packed
in
a

storage.
by

Fabrics particularly
are susceptible regions sub
to

damage mildew
in

jected warm humid climate. All parachutes must kept

be

as

on as
to

clean
possible, propagation fungi dependent,
of

or
as

to

the mold some degree,

is

oil, grease, starch, glue, sizing, etc.,

be

be in

nutrient which may the fabric.

a

All packed parachutes not actually being used must kept tight
in

bins, placed
be
of

which will suitable containers for

or

lockers the bottom

at

dispensing naphthalene fumes. Three pounds naphthalene flakes should

In of
10
be

of
to

used each cubic feet locked space. most cases, the fumes from
the napththalene flakes will penetrate the packed parachute sufficiently
to

prevent the formation and growth fungi.

of
- —
96 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

CARRYING THE PARACHUTE

Parachutes may be weakened seriously by improper methods of carrying

them. The habit some pilots have, while walking to and from the airplane,
of releasing the leg straps and lifting the front side of the pack until it rests
in the small of the back is especially detrimental as it tends to rip apart the
joints in the harness. If
the chute is being worn while the pilot is walking,

its
it should be allowed to hang in normal position, uncomfortable though

it
may be.
Chutes preferably should

be
their bags. The next best method

in
carried
neatly carry pack

be
If
fold the harness
to

and the under the arm. must

is

it
picked up by the harness, only the leg straps should grasped.

be
The foregoing applies particularly the seat-type parachute.

If
to
the back
or

type the quick detachable type used, the procedure will vary accordingly.

is
USING THE PARACHUTE
an
Detailed instructions for leaving airplane under all possible conditions
flight, particularly when making
an

jump, are outside the scope

of of

emergency
this manual. However, there are certain broad general rules which may
If

the airplane still controllable,

be
of

of

in
as
fire

in
assistance. the case
is

a
the air, pull the ship into complete stall and jump before the
to

desirable
it
is

dive which follows the stall. leave the ship during

If

becomes necessary to
it

a
spin, the spin; other words,
be

on

of

should left the side toward the outside

in
it

jump right left spin and from the left

be

the should made from the side

in
a

right spin. Care should avoid being struck by the tail

be

side taken
in

to
a

possible, the jumper should crawl back the fuselage

on

of
If

surfaces. the rear

landing Jumping
or

gear group.
on

foul the tail

so
as

to

down not this

in
the
manner will throw the jumper away from the airplane, usually far enough

to
eliminate, least greatly lessen, the possibility his being struck by the
of
or
at

ship overtakes him during the descent; furthermore,

as

to
much easier
of it
is
it

structural failure,
In

ship spin.
of

leave the toward the outside the the case

jumper simply judgment
it.

use his best

as

If
to

to

to

the has how leave

possible, the jump proper should
In

any case,
be

as

head-first dive. hard

a

may be, the jumper should endeavor

as

to

keep his wits about him and

it

estimate the various possibilities cooly possible.

as

as

jump may question their ability

to

Persons who have never made retain

a

pull the ripcord after leaving the aircraft, but

of

sufficient presence
to

mind
experience has shown that the tensest moments are those before the jump.
the air, the sensation falling has been
of

of

Once out the aircraft and free

in

flight standing the cockpit

be

similar
to

to

found that encountered

in

in

when
The mental faculties are not impaired and control
of

exposed
to

the airblast.
retained, and there no tendency forget pull
to

to

muscular movements
is

is

the cord.
has been observed that many jumpers, when leaving airplane head
an
It

first, draw up their legs, which invariably causes rapid “somersaulting”

of
a

the body before the parachute can

be

This often results the release

in

released.
an

parachute
of

underneath the wearer. When thus

at

the instant that

is
it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 97

released, one or more suspension lines are occasionally drawn violently over
the inflating canopy, resulting in frictional burning of the fabric.
The ripcord must never be pulled until the jumper is free of the aircraft.
Failure to this fundamental requirement will result in the parachute's
observe
fouling on the airplane. When free of the aircraft, immediately after jumping
the ripcord grip should be grasped firmly and pulled with a quick jerk, pulling
quick jerk facilitates complete release

its
the ripcord entirely from housing.

A
more effectively than slow steady pull.

a
As soon the parachute has opened following jump, the suspension lines
as

a
observed for any twists. twisted, they immediately should
be

be
If
should
pulled into their proper positions.
Any tendency oscillate during descent should

be

as

on as
be to

checked soon

by
possible. This can pulling down vigorously

on
done the shroud lines
the high side the parachute the body swings
of

The
as
that direction.

in
body swing, jumper
on

instant the starts the return the should release the

by
pulling down

on
the one side and meet the swing
on

shroud lines the

opposite shroud lines the body comes up

on
as

that side.
At the same time, the jumper should try get faced into the line flight,

of
to
it,

already facing landing

be
as

not into much better and safer

if

can effected.
a
by

This grasping shroud lines, and giving vigorous

be

of

can done handful

a

a
swing them, not down, but possible, object being
on

as

as
circle much the
in
a

spin the parachute around.

to

seen, during descent, that there striking building,

or
danger
If

of
it
is

is

a
other obstruction, possible change the gliding angle the parachute by
is of
to
it
is

pulling down
on

to
the shroud lines the direction which desired travel.
in

in

it

This pull tends spill air from under the parachute the high side, and
to

to

the angle glide the lower side being materially increased. This
of

to

results
in

slipping
an
attempted near the ground, except emergency,
be

side should not

in

results an increased rate of descent.

in

as
it

seems apparent that the parachute going the place

If

of

fall short
to
it

is
by

land, nothing can gained trying side slip

be

this
an to

to

desired
in
it
is

flight parachute,
of
in

direction endeavor increase the horizontal

to

the
will travel further its normal horizontal flight during the descent
as

in

if
is it

kept stable.
it

parachute landing should

be

It

made with the back toward the wind.

A

important stiffen the legs but

an
to

to

remember not maintain attitude

to
as is

though preparing make jump.

to

When near the ground during descent, the main risers the right main
of

group grasped
be
of

of of

shroud lines should one hand and the risers the left
in

group landing.
be
of

so
as
to

main shroud lines the other the time

in

at

erect
Hanging onto the risers this manner also helps break the fall when
in

to

coming contact with the ground. The distance from the ground may
be
in

ascertained more accurately by watching the horizon the ground

as

as

well
during descent. The knees should kept slightly bent, with the feet not
be

inches apart. Pull down the risers when striking the ground, and
on
12

over
by

not try falling over.

do

the fall may

be
of

The force
to

stand erect. broken

98 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

When landing in a high wind, the jumper, on striking the ground, should
attempt to run forward towards the parachute and cause it to collapse. This
will prevent his being dragged. Under such conditions, holding back on the
pull. However, collapse may

to its
inflated parachute will only tend to increase
pulling

on
by the ground.
be

aided the shroud lines nearest

The procedure which may high wind, and

be

of
followed

in
the case

a
extremely desirable when the landing water,

be
to

to
which

in
made
is

is

is
leg straps surface, holding

or
unbuckle the when 100 feet more from the the

by
arms tightly against the sides that the jumper supported

so

is
the chest
harness. Just made with the ground, just before contact

or
as

contact

is

is
made with the water, the arms should raised over the head which will make

be
possible the harness and avoid being dragged (on land) or,
of
to

slide out
it

when landing

on
water, having the chute fall top
of

of
the wearer with
in

consequent danger fouling and preventing his swimming.

of
 Part TWO

ELEMENTARY FLIGHT COURSE

Part One of this book was devoted to certain ground school subjects in accordance with
the curriculum of the controlled Elementary course of the Civilian Pilot Training Program.
The chapters comprising part two of the book are devoted to the Elementary flight course.

Chapter I.-STAGE A, DUAL INSTRUCTION

FAMILIARIZATION WITH THE AIRPLANE

Before starting the actual flight training, the instructor will familiarize
the student with the particular airplane to be used in the training.
The Civilian Pilot Training Program requires that airplanes used for in
struction shall be powered by engines of at least 50 horsepower. For eco
nomic reasons many other operators who are not participants in the program
will also use small, light planes in this general horsepower classification. At
the present time the most widely used of such planes are two-place monoplanes
with either a side-by-side or tandem (one seat behind the other) seating ar
rangement. Figure 71 shows an airplane of this type, with tandem seating.
The instructor will have the student seat himself in the airplane. The
first lesson that a student must learn is that immediately on getting into the
seat of an aircraft he should adjust and securely fasten the safety belt. This
is a most important safety measure. It should become a fixed habit, and should
be done even when the ship is only to be “run-up” or taxied. The instructor
will show the student how the belt is adjusted and fastened and how it is
unfastened.
He then will point out the various instruments with which the ship is
equipped and explain the use and proper reading of each. He will also show
the locations of the first-aid kit and the fire extinguisher, call attention to the
condition of the windshield, stressing the importance of keeping it clean and
transparent, and explain any special items of equipment.
He then will demonstrate the action and use of the controls. In this
connection it is important that the student be seated comfortably and able to
reach all controls and operate them through their full movement without
straining. If the seat is not adjustable, extra cushions should be provided
under or behind the student to give him adequate range of vision while flying
as well as to insure ease in manipulating the controls. The student always
should sit in this position when in the ship.
The controls consist of the stick or wheel, the rudder pedals, the engine
controls (throttle, spark, and mixture), the ignition switch, and the fuel
99
 - -
- - -
|

100 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

shut-off valve. Airplanes equipped with brakes have controls, usually mounted
on the rudder pedals, for actuating the right- and left-wheel brakes, either
separately or together. Many ships are provided with a lever which will
apply both brakes and, by means of some locking device on the lever, keep
them applied. These are frequently referred to as parking brakes. Most
airplanes have controls which permit the pilot (while in flight or on the ground)
to adjust the horizontal stabilizer or the trimming tabs on the elevators and
where provided, the rudder tabs. Ships equipped with retractable landing
gears or with landing flaps necessarily are provided with controls for operating
these devices.

Figure 71.-Tandem cabin high-wing monoplane.

A—Wing panels. J—Vertical fin.

B—Fuselage. R—Landing-gear Struts.
C—Engine. L—Wheel and wheel pants (or fair
D—Propeller. ing).
E—Control sticks (for ailerons and M—Tail. Wheel.
elevators). N—Position lights.
F'—Rudder pedal. O—Wing struts.
G—Rudder. P—Cabin skylight.
H–Elevators. Q—Ailerons.
I—Stabilizer. R—InStrument board.

The stick, through a system of push-rods or cables, actuates the ailerons

and usually through control cables, the elevators or “flippers.” Its lateral
its

movements (from side to side) cause the ailerons to move and forward and
backward movements cause the elevators to move. Either stick or wheel
is is

small airplanes, while large craft the wheel and column generally
in

in

used
the wheel, the ailerons are moved by turning
In

of

installed. the case and

it
by

the elevators are controlled moving backward and forward. The rudder
it

pedals, through control cables, actuate the rudder the airplane.

of

(See
fig. 72.)
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 101

The explanation of the actions of the controls, given below, should aid
the student to eliminate any ideas of up and down, which are only relative,
insofar as flying is concerned. For example, it is often said that backward
pressure on the stick pulls the nose up. It is true that the nose moves up rela
tive to the earth when the airplane is in normal flight, but if it is flying in an
inverted position, backward pressure on the stick causes the nose to move down
relative to the earth.
The controls always function in the same manner in relation to the pilot.
His position relative to the earth may change, but the action of the controls
relative to him never does.
When backward pressure is exerted on the stick, the airplane rotates
around its lateral axis, increasing the angle of attack. Forward pressure on
the stick has exactly the opposite effect.
When pressure toward the right is exerted on the stick, or the wheel
turned clockwise, the plane rotates about its longitudinal axis in a clockwise

Figure 72.-Control system diagram.

direction as viewed by the pilot. Conversely, when pressure toward the left
is exerted on the stick, or the wheel rotated in a counterclockwise direction,
the airplane rotates around its longitudinal axis in a counter-clockwise
direction.
When pressure is applied to the right rudder pedal, the ship rotates about
its vertical axis, the nose moving to the pilot's right; and when pressure is
applied to the left pedal, the nose moves to the pilot's left.
The use of the rudder may be confusing to some students at first due to
earlier experience with sleds where the method of steering by the feet is just
the opposite. However, such consfusion will soon vanish with experience.
The instructor will explain to the student the action and proper use of the
engine controls, the ignition switch, and the gas valves, as well as the fuel
system of the particular airplane being used. He also will explain the action
and use of the brakes (additional instruction and practice in this will be given
later under taxiing), and of the controls for adjusting the horizontal and
vertical stabilizers, if the ship is so equipped.
102 U. S. DEPARTMENT

In studying the action of the controls,

OF COMMERCE

particularly
—
when the student begins
to perform flight maneuvers, a model airplane with movable control surfaces
is of material assistance. If
such a model is not readily available, one may be
made of light cardboard from the sketch and directions given in figure 73.

FAMILIARIZATION WITH THE PARACHUTE

Civil air regulations require that each person in an aircraft being flown
acrobatically shall be properly equipped with a parachute. Acrobatics are
unnecessary flight evolutions voluntarily performed with an aircraft, requiring
or resulting in an abrupt change in its attitude, an abnormal attitude, or

CUT ON SOLID LINES

FOLD ALONG SHORT DASH LINES

CONTROL HINGES INDICATED

BY LONG DASH LINES

GLUE OR CLIP TOGETHER

AT POINTS MARKED X

Figure 73.-Plan for cardboard demonstration model.

operations in excess of the aircraft's design level flight speed (placard value).
The regulations of the Civilian Pilot Training Program, however, require
that parachutes be worn on all flights.
The instructor will show the student how to adjust and fasten the
parachute and how it is operated. Care must be taken in handling the para
it,

chute to prevent damaging and the instructor will demonstrate how should
it

chapter IV,
In

carried by the harness. this connection, explained

be

as

in
by

part one, the practice followed some pilots turning the pack inward
of

against the back supported bumping

of
so

at

that the waistline instead

it
is

of on

against the legs, puts unnecessary stress the risers which may cause them
an

displaced and require the repacking The latter part

be

of
to

the chute.
chapter IV, part one, should thoroughly.
be

reviewed
When the seat type parachute used by pilots, the student should note
of

is

carefully his position the airplane when wearing one. Quite frequently
he
in

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 103

it will be found that the seat pack will cause him to sit higher than usual, and
when this is the case there will be a resultant change in the location of the
various sighting points on the airplane. These sighting points will be brought
out later in the discussions of various maneuvers.

COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALS

In order that the instructor be able to speak to the student during flight
without throttling the engine, a speaking-tube arrangement or other means of
verbal communication is almost a necessity in tandem aircraft and is also of
great assistance in the higher-powered side-by-side craft. Many instructors
will have the student wear a special helmet equipped with a tube leading to a
mouthpiece which the instructor holds in his hand. (Such equipment is known
as a “Gosport.)”
In
some small low-powered cabin airplanes, conversation will be possible
without the necessity of raising the voice so that it can be heard above the
engine and the other noises incident to flight, but in the majority of cases and
practically always in open cockpit craft, some sort of speaking arrangement
will be necessary. In addition, hand signals, given by the instructor, are
valuable. The standard basic signals for giving particular directions during
training are as follows:
To nose down, pat the cowl or make a forward and downward motion of
the hand with the palm down.
To bring nose up or climb, motion “up” with the hand, palm up.
To turn, point with the index finger or thumb of closed hand in the desired
direction.
To the bank, make a fairly rapid motion of the hand toward the
increase
bank with palm down.
To decrease the bank, make a fairly rapid motion of the hand on the- side
of the bank but with palm up.
Slipping or skidding, pat the face on the side it is desired that rudder be
used, slowly or rapidly, according to the degree of correction desired.
fly fly

To straight, hand up, palm sideways, make forward motion with hand.
a

To level, make sideways movement the open hand pointed along the
of

horizon, palm down.

To relax generally loosen grip stick, with hand held up, rapidly clench
on
or

and unclench fist.

To signal student take control, shake stick from side
to

to

side and raise

both hands the air. For the first hour or two of instruction the instructor's
in

on the controls correcting the

be

he
at

hands should visible all times unless

is
-

student’s errors.
For student instructor,
to

to

return controls instructor shakes stick and

taps self
on

head with open hand.

give
If

the student has reached the solo stage and the instructor
to

desires
him specific directions while taxiing the ground,
he

on

the aircraft
or

at

rest
is

is

the following signals usually are used:

To stop ship immediately, but not the engine, extend hands straight up,
arms extended above shoulders, swing toward each other, crossing them over
the head making rapid X's.
of

series
a

201073°–41—8
104 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

To cut engine immediately, extend arms down and swing toward each
other in front of body, pointing toward the ground, making series of rapid X's.
It

is,
course, important that the student learn the meaning

of

of

of
each
these signals prevent possibility his misunderstanding the instructor's

of
to
orders.
LOCAL AIR TRAFFIC RULES

The instructor will explain the student and require him learn the air

to

to
airport. The student always
at

traffic rules his home must obey these rules

by
and pay constant attention the directions given

to
the traffic control tower
operator, the airport.
on
there
if

one
is

The Air Traffic Rules (pt. 60, Civil Air Regulations) affect pilot making

a
contact flights. Before starting his cross-country work the advanced solo

in
the controlled private flying course the student must learn these rules.
of

stage

MISCONCEPTIONS OF THE STUDENT

At the beginning handling the airplane,
of

instruction considered
in

is
it
the ideas which the student may have with respect
of
to

advisable mention some

his own capabilities these are mentioned below,

of
or
to

number
A

efficiencies.
together with
on

few brief comments each.

a

natural mechanical ability

he

an

(1) That individual endowed with

as

an is

a
and aptitude that will make him pert pilot few easy lessons.
ea

after a
often has been said that “Flying the hardest thing the world

to
It

in
is

thing do.” Few students realize this prior

to
learn and the easiest
to

the
flight training, but the majority are convinced after the first
of

start actual
few attempts that there proper flying well worth working
an

art
to

to
is

learn. The student who lacks the inherent intelligence appreciate this
or to
up

fact should give flying before does injury himself, more important,
he

to

to someone else.
has natural ability,
on
will manifest itself with
he

no

(2) That effort

if

it

his part.
flying,
In

the lazy and conceited type

of

of

This
as
the belief student.
is

endeavors, anything doing doing well,

an
in

other worth worth and effort

is

properly.
be

expended
to

of to

must learn do
it

will help him

he
no

(3) That amount perseverance slow and

if

is

constantly difficulties applying instruction.

in

in

This another lazy view and well. Many slow and

as

defeatist view
is

outstanding pilots due almost entirely

to

mediocre students have become hard

work, perseverance, and the ambition and determination not only
to

to

learn
fly, but fly well.
to

to

learn
(4) That the instructor will teach him fly and that success merely
to

is
a

compliance given.
of

matter with the instructions

The intelligent student will use his solo periods the best advantage and
to

learn for himself, due interest and curiosity.

to

The lazy student will learn very little during solo and wait for the instruc
tor teach him, spending his solo periods
sightseeing rather than practice.
to

in
by

(5) That pilots fly super sense called “feel,” which the happy
is
a

only few privileged superindividuals.

of

endowment
a
 CIVII, PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 105

is the term used to express the summation of the impressions

“Feel”
transmitted by all the senses used while flying. Flying is learned through the
use of the senses, guided by intelligence and reason, which every normal
person possesses. None of these is new or unusual. They only have to be
developed and their messages correctly interpreted as applied to flying. This
is accomplished by instruction and practice, with the ultimate achievement of
the desired “feel.”
There is a common human tendency, in too many cases, to be satisfied too
easily. The student should guard against this failing. He should be his own
severest critic, and strive constantly to achieve the standards that have been
set He should apply himself diligently to his instruction periods and
for him.
to his practice periods, always seeking perfection. Thus, he eventually will
gain a high degree of proficiency and the greatest compliment possible from
his fellow pilots—“He is a good pilot.”

TAXIING
Taxiing is

its
the operation of an airplane under own power

on
either land
or

However, immediately preceding immediately

or
water. the run the take-off
following the landing commonly part this operation

of
as
not considered
is

(Taxiing part four

be
of

of
seaplanes will this manual).
in

discussed
large number accidents occur while the ship
of

has been found that

It

in is
a

being taxied. Accordingly, very complete discussion the subject given

of

is
a

following invariably airplane must

be
an

the pages. Almost moved under its

own power from the hangar the take-off point prior flight, and likewise
to

to
flight. addition, primary training, usually
In

returned after the neces

in

is
it
sary landing. Obviously,
of
to

to

return the down-wind side the field after each

large amount taxiing must done, particularly the early stages
be
of

of
the
in
a

pilot's career. Furthermore, the airplane subjected considerable abuse

to
is

while being maneuvered the ground. Rough handling not only increases
on

even weaken certain parts

of

maintenance costs, but may the structure suffi

ciently cause failure while the ship flight.
to

in
is

Since this handling water) materially aids

on

the surface (of either land

or

familiarizing controls,
as

the student himself with the various and serves

in

preliminary take-offs and landings, taxiing instruction and

to

instruction
in

practice given before the primary air work

of

of

stage the controlled

A
is

flying course.
While brakes, steerable tail wheels skids, greatly simplify the maneu
or

or

vering ship ground, there still are some airplanes not

on
of

the while the

is
it

equipped with these aids. equipped the devices sometimes

so

Even
in

those
may fail For these reasons, the student should learn
to

to

function. handle
ship gear.
of it of

steerable tail
or

the without the assistance brakes

part one
In

has been pointed out that the effect

of

of

this manual control

surfaces varies with the speed the airplane. Since the controls are designed
function properly speeds sufficient for flight,
is to

obvious that their effect

at

is
it

much less while taxiing. This means that under most circumstances, for
a

given radius turn, much greater movement the controls, particularly the
of

of
106 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

rudder, is necessary on the ground than in the air. (Incidentally, the rudder is
the most important control while taxiing, though the elevators and ailerons are
used to some extent as will be explained later). The action of the rudder and
elevators is improved materially by proper use of the throttle, since these sur
faces, or a large portion of them, are in the propeller slipstream. While the
velocity of the slipstream, even with the throttle wide open, is not as great as the
speed of the airplane in the air, it still is sufficient to make the surfaces in its
path reasonably effective when there is no wind or when the ship is moving
into the wind. In this connection it must be remembered that running the
engine at comparatively high revolutions per minute for too long a period on
the ground may cause overheating with consequent damage.
The subject of taxiing has been broken down into a number of sections:
Without brakes or steerable tail wheels, in calm air, into the wind, down wind,
and cross wind; and with brakes but without steerable tail wheels under the
same conditions; and finally, with steerable tail wheels. The technique varies
with each of these conditions, hence each is discussed separately.
WITHOUT BRAKES OR STEERABLE TAIL WHEELS
No wind.—If the ground is smooth, particularly if the ship is equipped
with a tail skid, the stick should be held in neutral or slightly ahead of neutral.
If a tail wheel is provided, the position of the stick is of less importance. To
start the ship moving, the throttle should be opened gradually until the air
plane begins to roll. It then should be closed until just enough power is being
produced to continue the movement at a reasonable speed. What constitutes
a reasonable speed depends on circumstances. If other airplanes or obstacles
of any kind are nearby, the speed should be quite slow. In the open field,
from 10 to 15 miles an hour is safe. In other words, the speed should be such
that the airplane is completely under control at all times.
If
the ground is rough or soft, the stick should be held well back. the If
ship begins to slow down due to soft spots on the field, the throttle should be
opened as much as is necessary to keep the airplane moving. With the stick
all

back the throttle may be opened the way without danger nosing over;
of
if,

through careless taxiing, soft spot entered with too much speed
in

fact
is
a

and the tail begins rise, may often blown back down again by pulling
be
to

it

the stick hard back and using full throttle.

-

To turn while taxiing with wind, pressure applied

no

on

the rudder
is

pedal Turns which change

be
on

the side toward which the turn

to

made.
is

the airplane
be

of

the direction more than 45° should not made until the speed
short radius,
an

of

hour. To make
or
to

has been reduced miles turn

2

a
3

full rudder applied

as

as

opened necessary
to

and the throttle much blast

is

is
In

ships equipped with tail skid, much less abuse will

be

the tail around.

a

given the skid and the rear section the fuselage pushed
of

the stick
if

is
In

ship readily.
of

ahead neutral. addition the will turn much more Care

get the ship swinging will go past the
be

is is to

So

should taken not fast that

it

use several short blasts with the engine, since

to

desired direction. better

It

In

this way the turn controlled much more accurately. using the throttle,
it in

smoothly, gradually rather than suddenly.

be

should handled and opened

quickly,
be

This does not mean that cannot opened but the movement used
it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 107

in opening it should of smoothly increasing speed rather than suddenly

be one
jamming the handle as farwill go.
as it
The effect of the ailerons when taxiing in calm air is so slight that they
may just as well be neglected.
A practice which many pilots hate to follow, but which is likely to
prevent damage to the wing tips and other relatively delicate parts of the ship,
is to get out, pick up the tail of the ship, and move it so that the ship is
pointing in the desired direction, rather than attempting to make a turn in
close quarters by use of the engine. This procedure, while annoying and some
times embarrassing, is much to be preferred to risking damage to equipment.
Into the wind.—Since under this condition the velocity of the air passing
over the control surfaces is the speed of the ship over the ground plus the
speed of the wind, the controls are much more effective. The procedure, in
general, is the same as when taxiing with no wind, except that the stick should
be held somewhat back of neutral in light-to-medium winds. In winds of a

…”
UP Right wind wind
RIGHT
Down ||
|

downwindturntaxiing upwindturntaxiing
inALightwind
7 wipe
turnisnecessary
Becauseºf Resistance avery
shorttunn
willresultfrom
the
oftheHead against
wind thesiteofthefuselage Assistance
ofthe acting
wind against
theside
opposes
theAction
oftheRudotr ofTHEFuselage

Figure 74.—Taxiing with no steerable tail wheel.

velocity approaching the landing speed of the airplane, it may become neces
sary to taxi with the tail off the ground and the ship in approximately flying
position. This should not be attempted by the beginner.
Turns.—Starting from an upwind heading, a turn may be accomplished
by the rudder alone or by the rudder and ailerons together, moving the stick
to the side opposite the direction in which the turn is to be made. This
appears surprising, because it is opposite to the use of the ailerons in starting
a turn in flight. On the ground, however, there is no desire to bank the ship,
and this use of the ailerons is for a wholly different purpose. Whenever the
airplane is headed directly into the wind or within about 60° of that direction,
if either aileron is turned far down it creates more drag than if it is up. The
use of the stick just described, therefore, causes one wing to be held back and
helps to start the turn, as illustrated at the left end of figure 74.
When the turn has progressed through 90°, so that the airplane is headed
cross wind, the ailerons are of no use and may as well be returned to neutral.
For a considerable distance on each side of this point there may be great
difficulty in turning, because the wind presses on the fuselage and tail fin,
108 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

tending to make the airplane turn upwind, or “weathercock,” and at the same
time the wind deflects the slipstream so that it may not reach the rudder.
If these effects are too strong it is impossible to continue the turn, or perhaps
even to reach this point, except with the help of a mechanic holding the
leeward wing back.
Beyond this point, his help has not been needed, the pilot should
if
reverse the ailerons. The wind is now overtaking the airplane (obliquely, of
course) so it pushes forward on whichever aileron is down. The down aileron,
therefore, should be the one on the outside of the turn, as illustrated at the
end of this downwind turn in figure 74.
This reversal of the ailerons is often necessary for making a turn within -
any reasonable area, so this diagram should be studied carefully.
Incidentally, it illustrates also the reversal of the use of the elevators, to
keep them holding the tail down as a precaution against having mud holes
in the field stop the wheels and make the airplane nose over.
While down-wind turns on the ground may be difficult, even with this
technique, upwind turns are altogether too easy. The weathercocking effect
of the wind tends to swing the tail too fast, causing the sip to swing around
suddenly. If the taxiing is being done with too much speed and the wind
velocity is relatively high, serious consequences may result, for the centrifugal
force tends to capsize the ship toward the outside of the turn. If it leans
even the slightest amount, the wind will get under the wing on the inside of
the turn and add to the capsizing tendency. Even if such serious incidents do
its

not occur, the landing gear and all connections are subjected

to
severe abuse
-
may badly cut by the rims.
be

or

and tires blown out

the runway not concrete, asphalt, some other hard surface, the
If

or
is

tail skid will help materially prevent accidental turning, particularly

to

if
the fin on the center of the tail skid shoe has not been worn down. On hard
surface runways, smooth, the assistance
of
or

the skid shoe mechanic

if

is

may velocity miles per hour.

be

or

necessary the wind more than

if

is

The mechanic either may hold the wing tip while walking along with the ship,
or

may walk close the fuselage immediately Natu

of

front
to

the stabilizer.
of in

rally, there are two pilots the ship, them can render the necessary
in
if

one
place
of

mechanic.
in

assistance
a

light, there may no danger sudden weathercocking

be
If

of

in

the wind
is

up-wind turn, but

an

the contrary little difficulty starting the turn, on

on

in
a

retarding slipstream
of

of

the wind
in

account the effect the before reaches

it

the rudder, unless the slipstream strong give the airplane dangerous
so

as
to
is

speed. Under these conditions, the principles stated above about ailerons
forces prove useful again, though the use they dictate for the ailerons quite
is

different, right-hand figure

of

half
as

shown
in

the 74.
the ailerons requires great discretion, especially light air
of

This use
by in

planes, because the capsizing tendency the wind, making

of
to

adds
it

it

lift the windward aileron and depress the leeward one. This technique,
therefore, should used for up-wind turns only light winds.
be

in

In stronger winds, may necessary up-wind turn this way,

be

an
to

start
in
it

the rudder; but light airplane, just

on
of

for lack
as

as

force the
in

soon
a

started, way that will

be

turn
in

the ailerons must reversed and used the

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 109

is,
hold the windward wing down—that just opposite this diagram. This

to
at of by
helps way also, namely, retarding the swinging

of

of
another

in
use them
the airplane and thereby preventing the growth the centrifugal force.
this technique occurs the 90° point, where the
A
serious weakness

in
ailerons cannot help and the wind pushes perpendicularly against the side
the airplane. On approaching this point, high wind, the speed should
of

in
a
reduced, reduce the centrifugal force. The most important prin
be

so
as
to
ciple all, however, anticipated and

be
of

that this condition should there

if
is
any doubt about the safety airplane when cross wind, the turn

of
āş

the
man holding one wing.
be

should not made eaccept with

a
How wing.—With many occasions for mechanic (or maybe

so
hold
to

a
on
lay wing, lay them;

he
to

to
someone else) hands must know where

a
pilot airplane
or

not, helper good

he

If
must tell him. the
if

does the

is
a
mechanic, the wing except by
he

be he

if of
will know that must not take hold
some strong part. This might spar, knows just where

he
of
at
the end

a
is,

damage With light, high-wing

to

that and takes care not the fabric.

a
airplane, however, can easily overcome the moment any wind that
he

of

is
by

gale, either lifting holding down, the upper end

on
not
or

as
needed,
a

the lift plain

or

struts, sight and easily grasped

of

of

in
either both which are
touching however,

he
without the fabric. Even here, must use care. He
must not put any heavy vertical force either strut except very near its
on
it,

end, may bend not designed for strength against bending,

he
or

because
is
it

though amply strong for its normal use compression. Any

or
tension
in

helper who airplane mechanic must

be
an

not told this before the occasion

is

for strong force arises, while there still time tell him tactfully.
to
is
a

Taa'iing down wind.—Keeping nearly so,

on

or
course, down wind

of is
a
no

airplane with brakes nor steerable tail wheel, because

an

difficult
in

rudder action and strength the weathercocking tendency

of

of

the weakness
by

already described. Steering the methods also described, only

so
done
is

Keep
be

two ideas will hold the windward

to

added here: (1) the ailerons set

wing down (if either wing windward) except for very short times
to
is

when they are needed the other way for steering; and (2) above all things,
Go Slow.
Cross wind.—Taxiing cross wind, particularly the wind velocity high,
if

is

problems ground maneuvering.

of

the most difficult encountered

in

one
is

should always possible, for the weathercocking tendency

be
It

avoided
if

is

continuously present. anything but light breeze,

In

almost essential
it
is
a

along ship, holding the wing on the down-wind

to

that someone walk with the

side, holding against the rear the fuselage, also
on
of

the down-wind side.

or

Here again the fin the tail skid shoe can prove great assistance when
on

of

soft enough for the fin dig into the ground.

to

the field
is

no

practically use, and since the slipstream

of

The ailerons are blown

is
by

the wind, much more liberal use likely

be
of
to

the side the throttle

to
is
be

all times and constant con

at

necessary. low speed should maintained

A

given ship likely

to

to

sideration the fact that the weathercock into the

is

wind with little warning. For this reason, extreme caution should
be

exercised
when taxiing obstructions,
on

of

the down-wind side

110 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WITH BRAKES BUT WITHOUT STEERABLE TAIL WHEELS

The primary purpose of brakes on an airplane is the obvious one of
stopping it on the ground. However, if the tail has no steerable wheel, but
only a skid or a fully swiveling tail wheel, like a caster on a table leg, brakes
are of considerable help in steering.
No wind.—The use of the controls when taxiing with brakes is the same
as when brakes are not available. Furthermore, the brakes should be used
only when actually necessary. Their continued application is likely to cause
overheating of the drums and lining, followed by glazing of the lining, which
greatly impairs the braking action. Furthermore, use of the brakes causes
additional wear on tires, added loads on the landing gear, and usually requires
greater power from the engine.
In making a turn, the controls should be used just as though the ship
were not equipped with brakes. If the radius of the turn is not as short as
desired, a slight pressure should be put on the brake on the side towards which
the turn is being made. This pressure should be increased until the effect is
satisfactory. In no case, except an emergency, however, should the wheel be
locked. Locking the wheel causes severe wear on the tire and may even twist
it off the rim. At the same time, unnecessary loads are put on the wheel,
the axle, and the rest of the landing gear. If the ship is equipped with a tail
skid instead of a tail wheel, the stick should be pushed ahead while the turn
is being made.
The brakes always should be checked before taxiing very far from the
hangar so as to be sure that they are functioning properly. Checking may
be accomplished by applying both brakes, holding the stick hard back and
opening the throttle slowly to its fullest extent. The throttle should then
be closed, the brakes released, and the taxiing carried on in the usual manner.
When taxiing on wet grass, snow, or ice, the friction between the damp
rubber of the tire and the surface may be so slight that when the brakes are
applied the wheels will lock immediately and slide over the surface, offering
little,
if any, more drag than the wheel which is turning. Accordingly, when
the surface of the field is such as just mentioned, no dependence should be
placed on the brakes.
The allowance made for coming to a stop, or for clearing an obstruction,
should be just as much when brakes are provided as when they are not. In
other words, an airplane is not to be handled like an automobile by driving
it up to an obstruction and stopping by means of the brakes.
Pools of water on the field should be avoided if possible. In the first
place, wet brakes may either grab or refuse to hold, both of which are unde
sirable. In the second place, if the brake drums are filled with water while
taking off, and if the temperature is low, the water may freeze while the ship
is in the air and lock the wheel. The consequences of such a misfortune when
the landing is made are obvious.
Into the wind.—The only reason for using the brakes in taxiing into the
wind is to make a turn of than 15° or 20°. In this case, the brake is
more
applied gently at first, the pressure being increased as necessary to make the
desired radius of turn.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 111

Down wind.—If the ship is provided with a tail wheel which can be locked
from the cockpit, the lock should be secured as long as the ship is moving in a
straight line. Naturally, when making a turn into the wind the lock should
be released. The turn should be started by applying the brake toward which
the turn is to be made. As soon as the ship begins to swing, particularly if the
wind is strong, it may be necessary to apply pressure on the opposite brake to
prevent too quick a turn. The reasons for this have been explained previously
in the instructions pertaining to taxiing down wind without brakes.
Cross wind.—Here again the tail wheel should be locked if possible. The
natural tendency in taxiing cross wind is to maintain continuous pressure on
the brake pedal on the down-wind side. The consequence of this procedure is
likely to be the overheating and glazing of the lining previously described. In
general, taxiing should be done very slowly, using the brakes only when neces
sary. If the ship begins to weathercock, it may be necessary to bring it to a
complete stop, apply the brake on the down-wind side, and turn into the
desired direction by proper use of the throttle and elevators. When turning
into the wind from a cross-wind position, the same precautions should be
observed as when turning from a down-wind position.
WITH A STEERABLE TAIL WHEEL
Offhand one might hope that a steerable tail wheel would simplify the
art of taxiing down to a special form of automobile driving. It does indeed
go far in that direction, though not all the way. The tail wheel is not so posi
tive in its action as the front wheels of a car, at least in most airplanes, because
it is connected to the rudder only through very springy rubber cords, to keep
its ground shocks from being transmitted to the rudder. Even so, it is usually
positive enough in its control to eliminate the need for using the ailerons as
a means of turning. This is indeed a simplification.
The real problem that it does not eliminate is how to avoid danger of cap
sizing in a strong wind. Even here, however, it helps; it enables the pilot
to prevent sudden weathercocking in an up-wind turn, and thereby at least
to avoid adding centrifugal force to wind.
On the other hand, not being strictly positive in its ability to steer the
airplane, especially if
its

rubber cords are weak, may not entirely succeed

it

this effort. Furthermore, increase the danger another way—

to

tends
in

in
it

by removing the need for helper wing steering, tempts the pilot
on

the for
it
a

help stronger This danger

in

out onto the field without winds! sounds

ridiculous, but real.
is
it,

In view the steerable tail wheel has changed

of

of

the introduction
the central problem taxiing strong are tolerable, from how
of

as

as

winds
of in

danger capsizing.
to

steer,
to

to

how avoid
This problem does not affect primary flight instruction, because such
not often given strong winds, but great importance
of

instruction
in
is

is
it

later. Then, the problem naturally divides into two parts—taxiing out from
the hangar take off, and taxiing landing the hangar.
to

to

from
in

these parts the problem simple—the airplane

of

of of

The former safe

is

is

the hangar; you have plenty

on
in

to

time stand out the field and feel the

112 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

wind, including many gusts; so whenever there is doubt, either get help or
don’t start.
The latter part of the problem is not so simple. The wind may get strong
while you are making a cross-country flight, and when you arrive at an airport
there may be no reason to expect any less wind at any other airport within
your cruising radius.
Ifit is too strong for safety without help, the first step is to get help if
possible. Fly into the wind across the field, at a height of one or two hundred
feet, to get somebody's attention, doing this two or three times if necessary.
If this move succeeds, land “tail-high” (as described later, under Landings)
and taxi slowly into the wind, keeping the tail up, till someone takes hold of
a wing.
If nobody appears, it may be worth while to take off and try it again. If
there are high obstacles to windward, however, or even a good board fence,
it may be better to taxi up into their lee and turn around there. Once you get
the tail toward the wind, with the elevators down, there is no further danger
unless the wind is a gale.
If you taxi to the hangar after this, it is very important to use the
ailerons, whenever the heading is not directly downwind, so as to hold the
windward wing down. As may be seen in figure 74, this is like their use at
the end of the down-wind turn shown there, but opposite to their use in begin
ning that up-wind turn. However, it should not be done by memory of any
figure, but like most of the rest of flying, by knowing what you want to accom
plish and then using common sense about how.
In any such case, don’t taxi cross wind. Ifa course within about 30 or 40°
of directly down wind will not reach the hangar, stop the engine, get out,
point the tail to the wind, block the wheels, tie the controls with the elevators
.
down, and go and get help.
This advice does not cover the most extreme cases, such as where there is
nothing to get in the lee of, or the wind is too strong to turn anywhere. But
such cases cannot well be covered here. As a hint, there are such expedients
as taking off again and landing in some hayfield with woods to windward, or
using sloping ground (if there is any) to get the windward wing down in a
turn. Such cases, however, are not to be dealt with by specific instructions in
a course, but by cool-headed resourcefulness in the actual emergencies.

EFFECT of wind GUSTS

The foregoing discussions on taxiing were predicated on the velocity of
the wind remaining constant while the ship is moved across the ground either
in calm air, against the wind, with the wind, or cross wind. However, the wind
is not always constant in velocity. Usually, its changes in velocity are fairly
gradual, but sometimes they are extremely rapid, as in the case of gusts.
A gust is defined by the United States Weather Bureau as a sudden and tem
porary increase in wind velocity with variations in velocity of 10 miles per
hour or more.
It is obvious that any such sudden change in velocity will affect the han
dling of the ship on the ground. Extreme care must be taken while taxiing
when gusty wind conditions obtain, and the speed of the airplane must be
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 113

kept to a minimum. This is especially true during turns when the wind is
likely to get under a wing or while taxiing up wind, when a sudden gust is
liable to lift the airplane entirely off the ground.
In general, it is desirable while taxiing in gusty air to keep all the controls
in neutral except when they actually are being used for some ground maneuver
or to correct for some gust which has already struck the airplane.
MUD AND SNOW
Another source of difficulty in down-wind taxiing is soft mud or snow.
The center of gravity of an airplane is not far back of its wheels; so it is very
easy, if the airplane is taxied too fast, for it to stick in a mud puddle or snow
drift and tip over on its nose.
Even going slowly, deep mud or snow must be dealt with very carefully,
because a strong pull by the propeller also can cause nosing over. In a calm,
or taxiing up wind, this tendency can be offset by holding the stick back firmly
and thereby making the slipstream exert a downward force on the elevators.
In this way the airplane can be taxied through mud far too soft for a car, pro
vided only that the pilot's hand is on the throttle continuously, to pull back
any time the airplane tends to go faster than a very slow walk, and that the
wind is from ahead or calm.
Taxiing down wind or cross wind, however, if the wind is strong it may
prevent the slipstream from reaching the elevators with enough speed, if at
all. This makes any attempt to pull through the mud without help definitely
dangerous. Moreover, it even makes danger in pulling the stick back in
preparation for such an attempt, because when the engine is not turning fast,
the wind can get under the elevators and lift the tail. Under such conditions
the only safe procedure is to have a man or two on foot hold the tail down
during the pull. If the mud is in a pool of water, this is not a pleasant task.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
(1) Taxi slowly enough so that the ship is under complete control at all
times.
(2) Never be ashamed to call for assistance rather than take chances of
striking another airplane or some obstruction.
(3) Use the brakes only when necessary.
(4) If
a collision with any other object appears likely, CUT THE
SWITCH IMMEDIATELY. -

(5) Avoid prolonged straight taxiing; make frequent S turns in order to

see that the field is clear ahead.
(6) Be on the alert for sudden gusts.

PRIMARY FLIGHT MANEUVERS

Up to this point in the controlled private flying course, the student's

instruction has been confined to ground work, including explanations of taxiing.
He now is ready to proceed with his actual flying training.
The remainder of chapter I, part two, of this manual is devoted to expla
nations of the various maneuvers which comprise stage A of the controlled
private flying course. This stage of the training
is,

course, dual instruction,

of
114 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

with the instructor riding with the student to demonstrate the various ma
neuvers to him and correct his execution of them when necessary. All the
maneuvers lead up to the solo flight and primary solo (stage B), and the
advanced solo training (stage C and stage D) which follow.
Whenever practicable, each maneuver is handled as a separate problem:

e.,
(1) The problem is stated, i. given; (2) the

of
definition the maneuver

is
a
related factors entering into the problem are discussed, including the reason
for making part applicable fundamentals

of

of
the course and review
it
a

a
already learned; (3) the solution explained, i.e., how the pilot executes the

is
it;
(4) pertinent theory flight

of

to
maneuver and recovers from tied the

in
is
maneuver; and (5) the probable errors execution are pointed out. Where

in
there need for special cautions, these are discussed. As general review,
is

a
questions testing the student's understanding the entire maneuver are given.

of
THE FOUR FUNDAMENTALS
flying technique: straight and level flight,
of
There are four fundamentals
turn, climb, glide. all flight maneuvers

in of
the the and the The execution

is
.
these four fundamentals, either singly combination, with the
on

or
based
turn, the glide, and the climb being used most frequently. therefore follows

It
proficiency
to

that the student do these well (and his based on

if

able
is

is
accurate “feel” and control analysis rather than mechanical movements), then
his ability perform any given maneuver will merely matter obtaining
be

of
to

a
clear visual and mental conception and diligent practice.
of
it
a

In

the beginning, the student will fly

as
to
mechanical fashion both
in
of a

his pressures on the controls and the use some object reference for as
in

judging the attitude a

the ship. This perfectly natural, for the early
of

in
is

phases his flight training, simply imitates his ability the

he
of of

of
to

the best
his instructor and attempts comply blindly with instructions
to

actions
given, and

of
consequence all his movements and responses are the result
as
a

conscious thought and deliberate prodding the memory. With experience,

of

however, his actions will become automatic through the formation

of

correct
habits, and after proficiency
he

he
has demonstrated the four fundamentals
in

ready progress His capability adapting himself

is of
to

to

other maneuvers.
to is

or

well grounded
he

these advanced maneuvers will show whether not

in

the fundamentals, for difficulties encountered almost invariably may directly

be

attributed improper technique straight and level flight, the turn, the
in
to
or

climb, the glide.

FIRST FLIGHT ORIENTATION
After the student hasreceived the preliminary ground instruction (famil
airplane, explanation the controls,
of

of

iarization with the the action and use

etc.), ready for his first training flight. flight
he

This should serve two

is

purposes: first, should enable the student actually

to

see and feel how the

it

the airplane; and

of
of to in

control action and use effect changes the attitudes

second, permit him adjust himself flying and
of
to

of to

the new sensations

orient himself this new medium travel. Naturally, the second
in

these objectives cannot this one initial flight, but

be

obtained start toward

in

this development will

be

made.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 115

The student should be seated comfortably

in the ship. He should be able
to reach the controls with ease and comfort and be able to see well, and the
seat or controls should be so adjusted. Unless he is comfortable, he cannot
relax, and if he cannot relax, he will become increasingly tense despite all his
efforts and determination, and thus will not be able to get the utmost from
his instruction. The safety belt should be fastened properly. As pointed out
in the preliminary instruction, this is very important from the safety stand
point and should become a matter of habit.
The action and use of the controls has been explained in the discussion
under “familiarization with the airplane.” In this first flight the student by
“following through” on the controls and by handling them himself, will be able
to put this instruction into actual practice. He will be able to see for himself
just how they do work.
The student will be permitted to begin taxiing the ship to the point of
take-off. He should note the large amount of movement of the controls which
is to obtain response while taxiing. After he gets in the air and is
necessary
allowed to handle the controls while flying, he should observe the contrast and
should note that in the air response is obtained from pressure rather than
movement.
This is not to imply that the controls do not move, but rather that the thing
to think of is how much pressure is being exerted on any one of them rather

is,
than how far it moves. There are two reasons for this. One any

at
that
cruising little any ordinary
to so

reasonable speed the controls move maneuver as in

judge
is of

of
so

that the amount movement not easy the amount pressure.

is

The other reason some different speed, considering the ailerons, for
at

that
on

example, the same sidewise pressure the stick means the same aerodynamic
on

ailerons, though
of

force the even the amounts movement the stick and of

the ailerons are quite different. Altogether, feeling the pressures

on
in

the
controls the pilot practically feeling the aerodynamic forces the airplane.
on
is

At such times taxiing flying the ship, the student

or
as

the instructor
is

should keep one hand lightly the throttle, grasp the stick wheel lightly
on

or

with the fingers the other hand, and keep the balls his feet lightly
on
of

of

the
floor),
or

pedals offering
on

rudder bar the move

to

(heels the no resistance

the controls, but following carefully their movements and observing
of

ments
the results. This “following through.” Although the student will
as

known
is

given instruction taking-off until after has learned the four funda
be

he

not
in

previously mentioned, will find that this practice following

he

of

mentals
through will assist him grasping the principles flight technique during his
of
in

early training, and will considerable help when

be

he
of

does start take-off

instruction.
the utmost importance, for
of

of

Relaa’ation.—The matter relaxation

is

explained connection with stability part one, chapter

in

It

the reasons
in

is
I.

absolutely necessary, therefore, actually achieved,

so
to

see that relaxation the

is

achieving merits special section.

of

of

method The most common fault the

it

beginner tenseness and until has been eleminated satisfactory prog

is

it

not only merely difficult, but impossible. Unless the student “feels”
is

ress
the ship, cannot fly correctly, and unless
he

he
of

the controls and the movement

116 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

is relaxed he cannot get this feel. In the beginning, complete relaxation may
be found hard to accomplish, but it must be achieved.
The first and most important point to watch is the manner in which the
stick or wheel is held. The hand should either rest—and note that the word is
rest—on top of the handle (or rim, in the case of a wheel) or the fingers should be
curled loosely around There are three reasons for this. First, the grip

it.
point where tenseness probably will begin. By keeping the
on

the stick the is

hold limp and relaxed, general relaxation more likely follow. Second,

to
is
a
the student can feel much more easily the corrections Third,

of
the instructor.
the instructor will find Only one

to
much easier make these corrections.

it
used on the control, whether stick
be

or
hand should wheel.
Any properly rigged and functioning airplane will fly itself and automati
cally will correct for air bumps. Hence, there

no
occasion for the student

to
is
constantly keep from turning over
he

be

feel that must the alert on the air.

in
to
He also should remember constantly that even some unusual circumstance

if
should put the ship momentarily undesirable position, the intructor will
an
in

any condition which may arise long before becomes dangerous.

of

take care

it
After not “choking the stick death,” the
he

he

to
has made sure that
is

student should check up

be
on

on
his feet. The heels should the floor and the
most sensitive part the feet resting, completely relaxed,

on
of

of

the balls the

Any maneuver not classed accomplished

be
as

rudder pedals. acrobatics may

without moving the heels from their position—in other words, by use

of
the
alone, pivoting body
on

The
as

ankles the foot the heel fulcrum. should not

a

braced between the seat and the rudder pedal. The ankles and knees should
be

be limp.
If

of

at

the nervous excitement the first time the controls causes the
very common occurrence
be

shake, should remembered that this

to

knees
is
it

with beginners and soon will pass away relaxation maintained.

if

is

The first flighf.—After the instructor has taken off and gained sufficient
altitude, will demonstrate that the airplane will automatically maintain
he

fairly level flight, level flight

it,

without any
or

to

come back disturbed from

if

controls; depart unduly fast, all, from straight

of

will not
at

also that
if

use the
it

flight. Stability, part chapter I.) Having thus

on

in

(See the section one,

of

demonstrated that no movement the controls necessary maintain level

to
is

by

flight, using them one

he

of

will demonstrate the effect

at

the controls
a

time, until
be

time. The student then will

to

at

allowed use them also, one

a

gained good conception

of

of

he has the effect each.

a

At first should use the controls freely and fully, observing meanwhile the
on he

the ship and He should not give any attention

on

to

effects both himself. the

controls, pressures
of

of

actual movement the but rather note the effect exerted

them and compare the effect large amount applied for short period
on

of

to
a
a

moderate amount applied smoothly but constantly for longer period.

or

small
a

judged with relation the sensations they produce

be

The results should

as
to

changing airplane.
of

of
as

well the the attitudes the He should note that when

the controls are used violently thrown about the cockpit, from side
he

to

side
is

the rudder, and lifted off the seat pressed against

of

or
in

in

the case the case

it

of the elevators.
the best way learning these effects.
of

The “trial and error” method

is

What the student actually nearly important

so

as

does not the facts he

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 117

discovers in the process. Before the student can become a good pilot he must
learn what not to do as well as what to do. This rough and full use of the
controls, resulting in overcontrolling, is not in any sense “stunting”; it is merely
rough, sloppy flying, with a purpose.
After having familiarized himself with the action of the controls individ
ually, he will be allowed to take all three at the same time and endeavor to keep
the ship flying straight and level in preparation for the next lesson.
During this first flight the student should form the habit of glancing regu
larly at the instruments, such as the oil pressure gage, the oil temperature gage,
the tachometer, etc., to see that they are registering as he has been told they
should. This may seem an unnecessary burden on the beginner, but unless the
habit is formed at the start, it is likely to be neglected. The natural time to
inspect the instruments is when his eyes swing from one wing tip to the other,
but in any case the readings should be noted every 2 or 3 minutes. For example,
running an engine for even this short period of time with no oil pressure is
likely to damage it beyond repair.
Emphasis again is laid on the need for remaining completely relaxed. The
average beginner has a tendency, when the ship is banked, to lean toward the
high side, or against the bank. This is a natural reaction, but he must overcome
it and learn to “ride with the ship,” for only by so doing can he learn to orient
himself in the different attitudes of the airplane and accurately perceive the
control action necessary under various conditions. If the student is relaxed he
will find that in a properly banked turn his position in the seat, and with respect
to the rest of the airplane, will remain unchanged, due to centrifugal force. In
an improperly banked turn, he will tend to slide or be tipped to one side or the
other depending upon whether the amount of bank is too much or too little.
The reason for this, and its practical application, will be explained in connection
with turns.
Orientation.—During this first flight, the instructor will point out land
marks so that the student will be able to orient himself in relation to his position
to the field. Very often, due to the fact that he is in a strange medium, the stu
den will become “lost.” This should cause no alarm, for after the first few
flights, he will become accustomed to viewing the surface of the earth as a map
spread out below him and readily spot the various landmarks in relation to
the field.
The average length of time for this first flight is half an hour, the actual
time varying with the individual. Should the student become fatigued or
apprehensive, he should tell the instructor in case the latter has not observed
The instructor will terminate the period and allow the student
it.

to

rest.
disgrace attached this, for every student has
no

There definite limit

to

to
is

his capacity for absorbing instruction, and when this capacity reached, further
is

merely
of

work waste time.

is

The student should not hesitate ask the instructor questions, either
to

during the flight any point,

he

he
If

of
or

it.

after not sure should have

is

explain reexplain
be

his instructor and until clear. He should not afraid

is is
it

appearing “dumb.” The stupid thing pretending

of

understand and
to

not asking questions.

 -

118 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT

The necessity for the early formation
of correct habits in straight and
level flight cannot be overemphasized, for on the proper execution of this
fundamental is based all subsequent training and development of flying tech
nique. As an illustration of this, it is not uncommon to find a pilot who just
misses doing every maneuver well, and on analyzing the reasons for his short
comings to find it is because he is unable to fly straight and level properly.
Such a pilot, when told to go back to this fundamental and learn to do it
properly in order to improve his technique, usually is affronted and highly
critical of the advice. However, a thorough understanding of the principles
involved and careful analysis of errors more often than not prove the soundness
-
of this suggested “cure.”
Many students assume that perfection in straight and level flight auto
matically will come with experience and with the practice of the other funda
mentals. This is not true. Perfection in this fundamental, as in all flying,
is the result of diligent application and practice. It cannot be achieved in a
few hours or even 50 hours of practice unless conscientious effort be applied.
It would be well for the young student pilot to realize at the start of his
flying that straight and level flying always will be an acid test of his accuracy
and skill.
Before starting his training in the four fundamentals and subsequent
maneuvers, the student will have learned the principles of the action of each
control individually. He has an understanding of the pressures required and
the reactions of the ship and himself to each. He is now ready for straight
and level flight, which will require him to combine the use of all three controls.
Straight and level flight requires adjustment of the aircraft in three ways:
vertically, laterally, and horizontally.
As explained in chapter I, part one, vertical adjustment is accomplished
by means of the elevators moving the position of the ship around its lateral
axis and along its longitudinal axis. The resulting motion of the ship is called
“pitching.”
Lateral adjustment is accomplished through the ailerons moving the
position of the ship around the longitudinal axis and along the lateral axis.
This motion is called “rolling.”
Horizontal adjustment is accomplished through the rudder moving the
its

ship around vertical axis. The resulting motion called “yawing.”

is

From the beginning his training, the student should form the habit
of

of

trimming the ship for hands-off flight. This should

be

as

done soon after the

practicable. accomplished, course, by means
of

of
as

It

take-off the stabilizer

is

adjustment. adjustable trim tabs are provided the rudder, they should
on
If

that no pressure either rudder pedal required for straight

be

on
so

also set
is

flight.
Level flight, first, conscious mechanical adjustment, and
of
at

matter
is
a

fixing the relationship position some portion the ship, used

of

of

of

as

the
a

fixing this relationship, the

or

In

sight gage, with reference

to

the horizon.
student never should sight with
in
to

fixed stare. He should learn do this

a

all

way that, details,

he

of

such while conscious his vision encompasses the

is
a
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 119

is,
entire normal field; that the nose, the wings, and the horizon, all

at
the same
time. He must give the proper attention must not pick out

he
details but

to
few to the exclusion of all else.
a

As experience gained, these mechanical aids give way large extent

to
is

a
being level, but they are still used checks throughout the

of

as
to

“sense”
a

pilot's career. With the exception the special instruments used instru

of

in
flying, they only judging accurately and in

of
ment are the known method
stantly the attitude the ship. This point well proven by the fact that the

of

is
position pilot almost immediately when

he
of

sense attitude and deserts the

point the sky the ground.

is on
or

or
cannot see the horizon some reference

in
Level flight longitudinally (vertical adjustment) usually accomplished
by using some portion the number one cylinder, the gas
of

as
the nose such
tank cap, the cowl, gage point and keeping this point
on
or

in
as
some spot

a
a
position vertically
fixed relative the horizon. to
that no two pilots see this relationship exactly
be
It

must remembered
this depends where the pilot sitting, how sitting, and

he
on
as

the same,

is
is
important during setting this rela
is.
he

of
how tall therefore that
It

the
sit is

tionship, the pilot his normal manner, otherwise

be
will not the same
in

it
normal position Misunderstanding this point has

of
when resumed.
is
a

caused much difficulty with many students.

part one, chapter angle
on
I,

of

of
From what was said the relation
in

evident that any reference mark good only

on
to

attack speed, the nose

is

is
it

is,

some one particular speed. This course, whatever cruising speed

of
at

adopted, for such reasons that chapter.

in
as

as

has been seem best, described

At any higher speed, with the same attitude, the ship will gain altitude, and
will lose altitude, Level flight, there
as

lower speed, described there.

at

it
a

fore, involves not only the reference mark but also the right speed.
To maintain this speed one must have the engine turning the right
at

revolutions per minute,

on
of

as

number shown the tachometer.

Suppose the engine making these “revs” and the ship has just been
is in
is

to

some maneuvers that have caused lose speed, and then the nose
it
by

brought the proper height this reference mark and

to

also held from

is

Or,
its

yawing. Then the speed will automatically pick up normal value.

to

diving,
its

airplane high,
so

that speed the same treatment

if

the has been too

is

will reduce normal.

to
is it

required for this adjustment

If
of

Time speed. the speed too fast

is
by

miles per hour, for example, the thrust and drag are out
of
or

10

too slow
balance, and the flight path not quite level. The departure from exact
is

small, however, change

of

of
be so

balance forces that the speed toward normal

is

slow, and will practically normal.

or

seconds before the speed

10
is

is
it

it,

This long time, you are not expecting pays

to

and realize that the

if
is

it
a

change right taking the

of

slowness the reasonable. Even with the “rews,”

is

right attitude, and starting right

it,

hold does not guarantee speed

to

the
right now, but hurry! Relaw/
10

be

seconds from now. Don't

in
a

large percentage any pilot's flying, beyond the early stages

of

of
A

instruction,
or

done under conditions which haze mountains obscure the

in
is

by

horizon, airplane
of
so

it.
be

that the attitude

to

the cannot set reference

201 ()7:3" .41 ––4)
120 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

The technique of straight and level flight under such conditions is not quite
so simple as with a clear horizon. So it is best to make the earlier flights
in the course on days with good visibility, if practicable. The discussion
of straight and level flight with no horizon is therefore postponed in this
text to a later section.
Level flight along the lateral axis (lateral adjustment) is accomplished by
visually checking the relationship of the outer tips of the left and right upper
wings with the horizon. These should be equidistant above the horizon at
least in a ship with its seats in tandem; and any necessary adjustments should
be made with the ailerons with the same relationship of pressure and attitude
being noted as for level flight longitudinally.
This sighting of the wing tips has several advantages other than being the
only positive and infallible check. It helps divert the student’s attention from
the nose, prevents the fixed stare, and automatically expands his area of vision
by increasing the angle necessary for his vision to encompass.
It is important that the student note that the relaxed weight of his right
arm pulling against the stick will be sufficient to cause the ailerons to become
slightly effective and result in “drooping a wing.” To offset this effect, a
compensating effort must be exerted to the left. This must always be done,
although after some practice, it will become a subconscious correction.
This scope of the student’s vision is also very important, for if it is
obscured, he will tend to look out of one side continuously (usually the left)
and consequently lean that way. This not only will give him a biased angle
from which to judge, but will also cause him, unwittingly, to exert a pressure
on the controls in that direction which again will result in “drooping the wing.”
It is surprising to note how many supposedly good pilots habitually fly with
one wing low. This is particularly true in side-by-side aircraft. It is a habit
that should be avoided. for it is sloppy flying and results in decreased efficiency
of the aircraft and uncomfortable sensations to passengers.
Straight flight directionally (horizontal adjustment), when in approxi
mately normal attitudes, may be maintained by simply exerting the necessary
pressure on the rudder in the desired direction, unless the offset properly
fin
is
or

some other means provided offset torque.

to

To obtain the proper conception the pressure required

on
of

the rudder
during straight and level flight the airplane held level vertically and
be

must
laterally. the tendency con
of

of

to

One the most common faults

students
is

attempt wings level by

on

of of

centrate the aircraft and hold the

to

the nose
observing the “cant” By method,
if of

the nose. the use this the reference

very short and the deviation, particularly slight, seems unworthy
of

line
is

attention. However, when extended, even minor deviation from level by

a

this small reference line becomes considerable the wing. This requires the
at

straight flight, giving

of

of
to

use additional rudder maintain thus false sense

a

neutral control pressures and position, for one wing down the airplane
if

is

constantly endeavoring
to

turn that direction.

in
is

The foregoing applies particularly those airplanes which the pilot

to

in

steady flight
on
of

must hold certain amount pressure the rudder counter

in

to
a

The reason for this has already been explained

of

torque.
in

act the effect

part one, chapter the ship equipped with engine right-hand rota
an

of
If

is
I.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 121

tion (standard in the United States) right rudder must be carried. If the
engine has left-hand rotation (common in Europe) pressure must be applied
to the left rudder pedal.
Most airplanes are provided either with a fin that can be adjusted on the
ground or with rudder tabs which can be adjusted in flight. Torque varies
with the revolutions per minute of the engine, and the effect of offsetting the
finadjusting the rudder tabs given position varies with the
or
nose of the

to
a
airplane. Thus, adjustable permit the airplane
of

speed

to
be
the fins trimmed
for only one condition engine revolutions per minute and air speed, whereas

of
the rudder tabs may changed while correct for torque under
be
the air

to
in
any ordinary circumstances.
adjustable rudder tabs are not provided,
If

or
tabs are set and not

if
changed, required glide and right

be
will noted that left rudder will
be

in
it

a
rudder climb, even though the ship will fly straight with the feet off the
in
a

rudder pedals cruising speed.

at

Frequently the right wing “drooped” due the arm weight effect pre

to
is

viously mentioned. This requires that left rudder pressure

be
hold

to
exerted
ship straight. As started,

or
the consequence, when turns are the neutral
a

starting position not correct, which results additional tendency

an

to
to in
use
is

the left and not enough the right. tendency

to

too much rudder Such

a
understand certain other principles, but
on

of

to

often occurs account failure

any “drooping” the right
wing causes further complication
of

of
it
and the
a

develop.
be

habit will hard eliminate once allowed

to

to
no is
it

Straight and level flight requires the ship

on

pressure the controls

if

to is
rigged properly and the air smooth. The student should take care not
develop the habit “fighting bumps.” for the reasons explained part one.
of

in
chapter connection with stability and relaxation. At the same time,
I,

as
in

must not become careless and indifferent toward the changes

he

noted there,
by

the ship caused

of

bumps. know when correc

to

attitude He must learn

in

tions are necessary and then make them easily and naturally.
The expert pilot anticipate the ship's
to

the one who knows how

is

time his control pressures right. This does not mean

to

tendencies and
can anticipate the gusts and eddies the ship's
he

that even the air.

in

It
is
its

possible free
of

tendencies, after gust has started some odd combination

a

motions, that can anticipate and control.

he

Their anticipation knowledge and its use. both

of

of

matter which are

is
a

largely subconscious. Their control involves both knowledge and judgment.

The pilot must know what can done, and how, both for smoothness flight
of
be

and for straightness toward his destination. rough air, the absolutely
In

smoothest possible flight would too far from straight. and the straightest
be

possible would much too far from smooth. Between these two objectives
be

judgment.
he

where needs
is

('onfrary common belief, straight and level flying really

an

art.
to

is

MEDIUM AND GENTLE TURNS

For instructional purposes, turns are divided into three classes: gentle,
medium, and steep. (See fig. 75.) Gentle turns are those which the degree
in

bank varies from the least perceptible about 30°; medium turns from 30°
of

to
122 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

to 50°; and steep turns from 50° to 90°. Some instructors group steep turns in
excess of 70° of bank under a fourth classification, terming them “vertical
turns.” Banks of over 60° are extremely difficult to execute in aircraft of
relatively low horsepower, particularly if the bank is to be maintained
throughout any considerable arc of turn.
The foregoing classification prevents the confusion of the degree of bank
with the degree of turn. When speaking of a 45° turn, it usually is considered
that a change of direction of 45° is meant rather than a 45° bank.
During of a student's training, gentle turns are the most
the earlier stages
difficult to do satisfactorily. This is not because of any difficulty in doing
them safely, but rather because it is so easy to see what is unsatisfactory.
If the bank is only 10°, for example, a little gust or a little error by the pilot
may roll the airplane to twice that bank, or to dead level. On the other hand,
with a medium bank, say at 40°, the same gust or error could only roll it to 50°,
or to 30°. This would not be so conspicuously bad. Medium turns, therefore,
are more conducive to a feeling of progress in learning.
Steep turns are also difficult for the student at first. This is because in
the steep turns the changes in the attitude of the airplane are relatively great.

LEVEL FLIGHT
GENTLE BANK

MEDIUM BANK STEEP BANK

Figure 75.-Classes of banks.

Therefore, since medium turns are the easiest of the three to execute, it is
logical that the student be given them first in his training. Gentle turns will be
taken up next; steep turns are reserved for the latter part of stage A.
It may seem surprising that the first aspect of a turn to be considered
should be the degree of bank, rather than the rate at which you swing the nose
around. But it is a fact that the bank is the thing to think of first, not only
in learning how to turn, but even in most later flying, whenever there is need
for a turn and you plan to do The first question then
it.

not how fast shall

is

swing the nose around, but How steep bank

do

want?
I

I
a

This because the purpose making the turn not merely

to

all
in

at
is

is

point place present really go there. To go there

at

course,
to

some off the but

you must first get the airplane moving that direction. This means you
in

must push that way, or, more technical terms, you must apply force
in
it

as a

may being
of

of

directed toward that side the course. You think this force
balance the centrifugal force the turn, being unbalanced,
to of

or
as
to

used
according not you wish centrifugal forces real;
of

think
of or

as
to

whether
but, however you think your force, you must apply
it.

only one part the airplane that designed for producing such
of

There
is

is

forces, namely, the wings. They have been described being designed for
as
 CIVIL PILOT THAIN ING MANUAL 123

producing lift, but lift itself is just another force perpendicular to the flight
path. If the wings are banked, their lift will be inclined, because it is per
pendicular, not only to the flight path, but also to the wing span. An inclined

its
lift can still support the weight, and at the same time sidewise component
the needed sidewise force, provided the lift somewhat stronger than
be
can

is
by
straight flight. strengthened will

be

be
The amount which
in

must

it
is,
considered later. The point now that the wings can exert the required
easily, banked, other part the airplane

no

of
sidewise force they and

if
are
anything like good for exerting such forces. Therefore, you bank;
as
is

and the first question any turn bank'

to
is.
How much
in

by
You answer this question judgment which you have acquired previously,
through keeping your eyes open

of
turns with various degrees bank and

in
learning the results This take practice. How much
of

these banks. takes

it
depends you
on

how well watch and learn.

it,
Getting the bank you want, holding and recovering from again,

it
So
obviously require some definite uses the ailerons. of
the sidewise pressures
you want apply depend you on

do
to

to
the stick what want about the bank.
is to

by
Just how, learned mostly watching what happens;
be
to

another matter
but you can always learn faster and better you know what

to to
watch for.
if

Getting the bank just rolling the airplane from level the desired angle
is

bank, obviously requires pressure the stick that way—applied

on
of

so
it

smoothly, course—during the time you want take for the rolling. Recov
of

to

ering from the bank just rolling the other way, with appropriate pressure.
is
is by

How much, you learn trying and watching.

it

Holding the bank where you need especially

to
know what look for.
to

As explained far back, part one, chapter under the heading “Rolling
I,
in

Stability,” the airplane turn, and the ailerons

to

banked but not allowed

if

is

by

are not used, will slowly right itself;

but does this only forces brought
it

it
by

side slipping.Now, perfectly you are not slipping

at on

the turn made,

if

is

all, for reasons explained later, and there are

no
to
be

such forces. So the

airplane has right itself.
no

tendency
to

On the contrary, there are very weak forces the other way—cery weak—
tippng the way over—but just
all

strong enough cause any danger

of

not
to

strong enough get name, “overbanking tendency,” lead you into

to

and
to

“sloppy” habit letting them spoil the precision your turns unless you
of

of
a

know they are there. These forces result from difference between the lifts
a
by

wings,
of

in

the caused the difference between their speeds, illustrated

figure 76.
this, really perfect turn, with absolutely slip nor skid,
no
of

in

Because
a

you need the stick during all the time the bank
on

cery wreak pressure

is
a

held constant, the direction opposite

to

the bank.
in

great not applied.

be

No harm will this pressure indeed

if

It

done
is
is

the fine points Some instructors therefore prefer that

of

of

one the art.

a

first, while
he

student should not bother with can well use all his attention
at
or it

for the big points. Sooner later, however, when precision

he

to

comes
overbanking tendency
he

maneuvers should watch for the and learn how much

opposite pressure apply.
to
124 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

To summarize these changes of aileron pressure, in a turn to the left, for

example, you want pressures on the stick as follows:
While getting the bank, a moderate pressure to the left,
While holding the bank constant, a very weak pressure to the right,
While removing the bank, a moderate pressure to the right.
So much for the ailerons. Now, how about the rudder? Anyone who has
sailed a boat has learned to think of the rudder as the thing you turn with.
it,

or
airplane,
an

Is
in

not

is
it

?
the principle explained above, that

on
The answer to
this question rests
pro

its
push the airplane toward

be
the sidewise force to new direction can

PATH OF OUTER
WING TIP

PATH OF
PATH OF FUSELAGE
INNER WING
TIP

Figure 76.-Illustrating increased speed of outer wing tip in turn.

a
by

duced much better the wings than by anything else. Nothing else can
produce any sidewise force strong enough curve the flight path very sharply.
to

And nothing else can produce even little sidewise force without
an

inordinate
a

power and loss

of

of

waste speed.
the possibility any “flat turn,”
of

of of

This
If or

not denial turn with the

is

wings level, but vigorous condemnation all flat turns. you do swing
a

by

the nose one side with the rudder, and hold the wings level whatever use
to

purpose, airplane skid,

of

the ailerons necessary for that the will much like

is

the left, for example, the air then strikes

on

If

to

car wet road. the turn

is
a

the right side the fuselage. This does give weak force, with component
of

a
a

the left, causing slow turn that way. But there another component,
to

is
a

-
backward, figure 77.
as

shown
in
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 125

Even a weak force, if backward, is bad. It is extra drag, wasting power,

reducing the air speed, and in extreme cases causing a stall. Any stall while
the ship is skidding invariably starts a spin. This last point makes flat turns
very dangerous near the ground.
Evidently one thing you most certainly don't want is so much rudder
pressure as to cause any skidding. The airplane does not steer like a boat!
Too little rudder pressure is not so bad. With none at all, the first effect of
banking the airplane is to make it slip. This causes a little loss of altitude,
but not of air speed, so there is no danger in it; and the airplane soon begins
to turn anyway, because the slip makes the air strike one side of the rudder
and vertical fin. However, it is not good technique to lose altitude, and have
to regain it by demanding more power from
the engine.
Altogether, therefore,
rule for the the
\
rudder is: Don't skid or slip; but especially backwaro
COMPONENT
/
J)on”f Skºol/ &
One good turn and two bad ones, illustrat- |
&
&
ing this rule, are shown in figure 78.
\
What is needed now is a way to tell when
you are skidding or slipping. \
In an open
airplane, with only a little windshield in Qs - 2

front of your face, this is easy: just don't ~

turn so as to let the air slap either cheek.
In any airplane, you can detect skids and
slips by a very convenient law of centrifugal
-
lº
* -

force. If the airplane is not skidding or |

slipping at all,
so that there is no side force
|
on the fuselage, the only forces with com
its

ponents perpendicular axis are theto

|

weight, the centrifugal force, and the lift.

these, and they are bal-
of

There are three

/

they must
be
so

anced, related like another

three we have seen, namely the weight, drag,
~....: *...*
/

and lift glide. The diagram for the

in
a

figure 79.
In of

in
as

law balance here

is

this figure the airplane typical medium bank, and

at

banked 35°,
is

the centrifugal force, which can this diagram,

be

on

measured almost
is

its weight. The pilot also has

is of of 70

70

exactly centrifugal force,

of

percent
a

the same per

In

percent his weight. every case, his centrifugal force

is

weight airplane's weight. Therefore,

of

his force
as

centage his the its

is

diagram exactly like the airplane's, with the same angles, figure 80.
in
as

Now suppose the pilot “rides with the ship,” exactly

as so

that his head

is

(assuming seating), just straight flight.

of

Then
in

the middle tandem

in

it

his “lift,” applied him by the seat and the parts

of
to

the floor under his

applied exactly the same way straight flight.
be
as

heels,
to

has
It
in

in
is

bank),
22

stronger fact, percent stronger

is he

little (in
so

with this 35° feels

a

little abnormally heavy, but the distribution forces over his body exactly
of
 -
126 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

the same. All his muscular sensations.

therefore, tell him that he is sitting
upright, or vertical.
Even the little sense organs in his ears,
known as semicircular canals, which give
him his sense of balance, are subject to the
same laws. So they, too, tell him he is
RUDDER ALMOST STREAMLINED INTO TURN
vertical. Only his eyes tell him he is
banked. All senses coming under the
general aeronautical term feel agree that
he is vertical. The better his sense of bal

is,
ance the more firmly they tell him so.
very fortunate, because

he
This needs

is
just
these two points—

he on
information
how much really banked, and

is
whether his bank and his turn are related
right. by eye: the

he
The former gets
latter by feel.
by feel,

he
To get this information must
not only have reasonably good sense

of
a
balance, but also take particularly good

is,
“ride with the ship.” That

he
to

care
EXCESS RUDDER INTO TURN
must resist any temptation

to
hold his
ATTEMPTS TO FORCEA DECREASE
IN RADIUS OF TURN
body perpendicular the horizon, and his
to
head especially must ride with the ship.
SKIDDING RESULTS.
Otherwise his sensations will be neither
those of the true vertical nor the correct
bank, but merely unusual and therefore
unrecognizable.
any doubt
If

as
to

there whether his

is

(b)
good, there
of

sense the vertical one

is

is

way with bank

to

sure find out—check

it

a
or

indicator, “ball bank.” This instru

ment, described part one, chapter III,
in

works by the same principle centrifugal

of

strong
as

force feel. Indeed bears

it

canals,
to

resemblance the semicircular

more perfect mechanically,
If so
is

and
it

it it

EXCESS OPPOSITE RUDDER

superhuman sense
of

has balance.
a

ATTEMPTS TO FORCEAN INCREASE

disagrees with him, bal
of

his sense
is
it

|N RADIUS OF TURN
ance that must be trained. Even an
SLIPPING RESULTS
experienced pilot, indeed, can always im
prove his skill by taking instruction from
ball bank.
a

Taking all these facts into account,

the rule for the use of the rudder
so is

(c)
Figure 78.-Effects of rudder. simply this: Veither skid nor slip;
 CIVII, PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 127

“Ride With the Ship” and use just enough rudder pressure so that you always
Feel Vertical.
This rule is often in the less specific forms, “Fly by the seat of
expressed
your pants,” and “Use your saddle sense.” In stating the rule for the rudder
in any of these ways, it is assumed that the
pilot has previously decided what to do with

it,
the ailerons. To follow however, start

in
ing

be
to
turn the rudder has

at
used the
a

time with the ailerons. only by

It
same

is
practice, therefore, that one can learn antici

to
in do
pate what the rule will require, and

on
it
time. This easy one keeps clearly mind
if
is

the logical order—ailerons desired, rudder

as
required—and thereby knows what try

he
is

is
ing
to

learn.
The rudder pressures one learns this way
in

are all surprisingly weak. They are weak even

starting the turn, despite the fact that the t-––––––
in

Figure 79.-Forces on an airplane

in
of

two kinds—
to

a
rudder has overcome forces good turn at bank of 35°.

a
rotational inertia forces, and other forces going
under the name “adverse yawning effect,” due the drag

of
to
the aileron that

is
turned down banking the airplane. To overcome these forces you do need
in

a
little pressure the pedal toward which you are starting turn, but the most
on

pressure to
of

notable characteristic this its weakness.

is

Recovering from bank, rotational inertia and the “adverse yawing

a

the turn) are again the forces

is be
So
to

to

effect” (now not adverse overcome.

again the required pressure

of
weak, and
the pedal opposite
on

to

course the turn.

The most complete enfeeblement
of
rudder
pressure, however, occurs long-continued
in
a

furn, after the bank and rate of turn have been

established and are being held steady. At this
time, explained above, there must very
be
as

weak aileron pressure against the overbanking

tendency, start
so

the aileron that was down

in
up

ing the turn now slightly and the “ad

is

yawing effect” not adverse all, but

at

verse
is

turning.
to

favorable There are no rotational

by
be
is to

inertia forces overcome the rudder

while the turn steady, and but little aero
dynamic resistance turning. Altogether, the
to

rudder now has almost nothing

to

do, and
practically need for pressure
no

on

there
is

Figure 80.-Forces on the pilot the either pedal.

in

is,

35° bank.
of

little trace
in
as

Such need there

properly rigged and well maintained air
a

plane, without unusually large “adverse yawing effect,” for pressure

an

is

still
so
of

direction turn. But weak that

in

the the the best

it
is
128 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

rule to start learning with is to take the rudder pressure off entirely, as soon
as the bank is established.

Inmany airplanes, indeed, this rule gives pretty good results anyway.
The rudder pressure used in starting a turn deflects the rudder from its neutral
position just a little (maybe moving trailing edge

an
its

or
inch two) while the
air pressure neutral. When the pressure

on

to

to
the rudder tries force back

it
on the pedal removed smoothly—and every change control pressure

of
is

a
forcing the rudder back most
be

of
should smooth—the air succeeds the

in
way. Not quite all the way, however. The air pressure weakens

as
the rudder
approaches neutral; but the friction the rudder hinges and the pedal, and

in
on

maybe pilot's stay strong

of

as

as
the sole the shoe, ever. So the rudder
stops with little remaining deflection and weak air pressure.
a

by
Friction, however, very uncertain quantity. Only luck can stop
is

it
a

the rudder just right. With really good hinges, well oiled and not rusty, most

on
ships still need pressure the pedal—only really
of

trace trace—for
a

a
perfect turn. rust, perhaps

on
But with no oil and much and dried mud the
pedal, you may even need help the rudder back toward neutral with the other
to

pedal. For that reason easy misunderstand such pressures and fail
to

is to
is
of it

acquire any clear idea what needed. The first thing any ship wants
is

good maintenance, which includes control-system lubrication; only after you

have given her that will she tell you the fine points flying.
When she has, those about the rudder sum up follows: of
as

Starting the turn, weak pressure the pedal toward which you will turn.
on

Keeping turning steadily, just bare trace

on
the same pedal.
on

of

pressure
a

Stopping the turn, weak pressure the other pedal.

on

With the ailerons and rudder under definite rules, how about the elevators? do
This question looks irrelevant, first, because the elevators not have any
at

they
be

such obvious connection with turns. But

to

do have used:
is,

There are two ways see why. lift going on

of
to

One that the increase

by

increasing the angle attack (if you do

be

of

into the turn must obtained not

increase the speed), and longitudinally stable airplane this demands back
in
a

pressure
on

the stick.
it,

The other way see how much pressure

to

is in an at

to

to

look and use, that

is

undesired byproduct
of

the elevators must offset rudder action. To see

this, one must keep clearly mind what the primary action
of

is.

the rudder
naturally, namely, swing
If

the airplane level,

of

what one thinks

to
it
on is

the nose along Left rudder pressure, for example, swings

to

the level.
it

the left, toward the direction which the left wing points. When the air
in

plane banked, however, left rudder pressure still swings the nose toward
is

on

the left wing, but this swing not the level. Instead, inclined,
as is

is
it

according bank, figure 81.

of

in
to

the degree shown

toward the low wing, whichever wing
In

the turn, the rudder pressure

is

that may be. So the effect swinging the nose not along
of

the rudder
in

is

the horizon, but down grade.

on
a

To the pilot, “riding with the ship” and feeling vertical, this does not
down grade, but still level. the horizon, not the swing
of

feel like
It
is
a

tipped, figure
be

as

nose,
to

the that seems shown

in

82.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 129

However, he knows the horizon is not really tipped, and he wants the
nose to swing along uphill slope,

he
an
This looks

so
to
it.
him like needs
rudder and up-elevator pressures, this figure.

of

as
combination shown

in
a

His rudder pressure has already been determined by his following the
rule: “Ride with the ship, and One thing certainly

he
feel vertical.”

.
.
.
values his piloting skill, yield any temptation

he
must not do,

to

to to

to
if

is
depart from this rule. So the only thing left for him

do
apply the

to
is
right amount up-elevator pressure, pressure stick,

on
of

or

so
back the that

ELEVATORACTIONMOVESNOSE IN DIRECTIONOF DOUBLEARROWS

<—- RUDDERACTION MOVESNOSE IN DIRECTIONOF SINGLE ARROWS

Figure 81.-Effect of rudder and elevator various degrees of bank.
in

along the horizon. just one definite

be
of

the motion the nose will There

is
pressure this, any time,

he
of

that will do
at

amount one has treated the if

rudder right first. That amount also gives him the increase angle

of
in
lift. For real precision, such
he

he
needs for the increase

as
attack that
in

will want later for holding strictly constant altitude, the reference mark
a

one that goes with this increased angle

be
on

of
he holds the horizon must
is,

attack; that
be

he
an

on
or
so

must inch lower the nose than the one

it

straight and level flight.

in

uses
The elevators, unlike the rudder, do
not call for much anticipation
at of

EFFECT what
going require,
to

ELEWATORS their rule least

is

starting turn. On the contrary,

in

their use begins more gradually, increas

ing only Com
as

the bank increases.

O ing out the turn, however, the pres
O

of

sure must be relaxed little advance,

in

Figure 82.-As the pilot sees it.

a

or the nose will rise.

pilot knows what
do

To sum these rules up, the with each control,

to

at

any time, either getting into turn, steady turning, coming out
or
he in

in

of in
a
it,

of provided follows exactly these rules, this order logic, not

if
in
of

time:
Just sidewise pressure
on

(1) Ailerons: enough the stick control the

to
as

bank desired.
(2) Rudder: Neither Skid Mor Slip; “Ride With the Ship” and
so

use
-
just enough rudder pressure you always
so

that Feel Vertical.

130 - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(3) Elevators: Use just enough back pressure on the stick to make the
nose follow the horizon. -

The relations between control pressures given by these rules are what is
meant by coordination, as applied to turns in which the flight path is
horizontal. .

In gliding turns, climbing turns, and

even some of the simpler acrobatic
maneuvers, such as loops, wingovers, chandelles, and lazy eights, rules 1 and 2
remain exactly the same, and they must be followed if any substitute for
rule 3 is to have a definite meaning.
This matter of logical order for such rules is especially important in
connection with rule 3. If
you fail to follow rule 2, for example by letting
the airplane slip, you can still find a back pressure on the stick that will
keep the nose on the horizon. But after that, if you become aware of the
slip and then put on more rudder pressure, keeping the up-elevator pressure
the same, the nose will swing on a downgrade. So then you have to find the
right elevator pressure all over again. The only way to get it right the
first time is to be sure rule 2 is obeyed before trying to follow rule 3.
Failure to do this is the cause of one of the commonest misconceptions in
this subject, namely that up-elevator pressure will stop a slip. Suppose there
is a slip, but the nose is following the horizon. More up-elevator pressure,
alone, will make the nose rise above the horizon. So if such pressure is
applied, it must be accompanied by more rudder pressure. It is this increase
of rudder pressure that stops the slip, not the elevators. The elevators alone
slip
it,

would never stop though up-elevator pressure does make either

or
a
a
by

skid less noticeable making you feel very heavy. Actually, the elevators
alone would just add second error without stopping the first.
a

few minor matters about medium and gentle turns should be

A

noted here.
very slight during the first part
of

of

of
One these decrease speed
is

is a
turn, unless the power increased, because drag which
of

of of

the increase
is

angle
is an

of

obvious consequence attack. This

in

the increase noted above

good medium gentle turns—indeed very minor
or

minor matter in
in
a

comparison
of
to

the loss speed “flat turn”—but steep turns

in

in

becomes
it
a

-
important.
related point need for caution about speed. The airplane stalls
A

is
a

more readily straight flight. that 35° turn, for example,

In

turn than
in

by in
a

by

lift percent, the stalling speed

22

needing
an

of

increase increased
is
In
10

typical airplane part one, chapter

I,
of

percent. the this would raise

44. This, too,
40

miles per hour

to

from minor matter medium

in
or it

is
a

gentle turn, but steep turn danger signal.

in

becomes
is it
a

a
all

the propeller acting gyroscope.

of

as

minor effect turns that

in
A

gyroscopes, part chapter III,

of

of

Because the fundamental law one,

in

stated
connection with gyro instruments, clockwise propeller tends
p.

73,
to
in

depress the nose the right, and

to

to

to

turn raise turn the left.

in

in
it
a

This effect erroneously propeller torque, which really

to

often ascribed the

is

part chapter 17. The gyro

I,
p.

does have some small effects described one,

in

rather small. But big enough

to

effect also make noticeable difference

is

is
it

a
by

the up-elevator pressures required right and left

3,

rule above, between

in
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL . 131

turns. If
it is overlooked, so that the student uses equal pressures, his turns in
one direction or the other will be “sloppy”; but if he knows there is a differ
ence, rule 3 will enable him to find out how much.
Another minor point concerns reference marks on the airplane, by which
to tell whether a bank is gentle, medium, or steep, and to get certain standard
banks for practicing maneuvers. In a typical high-wing airplane, in gentle
turns, the tip of the lowered wing (the upper wing if a biplane), used as a
sight apparently will rest on the horizon.
In medium turns, the tip will be below the horizon, which will cut the line
of the leading edge from somewhere near the tip to well toward the fuselage.
depending on the degree of bank.
In steep turns, the point where the horizon cuts the leading edge will
range about up to the fuselage. In a vertical bank the leading edge of the
center section would be at right angles to the horizon.
Ifthe student is receiving his instruction in a side-by-side controlled air
plane, rather than a tandem type, there are certain points that should be noted.
At first he will have to learn two reference or sighting points, one for left
hand turns and another for right-hand turns. He probably will have a
tendency to dive around one turn and climb around another.
For example, with the student seated on the left, a left-hand turn is
longitudinal axis
its

started and the ship properly rolled around entering the

in
apparent that with reference the horizon, the student being
to

bank.
It
is

is
rolled under the axis, with the result that the nose appears too high judged

if
by the same means level flight.
he
as

Unless takes into consideration the

to in

sitting the longitudinal axis the ship and not

he

of

of
fact that one side
is

viewing point
on

the center line (and therefore the reference from different

is

a
angle than level flight) the student will pull the nose down until
in

looks

it
right which actually makes too low and results diving turn.
in
it

In right-hand turn the opposite occurs. The student will then rolled be
a

top longitudinal axis, appear

on

of

around the which makes the nose too low.

His natural instinct will pull up until looks right, thus putting the
be
to

it
it

ship into climbing turn.

:
a

Medium Turns—Definition.—Medium turns general have already been

in

50°; but the medium turns needed for

of
as

defined,
to

with banks
those 30°
turn should continue through
be

at

instruction should further defined. Such

a

least 90°, preferably 180°, that the student can see what control pressures
or

so

holding constant bank, getting

as

as

are needed well bank and

in

in

a
a

removing
it.

do

Related factors.-As noted above, learning how

to

medium turns
establishes basis for learning other maneuvers needing related coordinations.
a

Ea'ecution.—First, other ships

on
of

check for the presence the side

you plan clear, plan your
to

toward which turn. Then space turn

if

the
is
In

and execute according the rules given. doing so, recall the points
to
it

about starting with ailerons and rudder together, and following up with the
elevators. Requirements for control pressures vary from one model air
of of

plane another; just pressure apply any

so
to

to

to

to

find out how much the

controls, any airplane, take the rules given above, logical order given,
as
in

in

and obey them the letter.

to
132 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Common faults.--All the common faults in medium turns are simple

violations of these rules, with results easily felt or seen. If
the results are
watched for, one can soon learn to avoid the errors.
(1) Rudder pressure applied too early. This starts a skid, or makes the
airplane tend to slide toward the outside of the turn, because insufficient bank
has been attained to offset the centrifugal force. It may be detected first by
the fact that the nose begins to swing before the ship banks and by a feeling
that one is sliding across the seat toward the outside of the turn. In addition,
if the cabin windows are open or if the ship is of the open-cockpit type, the air
will strike the side of the face which is on the outside of the turn. Pressure on
the rudder must be begun at the same time that side pressure is applied to the
stick.
(2) Too much pressure on rudder pedal. This is sometimes done acciden
tally and sometimes in an effort to decrease the radius of the turn. In either
case, skidding results, with effects that may be felt, as described in the
preceding paragraph.
(3) Pressure on rudder pedal continued too long. When pressure on the
stick is eased off, the pressure on the rudder also must be eased off simul
taneously. Otherwise the same effects will be produced as described in para
graph 2.
(4) Rudder pressure applied too late. In this case the ship is banked
without turning fast enough; so it slips. This may be detected by the fact that
the nose is not swinging, though the ship is banked, and by a tendency for the
occupants to slide across the seat toward the low wing. In addition, if the
cabin window is open or if the ship is of the open-cockpit type, wind will be
felt on the side of the face which is on the inside of the turn. This trouble
may be corrected by applying the rudder necessary to start the turn.
(5) Insufficient pressure on the rudder. This also causes slipping, with
the effects described in the preceding paragraph.
(6) Rudder pressure relaxed too early. This fault also causes slipping.
Pressure on the rudder should be applied at the same time as pressure on the
stick and should be maintained as long as the side pressure is maintained on
the stick. This has been stated before but is repeated for emphasis.
(7) Back pressure on stick (elevators) applied too early. The back pres
sure on the stick should not be applied until the ship has begun to bank.
Otherwise, the nose will come up and a climbing turn will be executed. This
fault may be detected by the fact that the nose or check point moves above
its

proper position with respect

to

horizon.
pressure stick. This produces the same effect
on

(8) Too much back

as

that described preceding paragraph except that occurs somewhat

in

the
it

the maneuver; other words, the nose begins rise after the ship
to

later
in

in

has been banked instead of before.

(9) Back pressure applied too late. this case the nose will drop
In

by

This fault often accompanied such failure

to

below the horizon. obey

is
In

slip. such cases the primary cause

of

the fault
to as

rule
be to

cause
is
2

failure sure rule obeyed before considering rule

is

3.
2

(10) Insufficient back pressure This produces the same

on

the stick.
preceding paragraph.
as

conditions those described

in

the
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 133

(11) Failure to hold opposite pressure on stick after bank has been
obtained. This fault produces overbanking as previously discussed. On the
other hand, too much opposite pressure will bring the ship out of the bank;
and under these circumstances a common failure to obey rule 2 will produce
skidding.
(12) Failure to use opposite rudder in recovery from the bank. This will
produce skidding, because the ship is turning and tends to keep on turning
by its rotational inertia. Skidding due to this cause is never very bad.
(13) Failure to remove back pressure on stick during recovery. Unless
the back pressure on the stick is eased off as the airplane resumes straight
flight, the nose will move up and the ship will come out of the turn into a
climb. Accordingly, the stick should be eased into neutral as the bank
decreases until, when the wings are level, there is no backward pressure on
the stick.
(14) Failure to check roll when wings are level. There is a tendency on
the part of many students to roll the ship from one bank into an opposite bank
without a period of straight and level flight between. This tendency must be
checked at first, as otherwise the student never will learn just when to ease
the side pressure applied for recovery. This pressure should be decreased as
the ship levels out until it has become removed completely as the wings become
level.
(15) Failure to recover at proper point. Unless precision in making turns
of degree is required, careless habits will develop.
a specified
(16) Failure to “ride with the ship.” The tendency to lean against the
high side of the cockpit has already been discussed. The student should also
take care that he does not tilt his head toward the high side in an effort to
keep his eyes in line with the horizon.
Caution.—The comments above apply in general to turns of any degree of
bank. There is little danger of serious trouble resulting from any turn per
formed at reasonable altitude. Though it is possible to skid ships so badly
that a stall results, the skid will be so evident before this point is reached that
even an inexperienced student should recognize it and correct it by methods
previously discussed. In steep turns, stalls can result from the increase of
the stalling speed because of the requirement for considerably increased lift,
as noted above; and this type of stall is made more probable by the increase
of drag accompanying the increased lift, since this causes a loss of speed unless
the power is increased. For this reason, if no other, steep turns should not
be made until after the recovery from stalls has been well learned. Then they
are safe if done af sufficient altitude.
Any turns made close to the ground, however, are likely to be dangerous
and call for further discussion.
The most important precaution to be observed in making turns at a
reasonable altitude is to see that the air is clear of ships on the side toward -
which the turn is to be made.
Gentle turns—Definition.—A gentle turn is one in which the bank is less
than 30°. (See fig. 75.)
Roſafod factors.-The purpose of introducing this maneuver is to improve
coordination and develop the feel of the airplane.
134 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Eacecution.—The execution (and recovery) is identical with that in the

medium turn. Gentle turns are difficult for the student, as noted above, because
it is so easy for rough air or small errors to cause conspicuously bad effects.
Common faults.-These faults are listed below. Their correction is-
obvious.
(1) Failure to hold a constant degree of bank.
(2) Failure to maintain a constant rate of turn.
(3) Continuous slipping to a very slight degree.
(4) Continuous skidding to a very slight degree.
(5) Poor coordination of the elevators.
(6) Tendency to overcontrol with all controls.
The student should devote much attention toward acquiring good tech
nique in turns, and should practice them in both directions and at various
degrees of bank. This fundamental will be used constantly throughout his
training period and his entire flying career. On his ability to do them well will
rest the development of his flight technique.
Turns at low altitudes.—The student should understand thoroughly the
hazards incident to turns at low altitude.
The prevalent fallacy regarding the effect of the wind on an airplane in
flight already has been mentioned. It was brought out that once the airplane
its

is free of the ground, only speed relative the air (air speed) has any
to

bearing flight. The velocity and direction

on

of
its sustension the wind does
in

affect the path the aircraft over the ground and this will

be
of

noticeable
particularly During down-wind turns
to

at
turns close the surface. low
in

altitudes, the student will notice that when the aircraft approximately cross
is

wind, will seem hang momentarily without much speed, and,

as
the turn
to
it

up
completed the down-wind course, the airplane will seem pick
to

to

speed
is

Furthermore, during portion airplane

of

with rush. the turn which the

in

the
a

traveling approximately 90° the wind, appears

be
of
to

the direction
at

to
is

it

slipping toward the inside These apparent phenomena are optical

of of

the turn.
illusions. Only the speed the aircraft relative the ground affected by
to

is

the wind, provided the wind steady; the air speed remains constant.
is

the airplane being flown properly, the air speed will not vary appre
If

is

ciably during the turn, unless the bank steep, and then air speed will drop
is

noticeably maintained, regardless

of

altitude wind.
if

is

Down-wind turns close ground hazardous, particularly imme

to

the are
not include the preva
do

diately after take-off, but the reasons for this hazard

lent fallacy. They are follows:
as

(1) Any turn any direction extremely low altitudes but

at

hazardous
in

is

presents placing the pilot

of

down-wind turn the additional hazard the

in
a

poorest possible position landing engine failure.

of
to

which
in

in

make case
a

by

(2) Some speed lost any turn (unless compensated for increased
in
is

power), and unless normal speed maintained this may have disastrous results
is

operating too close

to

the surface.
if

(3) Turns immediately following the take-off are hazardous due

to

the
fact that the ship barely has flying speed and can
ill

afford even the small loss -

turning
of

speed which incident

to

alone.
is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 135

(4) At low speeds the ship does not respond nearly so rapidly to the con
trols, and gusts may cause trouble before the reaction of the pilot and the
sluggish action of the controls can correct for them. The reaction time of the
pilot is a serious factor when flying close to the surface.
(5) Objects on the surface create turbulence in the wind on their leeward
side.
(6) There is a variation between the wind velocity just above the surface
and at 40 or 50 feet altitude due to the friction of the earth and the objects
This will give the ship additional rolling moment overbanking

an
it.

in or
on
tendency when one wing up the air

as
near the surface and the other

at is

in is
steep turn low altitude. This friction effect also obtains
in

the case
a

gusts encountered when the ship position, which increases the

in
such

is

a
severity
A of

their action.
large part wind velocity often occurs very
of

(7) this variation

in

in
a
40
Small range height, say between even perhaps between
of

or
feet,

50
and
and 90. For this reason,
80

80
down-wind turn made successfully feet

at
a

guarantee safety
no

of

10
another one the same altitude minutes later.
in

is at
is

Under these conditions part the danger strong eddies with horizontal
of

to
due
rolling along somewhat like ball bearings between the mass relatively

of
axes,
strong, steady
of

calm air below and the mass wind above. These eddies cause
strong and irregular rolling forces turning

or
the airplane, whether
on

it
is
merely flying straight right angles any temptation If
to

the wind. there

as at

is
make flat turn, keep both wings the same wind, the effect

of
in
so
to

to

these
is a

making turn positively suicidal.

of
to

eddies added that the skid

in

such
a

more insidious temptation the optical

of
to

(8) flat turn

A

such one
is
a

illusions previously mentioned, namely, the apparent side slip. This may
poorly pilot opposite
so
to

induce trained use much inside rudder and aileron

a

produce flat turn even though such crossing

of
as
to

the controls makes him

a

feel far from vertical. The rule, “Ride with the ship” and feel vertical,
.
.
.

literally drilled firmly enough

to

lifesaver overcome such

in
if
is

is
it
a

temptations.
(9) The other optical illusion, due the increased ground speed near the
to

the turn, has deceived many poorly trained pilots into trying
of

to

end force
airplanes steeply.
to

their climb too There considerable evidence that the

is

drag down-wind flight between wind layers, leaving less power

in

increased
is

for climbing, and also that stalling occurs more easily such flight. Even
in

without such effects, the increased ground speed

of

down
at

the end
a

not increased air speed. Special care must

be

wind turn down-wind

in

taken
is

flight least up
of

keep the air speed

at

to

at

to

low altitudes that the maximum

climb, discussed part one, chapter Any attempt climb too steeply
to
in in

I.

there may result complete stall, and such stall almost always results
in
a
a

fatal accident.
Altogether, turns any low altitude should made only with eaccess air
at

be

speed throughout the turn, and very low alti

no

at
be

turn should ever made

a
an

tude earcept emergency.

in

201073°–41
...

10
-
136 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

COORDINATION EXERCISES
Emphasis already has been placed several times on the importance of
proper coordination between rudder, ailerons, and elevators, particularly the
first two, in making turns. To improve further this coordination, several
exercises are introduced at this point.
Rolling from bank to bank—Definition.—This maneuver consists of a
properly executed turn in one direction followed immediately by a turn in the
opposite direction. (See fig. 83.)
Related factors.-In the early stages of his training, the student was
instructed to level out, for an instant at least, when recovering from one bank
before banking the ship to the other side; in other words, to roll from bank to
level and then to opposite bank if desired. In the maneuver now being dis
cussed there is no pause; the ship is rolled from the left bank directly into a
right bank, the longitudinal axis of the airplane meanwhile being kept level.
In the first practice of this maneuver, no particular attention need be
given to accurate direction, except that the turns to alternate sides should be
of about the same amount of turn so that when a series has been made, the
ship will be pointing in the general direction as before the maneuvers were
started. The amount of turn should be about 90°. (Note that this is the

Figure 83.-Rolling from bank to bank.

amount of turn, not the amount of bank.) The bank should be about 30°.
This maneuver viewed from above would be something like that shown in
figure 83. If it is assumed that the airplane is being flown back and forth
across a straight line, such as a road, as indicated in the illustration, the wings
should be level as it crosses the line.
Ea:ecution.—To simplify instructions, it is assumed that the ship has
already been placed in a left turn, with a bank of about 30°, by directions
previously given. In the average ship, this means that a slight pressure is
being applied to the right and to the rear on the stick and on the left rudder
pedal (left aileron slightly down, elevators slightly up). When a turn of about
90° has been made and it is desired to roll into a right bank, the pressure on the
stick to the right is increased, the pressure to the rear is eased off, and pressure
on the right rudder pedal is exerted simultaneously. As the ship rolls to the
proper right bank and begins to turn, pressure is removed from the rudder and
slight pressure on the stick is exerted to the left and to the rear. After a turn
of 90° has been made, the ship again is rolled into a left bank by reversing the
procedure just outlined.
Common faults.-The faults in this maneuver are the same as those en
countered in the medium turn first discussed. However the most common
trouble is allowing the longitudinal axis to tilt back and forth; in other words,
improper use of the elevators. The maneuver should be practiced until the
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 137

student can make a number of alternate turns without allowing the longitudinal
axis to deviate from the horizontal at any time.
Banks without turns.—Definition.—This maneuver differs from those pre
viously described in an important way. Those all teach coordination of types
used in practical flying. This one teaches a different coordination, which is of
no direct practical use, though it is closely related to the coordination often
used in slipping in a gliding approach to an airport so as to steepen the approach
without gaining speed. Its use here is primarily as an exercise in learning
new coordinations.
This maneuver consists of flying level and banking the ship first to one
side and then to the other, meanwhile holding the longitudinal axis horizontal
and not permitting it to swing from side to side. In other words, the banks are
to be made without allowing the airplane to turn or its nose to rise or fall.
Naturally, a certain amount of slip is to be expected. The maneuver is illus
trated in figure 84.
Eacecution.—For this exercise also a straight road is needed or else a fixed
point on the horizon. The exercise is performed as follows, assuming that the
ship is flying straight and level and that the first bank is to be made to the right:
Pressure on the stick toward the right should be exerted and at the same time,
in most airplanes, a slight pressure on the right rudder pedal, depending on the

Figure 84.—Banks without turns.

rate of roll. As the right wing drops, the, nose will tend to swing to the right.
This should be checked by pressure on the left rudder pedal. When the desired
degree of bank has been reached it should be held momentarily. This means
that the pressure on the stick may be eased slightly, but not removed, while
the pressure on the rudder pedal is maintained. At the same time a slight
forward pressure on the stick may be required to keep the nose from coming up.
Recovery.—In recovering from the bank and rolling into opposite bank.
pressure to the left must be exerted on the stick and the pressure on the left
rudder pedal increased (the amount depending upon aileron pressure), until the
ship has rolled past the level position. Before the airplane begins to yaw, the
pressure on the left rudder pedal is removed and pressure applied gradually to
the right pedal.
Again, when the proper bank has been acquired, the ship is rolled into the
opposite bank by reversing the procedure just outlined. The banks to alternate
sides must be equal, and the timing rhythmic. The flight path must be straight
and the nose of the ship must not rise or fall.
Reasons for specified use of controls.-It will be noted that if the ship is
banked with the rudder held either in neutral or left free, it will attempt at first
to yaw toward the side of the low aileron, or high wing. This tendency is
due to the fact that the aileron that is turned down has more drag than the one
turned up. It must be checked by using opposite rudder. In other words.
while the ship is rolling to the right, it will attempt to turn to the left until
the roll is partly completed, and the right rudder must be applied to hold it
138 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

straight. After the ship is banked and begins to slip, the nose will tend to swing
to the side of the low wing. This tendency is due to the pressure of the air

fin
against the low side of the tail the slip. Pressure the upper rudder

on
in
pedal will then swinging.

be
This will result

to
keep the nose from

in
needed

a
by
slight sideslip the right, indicated the usual sliding the pilot toward the

of
to
right and wind the right side
-

on

of
the face.
Since pressure being applied the upper rudder pedal (the left pedal

on

in
is
right bank), there may tendency for the nose rise slightly. for

to

It
be

is
a

a
slight pressure may

to on
this reason that forward

be
the stick needed.
Common faults—(1) Allowing ship yaw toward high wing beginning

at
by
not using pressure lower rudder pedal.

on
of

bank. This caused

is

(2) Allowing the nose swing toward the side the low wing after the

of
is to

by
not applying enough pressure

on
bank established. This caused the
is

upper rudder pedal.

(3) Allowing the nose swing away from the low wing. This
to

caused

is
by

too much pressure the upper rudder pedal.

on

(4) Failure keep the longitudinal As previously

to

axis horizontal.
explained the nose tends pressure the top rudder pedal.

is on
of
to

rise because
apply sufficient forward pressure
on

of
Failure this fault.
to

the stick the cause

(5) Allowing nose yaw toward the side the low wing when recovering
of
to

caused by failure upper rudder

on
from bank. This
to

increase pressure
is

pedal applied.
as

aileron pressure
is

maintain uniform banks and timing.

be
(6) Failure This fault can
to
by

corrected practice.
CONFIDENCE-BUILDING MANEUVERS
When the student trained accordance with the controlled Elementary
in

is,

flying his training—that just prior

of

stage
courses reaches this climbs to
and glides—his instructor will demonstrate and permit him execute man
to

euvers which are termed confidence-building maneuvers.

The purpose develop the student’s confidence
of

to

these maneuvers in
is

stability and safety Stability part

of

the the aircraft.

in

has been discussed

one, chapter
I.

The three general groups: banking maneuvers,

in

confidence maneuvers are

the overlapping functions
of

of

stall maneuvers, and demonstrations the con

trols, including the emergency use
of

of

the stabilizer and throttle lieu

in

the
elevators.
Banking maneuvers—The banking maneuvers will performed
be

at
a

reasonably low-altitude (500–1,000 feet) gain

be

that the student will

so

to

able
conception procedures, safety, regard
of

clear the their and their results with

a

In

loss and gain

of

these maneuvers, the instructor will bank the

to

altitude.
ship almost the medium bank, with considerable control move
of

the limits
to

ment and, when the desired altitude reached, will take his hands and feet
is

from the controls. The student should follow through duplicating

as in

these
actions, noting that the bank stops increasing
as

soon the controls are

the other hand the ship does not return immediately
on

released, but that

to

level flight. However, any violent motions, that may going

on
be

when the
controls are released, will quiet down within few seconds. The airplane may
a
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 139

be left in a dive or climb, with or without a steep bank. But if it is not stalled,

its
it will not thereafter make any sudden changes in motion.
The instructor then will repeat the maneuver, but this time, instead

of
releasing the controls, use them, but bring the ship

he
will continue

so
as
to
to
rapidly and forcibly back the level position. He then will release the

to
controls and the student, following through before, will note first, that level

as
flight quickly when the controls are used that way and second,

in
resumed
is

that the controls are released while level flight the ship will continue

in
if

-
fly straight and level.
to

For the next banking maneuver, the instructor will again put the ship

in
bank and then merely relax all pressures

on
the controls rather than remove
a

his hands and feet from them. The student, following through, will note that
the ship.
no

on

of
this will have
or
sudden violent effect the attitude
Finally, the instructor will execute few turns smoothly and properly,

a
applying control pressures smoothly and lightly,
all

avoid any sudden

so
as
to
or violent control movements. The student should note the contrast between
the ship's responses these pressures and the previously demonstrated violent
to

The airplane will seem ease into the desired attitude, although
to
movements.
no

important difference the ship's changing its

of
there the elapsed time
in
is

attitude.
These points are important, they illustrate types piloting. The first

of
as

typical the rough pilot, the second careless pilot, and

of

of

or
the mediocre
is

typical the smooth and skilled pilot.

of

the last
is

Stall maneuvers.-After the student understands thoroughly the principles

the banking maneuvers, his instructor will climb the ship

to
involved an
of in

completely and,
he

will stall
or

as
altitude 2,000 feet more, where the nose
it

drop, remove his hands and feet from the controls and allow
to

to
starts

it
recover without assistance. During this maneuver the student should keep
his hands and feet off the controls.
The instructor will stall the airplane again, and this time
he

will loose the

controls just before the complete stalling point. The ship will “hang” momen
by

tarily, and the instructor will ease slight forward pressure

of

out the stall

it

on the stick.
required
be

The student then will

to

execute these two maneuvers and

during the latter, ship straight while the nose drops and
he

must keep the

during the recovery. The throttle not touched during these maneuvers,
is

and the engine operates cruising revolutions per minute.

at

repeated, with the exception that this

be

The first stall maneuver then will

power fully drop.
be

will
to

time the cut (throttle closed) when the nose starts

the ship
of

The student will execute this maneuver and control the direction
during the drop the nose and the regaining
he
of

of

did with the

as

speed
power stalls.
The instructor then will demonstrate and the student will execute stalls
during climbing turns, both with the power and with the power being cut
on

when the nose starts down.

During the stalls with the power cut and the hands and feet off the controls,
the student will gain some idea how the ship will act glide when left
of

in
a
140

alone.
U. S. DEPARTMENT

To demonstrate this further, the

— OF COMMERCE

instructor will fly the ship level,

throttle back the engine and, with hands and feet off the controls, allow the
ship to glide for the loss of about 1,000 feet of altitude. The student thus will
learn what to expect from the ship's normal performance without power and
of its own accord. The first demonstration may result in a series of steps or
in a dive, depending on the stability of the ship. On subsequent demonstra
tions the instructor will show how an adjustment of the stabilizer alone will
hold the ship at a constant gliding speed and rate of descent. The principle of
nose heaviness in a glide and the necessity for back pressure on the stick (if
the stabilizer is not adjusted to trim the ship) also will be brought out by
this demonstration. The explanations of all these effects in stalls and glides
may be found in part one, chapter I, under the heading. Stability.
The foregoing maneuvers should fix in the student’s mind a primary safety
rule: When in doubt, release al/ contro/s and frust the airplane. This, of
course, does not mean that the airplane can be left alone to complete the
flight; itdoes mean that in the event the student gets too involved in some
maneuver, he can, by releasing the controls, find time to regain his composure
and use his head in applying what knowledge he does possess, while at the same
time the airplane automatically assumes some semblance of normal flight.
Over-lapping functions of confro/s.—In the demonstration of the over
lapping functions of the controls, the student must realize that these are not
demonstrations of the controls’ normal uses. They serve to increase his under
standing of the airplane, by showing causes and effects under unusual condi
tions; and they show certain effects of control use that may be valuable in
case of necessity.
There are usually five maneuvers used by the instructor to demonstrate
these overlapping functions, as follows:
(1) With the ship trimmed for level flight and at cruising throttle,
medium banks are executed and recoveries made by use of the rudder alone.
If the rudder is applied violently, the ship will skid before banking; in fact, it
will skid slightly in any case. This skidding brings the dihedral or sweep
back into action, causing the ship to roll toward a correct bank. However,
if extremely gentle pressure on the rudder pedal is exerted first, the ship
will begin to turn without serious skidding. As it turns, the outer wing
travels faster, than the inner wing, thus increasing the lift of the outer and
causing the ship to bank more. (This principle is more fully explained in
the section devoted to medium and gentle turns under the name “overbanking
tendency.”) At any time, however, the rate of turn may be held constant
with the rudder. Then the overbanking continues only long enough to
bring on a slight slip and thereby bring on dihedral action, such as to pre
vent any further overbanking. Thereafter the bank stays constant, and the
slip continues. The slip required for steady circling in this way is usually
so slight ball bank. For the removal
as to be difficult to detect except with a
of the bank, the need is only for more slip, brought
on by opposite rudder pres
sure. These tendencies to skid going into the turn and slip while coming
out of it demonstrate most clearly the need for ailerons in executing and
recovering from turns.
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 141

(2) Execution of and recovery from steeper banks then are made, using the
rudder and the horizontal stabilizer (no aileron or elevator). The rudder
action will cause the bank as in example 1, while the stabilizer will hold the
nose in the proper position. The same slipping and skidding tendencies will
be noted as in the medium banks.
(3) With the feet off the rudder, banks and recoveries are executed by the
ailerons aided by the elevators. When the ship is so banked, it tends to slip
toward the lower wing. As it slips in the first stages of the bank, the air
strikes the side of the vertical tail surfaces and causes the ship to begin to turn
and at the same time, the nose to drop. The elevators must be used to hold
the nose up. Their effect is to rotate the ship about the lateral axis which,
in a bank, is not horizontal but inclined. Rotation about this axis is then
combined with continued rotation about the yawing axis, due to air pressure
on the vertical fin on account of a very slight but steady slip. The combined
effects of these rotations under such conditions will make the ship continue
to turn.
When recovering from a turn without use of the rudder, there will be a
tendency to skid, which is analagous but opposite to the tendency to slip in
the recovery from the turns made with the rudder alone. These tendencies
toward slipping and skidding further demonstrate the reason for using both
rudder and aileron in the proper execution of turns and recoveries.
(4) The ship is flown in straight and level flight through climbs and glides
of varying degrees by use of the rudder, stabilizer, and throttle, with hands off
the stick. This will show how the throttle settings affect the longitudinal bal
ance of the airplane; with open throttle, the nose will tend to rise, and with
closed throttle, it will drop. The same effect can be achieved by the use of the
stabilizer, acting in lieu of the elevators. The rudder will be used to keep the
wings level, and the direction of flight straight. s

(5) The final demonstration is a further extension of example 4, whereby

the pilot shows how a landing can be made by use of the throttle and stabilizer
alone. Although the instructor will not actually make a landing, he gradually
will bring the ship into a stall as though a landing were being made. The
student will note how the nose can be rapidly brought up by a sharp blast of
the throttle with the stabilizer set at the full or nearly full tail-heavy position.
These demonstrations not only will serve to develop the student’s con
fidence in the airplane, but in addition, they will bring out important principles
of aerodynamics and airplane design which will be of value to him later in his
training should he experience difficulty in control effect analysis during the
understanding or perfecting of some advanced maneuver.
SPIRAL STABILITY
One of these important principles is that which governs the stability of
an airplane in the free spiraling or circling motion that was described last
among the free motions under the heading “Stability” in part one, chapter I,
and left unexplained.
Comparing the turns with rudder alone and with ailerons alone, as de
scribed in the preceding section, the former started with a skid and the latter
with a slip; but after they were well started, to hold the bank and rate of turn
—
142

tail fin and

|U.

keep the airplane yawing.

S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

constant, each of them required the same sort of motion, a very slight, steady
slip. Using the rudder but not the ailerons, this slip was needed so as to make
dihedral action offset the overbanking tendency. Using the ailerons but not
the rudder, the slip was needed so as to make the air strike one side of the
Now,
pen to be exactly equal (either by accident or by skillful design), then both
the rudder and ailerons can be left free at the same time and the airplane will
circle forever. This is neutral stability toward spiralling.
Strictly speaking, this is not a completely free motion if the elevators
are used. Without them, the nose is low and there is a steady loss of altitude.
if

but only very little if the bank is gentle. Neutral stability, without use of the
it,
these two amounts of slip hap

no
elevators, as well as with implies change

of

of

of
or
bank rate turn.
In

many airplanes, the fin little too big for this, give more

to
made
is

a
stability free directional oscillations. Then the slip strong enough
in

to
if

is
prevent overbanking will cause too much force the fin, and thereby in

on
it

overbanking
of

crease the rate turn. This also increases the tendency. So

turn both increase, and the turn becomes tightening
of

the bank and rate

a
spiral, departing farther and farther from straight flight. This spiral

is
instability.
For positive spiral stability, the airplane
have either less fin area may
or

slip

of
The latter change makes

to
more dihedral. take less offset
it

a
overbanking, and
on
so

reduces the force the fin.

In

some airplanes, the fin and rudder together have enough area

In to
cause
on fin

mild spiral instability, while the alone leaves the airplane stable. such
airplane, since the pressures these surfaces are very small,
an

moderate

a
control friction will hold the rudder fixed and thereby make for
of

amount
instability. Indeed, tests stability any motion with the controls left free
of

in

are much less consistent their results than tests with the controls held fixed,
in

because of the uncertainties of control friction.

spiral stability depend somewhat
on

The forces involved the speed,

in

slightly and slightly in

an

way airplane may high

be

that stable speeds

at

such
a

present-day airplanes characteristic,

or at

unstable low. Most have this with the

stability instability small throughout the range
of

speeds used for most

so

flight that they may considered practically neutral. Some are appreciably
be

unstable, but slightly that the pilot has time ranging actually into minutes
so

Long before
an

before average gentle bank (15°) can grow into steep bank,
a

that, usually, will have stopped the turn

he

so
as
to

head toward his destination.

TWO-CONTROL AIRPLANES
all

The possibility making turns without using the controls, and even
of

steady circling with all, leads directly

no
of of

control pressures the idea

at

to

removing one control from the airplane entirely, simplify flying.

so
as
to

this idea, with some remarkable results,

on

Much research has been done

in of

which may prospective buyers airplanes, even though the

be

of
to

interest
airplanes used this course have the conventional three controls.
The first notable two-control airplane was Langley’s. This was wrecked
days before the Wright brothers made the
its

first take-off, 1903, just

in

in

first successful flight with power-driven airplane; but was rebuilt and
it
a
 CIVII, PILOT THAIN IN (; MANUAL 143

flown by Curtiss. It had no ailerons, but relied on a large dihedral angle for
rolling. This meant that

its
always skidded while banking for

of
control

it

its
a turn and slipped while recovering, like any modern airplane when ailerons
are not used.
Several other types airplanes have been built this principle, but none

on
of
them have proved satisfactory, because difficulty take-offs and landings.
In of

of

in
those maneuvers, the wings must kept approximately

be

on
either of the
gust rolls the ship easily has large dihedral; and with

if
same level. A

is all it

by
skidding turn.
no

ailerons the only way quickly

to

at
get level

it

is

a
Even this takes too long, and any skidding especially bad the low speed

at
So
just before landing. airplane definitely dangerous.

an
such

is
One safe way two-control airplane
to

to
make keep the ailerons and

is
a

fin

fin
rudder, making large

as

as
eliminate the the vertical the conventional
and rudder together. Such airplane can kept level landing,

be
an

as
well

in
However, kept exactly along

be
its as

one with three controls. cannot headed

it
flight. yaw just before landing
If
of

line gust makes may land with

at it

it
a

the nose pointing considerable angle from that line.

in

some direction a
With the conventional landing gear, such most airplanes have, this would

as
Its wheels can roll without sliding only

in
cause trouble. the direction

in
they are pointing, they try roll that way. But tail skid can
so

to

which

a
is,
any direction. So can castered tail wheel, that one mounted like
in

move
a

the caster under table leg. Steerable fail wheels are castered, and are steered
a

only through elastic cords, keep them from transmitting ground shock forces
to

landing just described, therefore, the big wheels try

In

as
to

to
the rudder.
roll the direction which the airplane headed, while the tail swings along
in

in

is

the way going. The result dangerously sharp turn called “ground
is

is
it

a
loop.” Such trouble you rudder,

to
avoidable have with which keep
if
is

the airplane headed right before landing, while the ailerons keep level. With
it
no

rudder, the conventional landing gear.

of

forbids the use

it

two-control airplane, therefore, has what called fricycle landing

A

is

gear. This has the two wheels with fixed directions located behind the center
gravity, and the castered, elastically steerable wheel front. can land
of

It
in

pointing flight simply

of

angle from the line and will turn

at

considerable
a

along that line and then roll straight. With the tricycle landing gear,
to

head
no

two-control airplane with ailerons and elevators, but rudder, quite

is
a

practicable; and well designed,

safe.
it if

is
it

Of slips appreciably
the beginning every turn, and very
of
at

course,
slightly, almost imperceptibly, circling constant bank, and
in

at

skids
it
a

fin

appreciably much bigger than the

of
at

the end the turn. Unless the

is

conventional fin and rudder together, such an airplane feels about conven
as
a

tional airplane feels you simply stiffen your feet the rudder pedals
on
if

and hold them fixed throughout all maneuvers. This not good coordination,
is

or

any airplane any maneuver except

in

but safe almost take-off

in
it
is

landing; and with tricycle landing gear safe even there.

in it
is
a

restricted motion, however, comparison with that con

of
It
is
a

ventional airplane. With three controls, you can cause any change you want
rotation around any one the three principal axes—roll, yaw,
of

of

the rate
in

and pitch—or around any other axis, since any rotation some combination
is
144 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

of these three. With only the ailerons and elevators you can cause a change
at will in roll or pitch—both around horizontal axes—or in rotation around
any other horizontal axis, since all such rotations are combinations of roll
and pitch. But you cannot cause a change in rotation around any axis not
horizontal, except either by first tipping the airplane so that one of the
directly controlled axes is not horizontal or by first causing a slip or skid
and then waiting for it to cause the desired rotation by

its

on
action the
fin. Either way, both ways together, the control

of
or
rotation around the
vertical axis indirect, restricted amount, and delayed.

in
is
do

you need you want perfectly coordinated

do
But otherwise? You

if
it
turns, and for acrobatics. You probably like perfect coordination, you

if
it,

do
perhaps anyway; you positively
to

to
are trained and but not have

do
You may like acrobatics also. But you positively need them
it.

have

:
For military use: Yes, you need extensive repertoire acrobatic ma

an

of
For civilian training: Yes; least enough make you feel

at

to

at
neuvers. home
positions rough air may you; and for very
in

the odd into which throw

thorough training, such more advanced maneuvers will help understand

as

in
ing the aerodynamics piloting. For cross-country flying: No; you can fly
of

from Maine California without doing even one snap roll any other

or
to

good two-control airplane.

of

maneuver not well within the limits

a

One maneuver that outside its limits, well designed,

if
the one
is

is

is
it

an
you need do—an accidental spin. To start
be
to

to

most certain not

intentional spin, conventional airplane, you pull the nose up

to
stall
in
a

a
the same time move the rudder all the way side,

so
at

to
and one that the
airplane both stalling and skidding. To stop the spin, the most important
to is

straighten the rudder again. you were

If

to
move lock the rudder
is

straight, you could never start the spin. Even you got spin started for
if

a
by

you, stalling the airplane just particularly bad eddy

as

struck the

in
it it

air, the locked rudder would stop very soon. So two-control airplane
a

with no rudder, but with big

as

as
at

fin least the conventional fin and

a

rudder together, can officially called characteristically incapable

be

of of
what
is

practically proof against the worst type

In

spinning. other words,

is
it

COImmol) el'I'OI’.
Returning the subject coordination, we have seen what coordination
of of
to
by

got pitch and roll, with the elevators and ailerons

be

can direct control

only, and also pitch and yaw, with the elevators and rudder only; but
of of

these two types control are not the only possibilities. Of course the ele
independent anything else, because you
be

be
do
of

to

vators must not want

turn whenever you raise
of

forced into some kind lower the nose. But

or
a

used together. With three controls you use

be

the ailerons and rudder can

them together every time you start turn. So why not fasten them together
a

permanently, and work them with single control wheel?

If

this done
is
a

right, will certainly start turn with better coordination than when either
it

the principle especially

an
of
or

the ailerons rudder are used alone. So this

is

interesting type airplane.

of

two-control
The term two-control, applied this type, evidently does not mean
as

to

all

only two kinds control surfaces, because

of

of

the use three are used,

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 145

Rather, it means the use of only two kinds of control movements. One of
these is pushing the wheel forward or back, to work the elevators alone: the
other is turning the wheel, to work the ailerons and rudder together.
For axes of directly controlled rotation, the former controls the lateral
axis, or axis of pitching, just as usual. For the latter, you can find the axis
by heading toward a range of mountains, in straight and level flight, focussing
your eyes on the nose, and then suddenly turning the control wheel. If
the ailerons are designed so as to cause no “adverse yawing effect,” and this
experiment is tried with a conventional airplane, in which the wheel controls
the ailerons but not the rudder, the mountains appear to your eyes to start
rotating around a point straight ahead, on your own level. With the wheel
controlling the ailerons and the rudder together, however, as in this two
control airplane, the rotation starts around a point about 10° lower, some
where near where you might land if you were to make a fairly steep glide.
The line to that point, then, is the other axis of directly controlled rotation.
So as before, and as in any other case, each of the two kinds of control
movement, when used alone, gives direct control of rotation around only one
axis. The control of rotation around the third axis, perpendicular to both
of the others, is necessarily indirect and therefore relatively slow and restricted
in amount.
Just because of this, an airplane
well designed in this way cannot be con
trolled into a bad skid, so it cannot be spun, though of course it can be stalled.
It may also have enough fin area and enough restriction of the rudder move
ment, and other special features, to be characteristically incapable of spinning.
even when the rudder is separated from the ailerons and used in the conven
tional way, with pedals. In that case, when the pedals are removed and the
rudder is reconnected to the ailerons and wheel, the airplane is doubly
spinproof.
Furthermore, this type of control comes very near indeed to the objective
toward which it is designed—perfect coordination in turns. The axis around
which rotation starts on turning the wheel, as described above, is almost
exactly the same as in starting a perfectly coordinated turn with three controls.
For reasons connected with landings, there is less rudder movement with any
given aileron movement in the two-control airplane than in the start of a
strictly perfect turn, so there is a barely noticeable slip while the bank is
increasing. In stopping the turn, reducing the bank as fast as it was in
creased, there is a trace of skid, about half as great as the slip was. Circling
at a constant bank, it is of course impossible with this control mechanism to
satisfy the conventional airplane's need for opposite aileron pressure and
into-the-turn rudder pressure at the same time. Both of these pressures are
very weak, however, so this airplane comes very near to satisfying this need
by leaving the ailerons and rudder neutral while circling, and having neutral
spiral stability. As in any other spirally neutral airplane circling this way,
this requires a very slight, steady slip, but it is so slight as to escape detection
entirely except by an experienced pilot or a sensitive ball bank. Altogether,
these departures from perfect coordination are so small that they are of interest
only in showing how two-control airplanes of this type work, and they do not
detract in any way whatever from safety or comfort.
146 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COM M1ERCE

The lack of direct control around the third axis does prevent spins, as
noted already, and such acrobatic maneuvers as require violent skids or slips:
but this airplane will do nearly perfect loops, wingovers, chandelles, and lazy
eights.
The only thing it cannot do, that is important for nonacrobatic flying, is
a straight slip. One can fly, as already stated, from Maine to California,
without doing any maneuver not well within the limits of any good two-control
airplane. But if the engine fails, you may need some way to be sure of
getting into a small field, and sometimes there are none of the usual means by
which to estimate the ground wind. Under such circumstances you must be
able either to slip or to use flaps or some other glide-steepening device.
Therefore, any two-control airplane needs some such device.
Finally, to summarize the main points about two-control airplanes, assum
ing that any type under consideration is well designed, they are as follows:
(1) Any two-control airplane has direct control around each of two
axes, and indirect around the third.
(2) On this account it must have a tricycle landing gear.
(3) Whether the third axis is vertical, (as with no rudder), or inclined
slightly forward of the vertical (as with ailerons and rudder on one control),
the lack of direct control around it does not cause any appreciable disability
in ordinary turns, or in other maneuvers dependent on them, because such a
third axis is one around which quick control is not needed for such maneuvers.
(4) Neither does it cause any practically notable amount of skidding or
slipping or other waste of power.
(5) The two-control airplane can do such acrobatics as do not involve
skidding or slipping, but none that do.
(6) It cannot do a straight slip, and therefore needs flaps.
(7) It cannot spin, though of course it can stall.
(8) It is very easy to learn to fly, and to fly after learning.
LEVEL FLIGHT WITH NO HORIZON
Returning to conventional airplanes, it will be recalled that all the descrip
tions of flight maneuvers to this point have contained numerous references to
the horizon and its use as a line on which to place the nose or the wings.
In flat country with reasonably clear air, at an altitude of about 1,000 feet.
the horizon is usually somewhat blurred by haze, but definite enough for such
use. Going higher, however, it is farther away and more blurred. In hazy
weather, it may be too blurred even at a few hundred feet. Among mountains,
such uses of it may be impossible even in clear air, because there is no horizon.
but only a high and irregular skyline. Near one's home airport, it is often
possible to use other levels on the mountains for this purpose; but usually
not away from home. Either in haze or among unfamiliar mountains, there
fly

no

fore, it is absolutely essential to know how to horizontally with horizon.

fly

clear horizon, explained straight and level

on

With
as

page 119,
to
a

you need only hold the airplane the right attitude by reference
to

If to
in

the
open enough get the right engine speed.
to

horizon and the throttle the

air speed not right already, will
or

seconds, and then the

10
be

in
is

it

no 5

flight path will Conversely, with horizon, you get the right
be

if

level.
|

CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 147

engine speed and the right air speed, and hold them long enough, you will
have the right attitude and again the flight path will be level. The next
question, therefore, is how to hold the right air speed.
The obvious suggestion would be, just to use the air speed indicator. This.
however, is more easily said than done; and very often it is made even less
easy by your having to keep your eyes outside the airplane for other purposes.
Circling a strange airport, for example, to examine it before landing, you want
to see everything on it and at the same time to watch where you are going
and watch other directions for other airplanes. (There is always a possibility.
too, that the instrument may have got out of order during the flight, though
such sudden breakdowns are extremely rare except under icing conditions,
which must be avoided for much more urgent reasons.) To keep your eyes

all
free for other work and yet the time know your speed, and even know

it
subconsciously while you think about what you see that airport, you must

on
by by
get evidence senses other than sight.
be

on
to

able
it

Hearing helps this, the air, though the noise

of

of
in

the sounds the

engine and propeller interfere seriously with this sense. The best other sense
muscular sensations coming under the term feel.
of

combination
is
a

This term has already been used and defined for another combination

is of
balance,
of

such sensations and the sense connection with turns. But

in

it
general term, covering both the feel for turns and the feel for speed. These
a

Those belonging
of

to
two kinds feel involve different sensations. the feel

is,
for turns have already been described,
so

to
know what

to
now the need
look for for speed.
in

the feel
The clearest part the control stick. The faster you
of

of

this the feel

is
is;

is,

fly, the firmer yields any given change pressure

of
to

that the less

it

is it
by

your hand. The reason for this simply that the faster you go, the less
you have make the air apply given
an

or
to

to

deflect aileron elevator

a
pressure As noted long ago, when you feel the pressure
on
it.

the stick.
to

you are practically feeling the air pressures

on

the control surfaces.

as no

That you are, provided there serious control-system friction. To

is

is

learn the feel for efficiently, learn what pressures the

as

speed
to

most well
ship wants turns, control-system friction must have been reduced far
as
in
as

possible.
Another part group
of

of

the feel for speed sensations which are

is
a

the feel for turns under the inelegant but

of

included with some those

in

traditional phrase, “Flying

by

your pants.” This part

of

the seat sense

is
a

the changes lift, caused by changes angle attack. As explained

of

is of
in

in

in

part one, chapter low speeds the angle high, and high speeds
of
at

at
I,

attack
40

typical airplane figure example, miles per

of

low. The for

9,

at

stalls
is
it

an

44

angle 17°; miles per hour the angle 12.5°;

of

of
at

at

hour attack
is
82

miles per hour, 0.7°; and no matter how high the speed gets, the angle
of
at

still above -4°, the angle which the wing chord line would
at

attack
4° is

would not lift

44

point below the flight path and the wing all. So

at

at
82

miles per hour the wing 16.5° above the no-lift angle, but miles per
at
is

hour, only 4.7° above added temporarily

of
1°

Now suppose
it.

to

each
is
by

by

nosing up suddenly running into updraft. This

or

these, either local

a
148 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

comes under a rule sometimes stated by the example that an extra inch means
much more on a man's nose than on his foot. So the extra 1° adds much more
liftat the high speed than at the low. The airplane seems to ride more firmly,
or perhaps roughly, at the high speed, and this is a part of the pilot's feel
for speed.
In turbulent air, this difference in feel between these speeds is increased
by another fact noted in part one, chapter I, but not explained there, that
it is difficult to maintain straight and level flight at this lower speed, though
not at the higher. At the very low speed any temporary increase in angle of
attack causes an increase in drag. This reduces the speed, causing a decrease
of lift. This in turn lets the flight path incline downward, increasing the angle
of attack still more and so causing another increase of drag, another loss of
speed, and so on. This drop continues until it has got steep enough to make
the airplane pick up speed even against the greater drag. all this has If
happened, the pilot has had a sinking feeling. So this may be a part of the
feel of a dangerously low speed in turbulent air. Note well this last qualifica
tion—in turbulent air. Too many poorly trained pilots have let their air speed
get too low in steady air, for lack of gusts to start this rather fortuitous
danger signal.
Altogether, feel consists of at least the following parts:
For turns, the feel for the vertical, including both muscular sensations
and the sense of balance.
For speed, the firmness of the stick and the firmness of the air.
A reasonably good feel for the vertical is a part of the normal sensory
equipment of any man who can pass the physical examination for a student
all

In

permit. He has used it continually learning fly,

he
to
his life. has
separate this feel for the vertical from what his eyes tell him about
to

to

learn
the vertical, and the same time for different purposes. As

he
to

at

use them
progresses flying, can greatly improve the precision
he
of

of
in

the art his feel

by

for the vertical training. For all that, however, feel for something
is
it

has been concerned always.

he

with which
the other hand,
for something new. The student
on

The feel for speed,

is
is,

cruising
to

has learn how firm the stick first speed and then too fast and
at
all

too slow, start from any background

no

of

He has
to

with instinct. learn

also how firmly the airplane rides dis
at

these different speeds, and how

to

tinguish between changes roughness

of

the air and changes the speed.

in

in

the
progresses learning both these ways recognizing different speeds,
he

of

of

As
in

use this knowledge: when the speed too high

he

to or
to

must also learn too

is

low, make the right sort change the airplane

to is of

of
in
to

the attitude get

a

the speed right; and when already right,

he
of to

hold so. Meanwhile must

it
it

rely the instructor, both help him learn.

on

keep him out

to

trouble and
Helping him learn how firm the stick ought be, does not mean telling
to
do

do

him. Nobody can that, because you

to

not measure the firmness and

it

cannot say just what fraction many ounces

an
of

inch the stick will move for

so

Instead, telling flying

he he
of

or

pressure. means him whether too fast too

is
it

slow,
he
so

that can know what the speed when feels the stick and the
is
fix

ship. Then
he

his mind what feel goes with that speed. What the
in

can
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 149

instructor tells him, therefore, is essential to learning the feel for speed, but
what he has to find out for himself is equally essential. He must have both.
This puts a definite obligation on every student to do his part of the work: To
note the feel of the stick and the ship every time he knows the speed, and to
tie them together in his mind. -

When he progresses beyond dual instruction, he must keep right on

learning. By that time he knows what feel goes with his cruising speed, and
what with much too fast, or much too slow. But that is not real precision. He
is like a marksman who has just learned to hit the target at all, and has needed
to know merely whether he did hit it or missed it to the right or to the left.
Now he wants a bull's-eye in his target. The best bull's-eye is a reliable air
speed indicator.
Either
the instructor or the indicator can tell him what air speed he must
tie in his mind to what he feels, but at first only the instructor can tell him
really well what to do about This not just because the indicator lacks
it.

is
imperative occasionally needed for getting the nose
of

the tone voice that is

down, but primarily because certain important but often overlooked habits
of

the airplane.
of

He wants know not only whether he

has hit the desired speed, but also
to

He must not just push the

or
to

whether raise lower the nose, and how much.

pushing too low, and up when
on

nose down and keep whenever the speed

is
it

too high. That what the beginner would expect and tends do,

to
ever
it
is

is

So

makes very rough flying. beyond just what the

he

and needs instruction

it

air speed indicator tells him most obviously. This qualification, “most
obviously,” blind flying the information

on
necessary because

to
when
in
is

lower the nose does come from this instrument, but way not all
or

at
raise
in
a
flying progress
of

of

obvious.” Such far ahead the stage under discussion

is

do

all
here, but what ought with the nose, and why, are important
he

to

at
stages, not only for safety, but even more for smooth flying.
The one thing must not do, too high, only
to he

or

the speed moderate

if

is

low, try hurry Suppose pilot knows his

to

amount too back normal.

to
is

too low and yields the temptation pushing the nose down
on

speed
to

to

keep
is

till the speed right. By that time

he

on on

dive. Then the speed keeps

in
is

is

increasing. The nose must come up. next, and the temptation
to

keep
is

pulling higher. This gets the airplane into climb. Soon the speed too
is
it

In

low again, perhaps even lower than the first time.

he

such case, would

a

take his hands off the stick entirely, and let the airplane
to

have done better

by
its

find good attitude own inherent stability.

a

quite long time, because the airplane's way finding

of

That would take

a

good attitude the way described part one, chapter the section,
I,
in

in
is

Longitudinal Stability, namely

In

perform phugoid oscillations.

of
to

series
a

seconds for each

20

30

these the nose swings very slowly down and up, taking
or

round trip, and perhaps

or

all. The reason his pushing

in

whole minute two

a
up

this: When the airplane

of to

the nose down and makes trouble allowed

is is

is

flight path
do
its

its

own oscillations, long waves, like those

of

serious
a

Karl I.)ay. INstruMENT AND RAdio FLYING, blind flying

p.

As expressed by 22, the rule

S.

in

is
*

the air speed indicator control changes

of

attitude.”
to

“{*se the trend

in
150 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

figure 85. Its lowest

occurs at the crest of each wave, and there its
speed
attitude is nearly as in level flight, but the nose is already swinging down.

its
The highest speed is at the bottom of each wave, where again attitude

is
level but the nose swinging up. Under these conditions, pilot pushes

if
the

is
during wants, and up

he
the nose down all the time the speed lower than

as is
too high, the result was pushing pendulum

he
whenever the same

if
is

is
it

a
back and forth time with its swings. Of course the nose builds up big swings
in
under this mistreatment, though the swings would have died out eventually

if
the pilot had first relaxed.
wants level flight without waiting that long, therefore,
he

he
If

cannot
way. only by waiting part

of
get that He can get reasonable that time.
it

it

a
too low, but not dangerously so, may lower the nose
he

he
If

knows the speed

is

to
moderate amount with reference the most distant landmarks visible
a

Then, when probably about right,

he

he
ahead. thinks must hold there
is
it

it
and wait for the airplane pick up

as
20 it to

its new speed. He must remember,

explained seconds for the airplane
on

or
page 119, that

to
10
takes do this.
5

must hurry about something,

In

he

he

he
or
10
can count
if

seconds

if
5

relaxes. By the end that time the airplane will have made most
of

of
the change
going
of

speed that will make most

to

make, and
in

the next seconds

is
it

it
5
slowest
swinging
nose Down

Figure 85.-Phugoid oscillations.

By then
of

he

he
of

will know whether

it.

the rest has lowered the nose too

too little, and where ought put
he

he
or

to

it.

much Then can ease into that

position smoothly, and flight path
it

be
speed will
10

another his and

in

seconds
-
right.”

fly
the strangest paradoxes flying that many pilots can
of

of

One
is

smoothly “by feel” but not they get their information

on

the air speed from

if

the indicator; and yet feel and the air speed indicator both indicate exactly
the same things and depend exactly the same fundamental law relating
on

pressure air speed and air density.

to

The reason for the difference this: The feel for speed not single
is
is

speed requires sense impres

of

of

of

“sensation speed.” An estimate series

a

sions. When pressure applied bring the wings back

to

be to

the stick level

to
is

of by

bump,
of

after the movement the stick may affected further turbulence

a

by

takes more than one application furnish

as

as

speed. pressure
to
It

much
the speed, whether the pressures are applied rough air
on

reliable evidence
of in

correct for turbulence, smooth air for the special purpose estimating
or
in
to

pilot long experience

to of

The safe and skillful

so

speed. has learned these feels

thoroughly that reacts directly them, probably without paying conscious
he

by

The novice can reach this stage only deliberately looking

to

attention them.
learning recognize
of

for them and

to

them. Whether the estimate speed

is

however, pilot
or

conscious subconscious, takes time. Meanwhile the holds

it

This rule essentially equivalent the rule for controlling the attitude blind flying quoted
in
to
is
*

in footnote
S.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 151

the airplane in fairly constant attitude by reference to the most distant land
a
marks. So he follows the rule of giving the airplane time to change

its
speed,

it,
and fly

by he

he

he
If
can follow

or

it.
whether not knows does know

it
by
perfectly smooth air, where

In
smoothly, either

or
feel the indicator.
feel, the smoothest flight
byno
there need for control pressures except get

to
is is

then the indicator.

by
fly
As explained every pilot must learn how
above, feel, anyway,

to
he

very profitable the best possible

of
will find train his sense

to
and

to
feel
it training
precision. Beyond the end

he

he
on
of
the course, can keep while

it
flies for other purposes. Unfortunately, many pilots neglect this opportunity.

go
Thinking they have learned enough, perhaps not knowing how

or
about

to
learning more, perhaps not knowing any clear-cut way identify the

of
or

of to
speed that goes with any given feel, they gradually lose track what the feel
means and drift off into dangerous habits. pilot may, for example, fly

A
straight and level right

of
speed, but fail

to
about the sense the loss speed
at

by
stalling

he
maneuvers, and ultimately end Or
in

at
turn low altitude.

in
a
may fail higher speed than cold, with
to

realize that hot weather demands

a
more engine speed (100 more revolutions per minute for
to

50
match more
it

explained
be

will
as

degrees, later) and that both the feel and the indicated
exactly the same

he
air speed must
in

as
be

hot weather cold wants the

in

if
same aerodynamic forces. Hot-weather stalls are among the most common
Like all other stall accidents they are preventable,
of

causes serious accidents.

and the man who must prevent them the pilot.
is

For safety, but even more for good, efficient flying, pilot must keep his
a

For this,
of

as

sense feel well trained. noted above, when the instructor

is
no longer with him, the air speed indicator

be
invaluable. should accu
It
is

not, the pilot may have

he

he
of
If

If
to

rate. make the best what has.

it
is
an

airplane type knows, for example, can find out very quickly
he

he
of

hires
a

he it he
what the air readings first approximation. All
at

speed mean,
to

least
a

airplane up reasonably smooth air and put

to

to

needs do take the into

is

it by

normal glide,
on

into whatever reference marks the front windows

a

10

has used before, hold for the seconds needed for getting steady speed,
a

and then read the indicator. This identifies fairly well the most important
point
its

scale, the reading the speed for minimum drag. Moreover this
on

at

reading will stay the same, regardless altitude and temperature, even though
of

the true air glide higher high altitude when the air
or
at

speed
in

the
is

is
a

hot. The speed for maximum climb always reading just few miles per
at
is

hour greater, and independent altitude and temperature.

of
as

almost
A
is is
it

by

good cruising speed faster, amount depending the type

an

on

is of

still
airplane, but presumably already known pilot. The stalling
to

the speed
by

point trial,
on

another easily fixed the scale direct but less necessary because,
explained part one, chapter all practical flying more than two
I,

or
in
as

three
feet from the ground should the normal glide, and most
be

as

as

fast
at

least
of faster.
it
is

Even crudely checked instrument, then, protection against drifting

is
a

bad habits, and may little more checking,

be

into lifesaver. With

at as

such
it

different readings the indicator, and requirements

of

of

of
as
to

rates climb
201073°–41—11
152 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

engine speed for level cruising, even such a crudely checked instrument may go
farther than simple protection and be a great aid in training the pilot's feel
to precision. But of course a better instrument is better. And it can be bought.
The one thing here that cannot be bought is the will to learn. As explained
above, learning the feel for speed depends not only on having reliable informa
tion on what speed is being felt, but equally on consciously noting the feel and
mentally tying that feel to that speed. Learning what to do with the nose,
after the speed has been felt, also depends on first knowing what to look for
and then watching it and remembering. Whether or not any pilot has the innate
talent needed for achieving outstanding ability in flying, he can always get
farther if he finds out what to learn, and how, and then really works to learn

it.
CLIMBS
Throughout his training straight and level flight, turns, coordination
in
exercises, and the confidence-building maneuvers, the student will have been
following through the controls while the instructor handled the ship
on

on
the
take-offs, climbs and glides, and landings. He will, therefore, have some con
ception by this time the various positions the ship during these, and will
of

of
prepared the climbs and glides, starting with the
be

receive instruction
in
to

-
normal climbs.
Normal climbs.-Definition.—A normal climb cruising

at
climb made
is
a
m.

air speed, with the specified by the instructor (or engine manufacturer).
p.
in r.

kept not the steepest climb nor the maximum

It

be

should mind that this

is

climb, both along with the normal climb part one,

of

which were defined

in
-
chapter
I.

Related factors-At first the student will have

on to

resort some mechanical

to
position point
of
as

to
means such relation the
to in
the some reference the nose
he

horizon for angle. Later

to

can learn use feel also, and train his feel

for climbs for level flight, the preceding section.
as

as

as

well
in

described
During normal climbs, the lateral axis the airplane must
be
of

held level
and the course straight, while the proper gain altitude accomplished. The
in

is

like straight and level flight but oblique plane, with

an

maneuver constant
in
is

gain altitude.
in

After the student attains some proficiency

he

be

the normal climbs will

in

given instruction the maximum climb, which full power

at

climb made
in

is
a

angle from which will result the gain

at

and and speed greatest altitude

in

the
feet per minute.
in

In these trying obtain more performance

he

of

will learn the effects

to

than his airplane capable of, which results gain,

of
in

the rate
in

decrease
is

mushing.
of

He also will learn

to

to

and coordinate the use the throttle the

climb desired, and recognize the capabilities the aircraft for vary
of

of

degree
ing power output.
-
In

learning these climbs will help mind the principles

of
to

keep well
on in
it

part one, chapter climbs, which may well

I,

climbs discussed
in

in

the section
-
point.
at

be reviewed this
Eacecution.—To put the ship normal climb from cruising speed, all
in
a

apply slight backward pressure

on

necessary the stick until the

to

that
is

is

by the instructor,
to

at

nose rises above the horizon the extent indicated the

easing open produce the desired revolutions per
to

same time the throttle

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 153

minute. Increased pressure must be applied to the right rudder pedal, the
amount depending upon the steepness of the climb. This characteristic is not
so noticeable in light aircraft.
Recovery.—Recovery consists merely of easing the stick back to neutral
and closing the throttle until the tachometer indicates cruising revolutions per
minute.
Common faults.-(1) Applying back pressure too quickly and putting the
ship into a climb which is too steep.
(2) Releasing pressure too quickly and causing an unpleasant sensation of
being raised from the seat.
(3) Allowing ship to yaw, or swing to one side, through improper use of
the rudder pedals—usually too little pressure on the right pedal.
Climbing furns.—Definition.—As the name implies, a climbing turn is
simply a normal turn made while the ship is gaining altitude.
Related factors.-The purpose of introducing the maneuver at this point
is further to improve coordination by applying in combination principles
already developed in climbs and turns, and to prepare the student for later
instruction in advanced and acrobatic maneuvers. Before and after executing
a climbing turn, the student will also engage in straight and level flight, thus
obtaining practice in three of the four fundamentals.
During the early instruction in climbing turns, the ship must be held in
a constant rate of climb, a constant rate of turn, and a constant angle of bank
throughout the maneuver. The degree of climb or turn may vary each time
the maneuver is practiced, but must remain constant once it is started.
Later, the student will learn the various combinations of steepness of turn

is,
and steepness of climb throughout the capabilities of the aircraft; that

a
shallow climb and steep bank, then steeper climb and shallower bank,
a

by
all

through the range. the shading

on

of
so

and The coordination controls

pressures
be
on
of

them must mastered.

aileron and rudder pres
In

climbing turns the amounts

byof

of

the execution
exactly constant altitude,
be

as

at

found the same rules turns

in

sures can
namely rules page 129. The rule for the elevator pressure
on

and then
is
2
1

just the same

as

rule except that the nose held somewhat above the horizon
is
3

right How much above depends

by on

on
of

of

the steepness
it.

instead the climb

trying watching
be

must learned various attitudes and the results.

Eacecution.—Ease the ship into gentle climb, well below the maximum.
a

After the climb definitely established, make

of

normal turn with bank

is

maintaining climbing position

on
of
or

30° less, the the nose the horizon.

Make the turn through degrees, preferably 180°.
of

definite number These

a

instructions are for elementary practice. Later, steeper banks may

be

made.
Recovery.—Recover from the turn previously instructed, maintaining
so as

continuous back pressure keep the ship climbing. After

on

as

the stick
to
a

wings leveled, may neutral and straight

be

the the stick eased forward

to

are
and level flight resumed.
-

begin the turn properly with use

of

Common faults.--(1) Failure

to

rudder and elevators, resulting very little turn, but rather climb with one
in

wing low.
154 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(2) Failure to recognize the climbing limits, or the proper angle of climb
for the degree of bank and amount of power being used and, hence, climbing
too steeply. This results in decreased rate of climb, or “mushing,” just as in
a straight climb.
(3) Improper use of the controls, causing the airplane to slip, thus counter
acting the effect of the climb and resulting in little or no gain in altitude.
(4) Failure to hold one or more of the following: constant rate or angle of
the climb, constant bank, or constant rate of turn.
(5) Skidding.—Skids are bad in any maneuver, but they are particularly
dangerous in this one. A prolonged skid combined with a climb that is too
steep may result in a spin.
GLIDES
Normal glides.—Definition.—The normal glide, or descent without power,
is a glide at the angle and speed at which the airplane will travel the greatest
forward distance for a given loss of altitude in still air. This angle can be
determined only by trial as each model of airplane has its own gliding angle.
There may also be slight differences between two airplanes of the same model,
but not serious differences unless one of the airplanes has some defect in
construction or surfaces, such as to cause undue drag.
Related factors.--When the proper angle is demonstrated by the instructor,
the student should check the attitude of the ship with reference to the horizon
and fix it in his mind. He also should note the sound made by the air passing
by the wires, struts, etc., and how this tone decreases as the speed decreases.
The feel of the controls and the feel of the airplane itself also should be noted.
One of the demonstrations in the confidence-building maneuvers was to
allow the airplane to assume its own attitude without power and with the con
trols free. In the discussion of this maneuver, the necessity for back pressure
on the stick during a glide was pointed out. The student again should note
this and learn the amount of back pressure necessary to maintain the desired
angle and speed.
After the student has learned thoroughly the normal glide, the instructor
will demonstrate abnormal glides. In a glide which is too slow the student
should note the sluggishness of the controls, the extra pressure required to hold
the nose up, and the definite feeling that the airplane is falling out from under
him, as explained in the section, Level Flight with No Horizon.
On the other hand, when the glide is too fast or too steep, he should note
that although the control is satisfactory, considerable excess speed is acquired
and that an appreciable time is required to dissipate this speed after level flight
is resumed.
The best gliding speed is always less than the cruising speed and when
the throttle is closed the cruising speed must be reduced to that of the normal
glide. Forcing the nose down carries the speed into the glide and retards the
attainment of the correct speed and angle, but should be practiced until the
student has acquired some flying experience.
It is highly important for the student to learn the capabilities of his ship
in a normal glide as well as its attitude, otherwise, in case of engine failure
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 155

and consequent forced landing, he will have no idea of where the ship can
be made to go.
Eacecution.—Assuming that the ship is flying at cruising speed, ease the
throttle back gently and apply forward pressure on the stick until the nose
sinks below the horizon to the point designated by the instructor. As experi
ence is gained, it will be found unnecessary to push the nose down since, as the
speed decreases, it will drop of its own accord. However, the beginner should
form the habit of insuring that the nose goes down as soon as the engine
stops. After the nose is down and the speed decreases (as a result of closing
the throttle), a slight back pressure on the stick will be necessary to hold the
nose in the proper position.
Ifthe ship has been “carrying right rudder,” or requiring pressure on the
right rudder pedal to maintain straight flight, it will be found that the pres
sure no longer is required. If it has been trimmed by offsetting the fin to
correct for torque, it is likely that a slight pressure on the left rudder pedal
will be needed to maintain a straight course.
During the glide, the throttle should be opened slightly and gently closed
again at intervals of about a minute. This opening should be done as smoothly
as possible for two reasons: First, sudden opening of the throttle is injurious
to the engine; and, second, it abruptly changes the trim of the ship, causing
the nose to rise and torque to be produced again. By opening it very gradually
and only about one-quarter, or less, of its full throw both of these difficulties
will be eliminated and in addition no excess speed, in any appreciable amount,
will be picked up. The reasons for opening the throttle are to prevent the
engine from becoming “loaded,” to keep the plugs from fouling, and to keep
the engine warm so that when the power is turned on again it will be available.
Recovery.—Recovery from the glide consists merely of opening the throttle
gradually until the tachometer indicates the cruising revolutions per minute,
simultaneously easing off the pressure on the stick and changing the pressures
on the rudder pedals as may be needed to maintain a straight course.
Common faults.--(1) Forcing the nose down too abruptly.
(2) Not maintaining adequate backward pressure on the stick, thus allow
ing the ship to glide too steeply.
(3) Forgetting to clear the engine by proper use of the throttle.
(4) Opening throttle too abruptly in recovery.
(5) Not removing backward pressure on stick when throttle is opened for
recovery, thus putting the airplane into a climb.
Gliding turns.—Definitions.—As the name implies, this maneuver is simply
a turn while gliding.
Related factors.-The purpose of introducing the maneuver at this point
is to prepare the student for practice in approaches and landings.
There are several reasons why turns while gliding are of particular impor
tance. As mentioned above, they are associated directly with precision landings.
They must be performed more subconsciously than other maneuvers since
ordinarily the pilot will be concerned with the condition of the airport, other
aircraft on the ground and in the air, and similar details, rather than with the

| .
156 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

mechanics of making the turn. Furthermore, gliding turns frequently are

used close to the ground; hence accuracy in their execution is particularly
important and errors are likely to be much more hazardous.
The control action in a gliding turn differs from that when the power is on.
This is due partly to the lower speed and partly to the absence of the slipstream
on the tail surfaces. Also, as previously explained, the action of the rudder
may be different because of the absence of torque. Nevertheless rules 1 and 2
for finding the proper coordination in turns hold exactly the same in gliding
turns as at constant altitude or in climbing turns, even though they give
a slightly different coordination. Rule 3 also is the same except that instead
of holding the nose on the horizon the pilot must keep it a constant amount
below the horizon. Exactly as in turns at constant altitude, the pilot must be
sure he is banked as he wants to be (rule 1) and neither skidding nor slipping
(rule 2) before he attempts to apply rule 3. In applying it he must expect
it to demand more back pressure on the stick than at constant altitude, because
of the tendency of any airplane with the line of its propeller shaft going below
or not far above the center of gravity to glide too steeply.
Since more power is needed to make a turn than to fly straight, and since
the power of the engine is not available in a glide, the speed of the ship should
be increased by dropping the nose slightly before the turn is begun, and
keeping it lower during the turn than while gliding straight.
The most important rule in gliding turns, as in any other turns, especially
-
at low altitudes, is a part of rule 2: DON'T SKID.
In recovering from gliding turns it must be remembered that due to the
absence of the slipstream and the decreased speed, more movement is required
on the rudder pedal. Furthermore the nose must be kept in its same position
below the horizon. If the back pressure on the stick is removed completely,
the airplane will tend to dive.
Eacecution.—Put ship in a normal glide as previously explained. To make
the turn, apply rudder and stick pressures just as in a power turn (though
greater movement of these controls is required), concentrating on moving the
airplane to the desired attitude rather than moving the controls, and keeping
the nose well below the horizon so as to compensate for the increase of drag
which accompanies any turn.
Recovery.—Recovery to straight glide is accomplished in the same manner
as recovery from a power turn, but care must be observed not to overcontrol,
for the reasons given above.
Common faults.-(1) Not enough bank for the desired turn. This usually
is caused by too much pressure on the stick toward the high wing in an effort
to prevent overbanking, and is neglect of rule 1.
(2) Skidding the turn. This is neglect of rule 2. The student is likely
to be deceived by the greater rudder movements required in a glide and
hence use excess rudder.
(3) Slipping after recovery. (Rule 2) This is the result of too much
pressure on the upper rudder pedal when leveling out the ship, due to the
different feel and action of the rudder when the power is off.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 157

(4) Diving during the turn and recovery. (Rule 3) This fault is caused
by insufficient back pressure on the stick.
Cautions.—Care should be taken to avoid skids, particularly those caused
by efforts to turn without first banking enough. It should be remembered
flight path appreciably unless

its
that the airplane will not change banked,

is
it
proper swing

of

of
and that the use rudder without amount bank will the nose
of

the airplane but, instead making turn, will simply cause

of

to
move

it

at it
sideways through the air. The hand should kept on the throttle

be be
all times
during the glide and displayed using the engine

no
hesitation should

in
any feeling
of

of
or
there mushiness speed.
if

loss
is

another danger As the airplane

of
There the rudder.

in
excessive use
is

skids, the bank will increase. This often alarms the student when close

to
the ground, and applies pressure
he

of
the stick toward the outside the turn

to
check the bank. At the same time, the rudder forces the nose down and
to

the student pulls back

In
up. his general dismay
on

to
the stick hold his

at
is it
apparent inability handle the ship, likely finish up with the stick

he

to
to
all

practically the way back the opposite

on
one corner and full rudder
in

side—a perfect control setting for spin.

a

RECTANGULAR COURSE
training consists flying rectangular
of

or of
Definition.—This unit the

a
ground object patch

of
or

as

course around area such field woods.

a

Related factors.-The maneuver simulates the conditions encountered

landing Having acquired proficiency

it,
be

when the student

to to

made.

in
is
be a

will new problems encountered when

to

better able devote his attention

actual landing practice begun.
is

Furthermore, the maneuver assists the student perfecting:

in

(1) Practical application

of

the turn.
attention between the flight path, ground objects, and
of

(2) The division

the handling the airplane.
of

(3) The timing fully estab

be
of

of

that the turn will

so

the start turn

a

point ground.
on
at

lished definite the

a

(4) The timing the recovery from definite ground

of

so

turn that
a
a

course will be maintained.

or

(5) The establishing angle

of

of

of

track the determination “crab".

(Crabbing occurs when the airplane being flown cross wind that, because
so
an is

drift, the longitudinal axis angle the flight path).

of

at

to
is

other object should rectangular, well away from aerial

be

The field
or

traffic, and with sides not more than mile nor less than one-fourth mile
in
a

length. The altitude should approximately 500 feet, which that usually
be

is

required for traffic around the airport.

The student should not attempt fly over the actual perimeter
of
to

the
rectangular course or, other words, place the fuselage directly over the
in

to

ground landmarks outlining the course.

do

This not only difficult

to

but
is

has the following disadvantages:

very steep; otherwise the flight path ceases
be

be

(1) Turns must

to

rectangular and becomes approximately circle inscribed within the rectangle.

a
158 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(2) An exceedingly large field or similar outline is required and thus the
number of available courses is limited.
(3) The turning point is lost and the student must guess where to start
and recover from a turn. This will cause considerable “jockeying” and promote
over-controlling at a time when smoothness and precision should be developing.
If the field is small, then the flight path should be conducted so that the
outline of the field appears to be slightly beyond the wings on the side toward
the course. The distance from the side of the field to the course affects the
steepness of the bank used, since turns must be made steeper as the flight path
approaches closer to the actual outline of the course.
Eacecution.—The field should be approached at an altitude of about 500
feet by flying parallel to one side. The beginning of the turn should be timed
so that the maximum amount of bank will occur at the corner of the field. The
recovery from the turn should be timed so as to permit flying parallel to the

is,
adjacent side without adjustment, that without having

an
additional

to
make
parallel the side This pro

of
turn either direction order to
the field.
in

in

ship
It be

at

cedure should repeated each corner and the flown around the field
performed the opposite direction.
be

several times. then should

in in

as
Common faults.--(1) The usual faults turns, such tenseness, poor
the controls, and gaining losing altitude.
of

or
coordination and use
(2) Improper timing beginning and recovering from turns.
in

drift, not establishing the proper amount

of
(3) Failure allow for
or
to

“crab.”
STALLS
During the confidence-building maneuvers, the student given some

is
preliminary instruction given additional instruction
be

stalls. He now will

in

practice stalls from level flight and from turns, with and without power.
in

in

or
an
of

Definition.—A stall follows: “The condition airfoil

as

defined
is

airplane operating angle attack greater than the angle

an

of

which
in

at
is
it

maximum lift.”" The loss lift

of

stall and the wing's

of

of

attack
in
a

nosing down have been described and explained part one,

in on

in

insistence
chapter the section, Slowing Down, which may well
be

at
I,

reviewed
this point.
Related factors.-Stalls are put this point because they
in

at

the course
provide excellent practice for landing inasmuch stall may
be
as

considered
a

landing
as

landing made the air and simply very

to

stall
in

close
is
a

the ground.
On the other hand, effective control aircraft with proper stability
an
of

depends upon maintaining certain minimum, the stalling

an

air speed above

a

This support the ship level flight

at

speed. the speed necessary the

in
to
is

angle maximum lift and varies with each airplane

of

and with the load

by

carried particular airplane. Students often get into difficulties when

a

flying ship one time with gas board and perhaps

on
of

minimum amount
of a

the equipment, such tool kit, missing, and the next time with
as

some

A. Report No. 474.

10

N. A.
C.
 -
CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 159

full tanks, full equipment, and possibly some baggage. In the latter case,
the stalling speed may be appreciably higher than in the former.
The nearer the airplane approaches the stalling speed, the less the effec
tiveness of the controls, as explained a few pages back under Level Flight
with No Horizon.
To gain for recovery from stalls requires either altitude or power,
speed
or both if one or the other is limited. The more severe or complete the stall,
the more altitude or power (or both) is necessary for recovery. Accord
ingly, stalls always should be practiced during the early stages at a safe
altitude—at least 2,000 feet.
Ordinarily, vision is the sense most valuable to the pilot. However, it is
of little value in anticipating the approach to the stall particularly at approxi
mately normal flight attitudes; therefore, the other senses, particularly that of
feel, including the feel of the controls, must be developed and relied upon.
Hearing also is important since, as previously mentioned, the tone and intensity
of the sound incident to flight decrease as speed decreases.
Power off-Earecution.—To begin the stall from level flight, the throttle
is closed and the nose gradually pulled up until it will rise no farther. The
more slowly this operation is performed, the less violent will be the stall; in
fact, the stick may be brought back so slowly that, in some ships, the nose
its

will rise only a little above position normal flight. pulled back

If
in

is
it
too quickly, the result will “whip” stall, which the nose points approxi
be

is in
a
up

mately straight and the longitudinal axis approximately vertical. Whip

trying ship pilot,

be
on

all

at
stalls are both the and the and should avoided
times. The best procedure for the student pull the stick back just fast
to
is

enough hold the ship the approximate position assumes when resting
to

in

it

normally
on

the ground.
As the nose goes up and the speed reduced, the resistance ordinarily
is

of
felt when the controls are moved becomes less and less and the response the
airplane slower and slower until, complete stall, large control movements
in
a

In

are necessary, most airplanes, produce appreciable effect. many ships

to
in

the ailerons especially lose their effectiveness, though aerodynamic research

has helped the most modern airplanes.
of

diminish this loss

in
to

some
stalling point approached, definite feeling settling,
of

As the there
is

is
a

already explained, and when the complete stall ship

be as

reached, the
to

seems
is

falling out from under the pilot.

keep the wings level and the nose from swinging.
be

to

Care should taken

ships spin readily from large amount
of

Most modern do not stall unless

a
a

by

rudder used. Nevertheless, spin always preceded stall and begins

is

is
a

by the dropping one wing.

of

stall. The wings can kept level

be

on be

The ailerons should not

in

used
a

by careful use rudder, pushing pedal

of

of

the forward the rudder the side

is,

the high wing; that the right wing tends drop, the left rudder pedal
to
if

should be moved ahead. Note that the word “move” used this time instead
is

no

“press.” for this change expression pressure

of

The that little

or
in

reason
is

rudder pedal until

be

can felt on the there has been considerable movement

160 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

and because a much more positive action is necessitated to obtain the desired
response.at such low airspeed. Further discussion of the effect of controls is
given below. -
-
Recovery.—Recovery consists of easing the stick forward until the nose
drops to the position of a steep glide. This requires a definite and positive
forward movement of the stick. If
it is moved ahead too slowly, the recovery
will not be clean and the airplane will simply “mush.” The same thing applies,
if the controls are not brought forward far enough. On the other hand, the
nose should not be allowed to drop too far, as an unnecessarily steep dive with
consequent loss of altitude will follow.
The stick should be left in whatever position produces a steep glide until
flying speed is regained, as indicated by the return of resistance and respon
siveness of the controls. Gradual backward pressure then is applied to the
stick, and the throttle opened smoothly until straight and level flight is
resumed.
Reasons for specified use of controls.-It should be noted that emphasis is
placed on the use of the rudder in a stall. Unless the ship is provided with
slotted wings or some other device to improve aileron efficiency at low speeds,
the ailerons not only are ineffective but may even produce a response which
is just the reverse of that in normal flight.
When an airfoil is stalled, it has reached its angle of maximum lift. There
fore, change in the airfoil section and the effective angle of attack caused by
moving the aileron down carries the airfoil past the burble point, thus allowing
that wing to drop. Furthermore, the lowered aileron increases the drag on that
side, thus creating a tendency for that wing to move more slowly than the other.
Since it moves more slowly, its lift decreases and for this reason also it tends to
drop. Some ships which are difficult to spin may be spun by “crossing the
controls” ” or using full left aileron and full right rudder (or vice versa) when
the stick is hard back. Hence the ailerons should be left in neutral.
Since the elevators must be held well back to maintain the stall, they must
be considered as temporarily out of the picture. The rudder usually is the last
control to “go out” or become ineffective. Its action in keeping the wings level
if,

is as follows: for example, the right wing begins go down, the left rudder
to

pedal should previously

be

instructed. This causes the nose

as

moved ahead
swing the left and the right wing
be
to

to

to

forced ahead and travel faster

to

than the left wing. Since moving faster, its lift greater than that
of

the
is

is
it

left wing and rises accordingly. However, caution must

be

to

observed not
it

move the rudder pedal too far. Otherwise the right wing will rise above the
go

level position and the left wing will down, necessitating the use the right
of

pedal bring the left wing up. This rolling back and forth likely
to

a to

become
is

more pronounced until finally the ship doing what approximates falling
is

“fanning” “walking” guarded

be
of

leaf. The habit

or

the rudder should

against.
certain aircraft, there excessive elevator travel,
in
It

has been found that

is

considerably more than required complete stall, and

to

obtain the excess

if
is

on “Spins,”
p.

See also discussion 201.

*
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 161

elevator control or upward travel is applied, an unruly and undesirable stall is

obtained, particularly in “power” stalls.
In these ships, the student should understand that a complete stall may be
obtained by using the necessary amount of elevator travel (back stick or
back wheel) to achieve a clean breaking stall, whereas, if he applies the remain
ing amount of elevator upward travel he aggravates the stall to the point of
having the aircraft “pitch” over on one wing tip or another.
Power on—Eacecution.—All of the principles which apply to power-off
stalls apply also to power stalls. The results of full-power stalls are more
vicious and rapid and the airplane is somewhat harder to handle. This is
particularly true of the tendency to fall off on one side or the other. Usually
it is the left wing which tends to drop, because of the torque of the engine.
As explained in part one, chapter I, compensation for torque is made by
washing-in or increasing the angle of the left wing tip. However, this is
effective only when the airplane has flying speed. In a power stall the torque
is as great as ever, but the compensating effect of the wash-in is lost, due both
to the loss of speed and the fact that the washed-in tip burbles sooner than
the other. -

Because of the slip stream on the rudder and elevators, these controls are
much more effective than in the power-off stall and the nose can be pulled
somewhat higher. This means that the speed can be less than in the power-off
stall; hence the ailerons are even less effective, making the contrast between the
ailerons and the tail surfaces much more marked.
In executing the power stall, the same procedure should be followed as in
the power-off stall except that the control movements must be more gradual.
Also, greater pressures for a given amount of movement are felt on the
elevator and rudder in contrast to the pressure felt when the power is off.
Recovery.—Recovery can be accomplished without diving simply by easing
the stick forward; however, if the nose is allowed to drop somewhat below the
normal flying position, the recovery will be made more quickly.
Common faults.--(1) Abrupt use of elevators, causing a whip stall.
(2) Careless or violent use of a rudder in keeping wings level, causing
rocking sideways or alternate dropping of one wing and then the other.
(3) Attempting to keep wings level by use of ailerons and producing an
effect just the opposite of that desired.
(4) Allowing ship to dive too steeply on recovery.
(5) Pulling out too abruptly after dive.
Cautions.—Both power-off and power stalls can be made from climbing
turns as well as from a straight climb. Due to the fact that the wing on the
inside of the turn is lowered, there will be more of a tendency for the ship to
“fall off” than in the stalls from level flight. A stall also can be made from
a steep turn, and this is discussed under the section of the manual devoted to
steep turns.
The student should particularly guard against the use of the ailerons in
a stall. The reasons for this have already been discussed.
Stalls also can result from prolonged skids caused by incorrect use of the
rudder while in straight flight or in turns. This will be further discussed
under “Spins.”
—
162

ACCIDENTAL STALLS
|U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Accidental stalls at low altitude are at present (1941) the cause of about
half of the fatal accidents in aviation. They don’t “just happen.” They are
caused. And the primary cause for practically all of them is ignorance of
principles that can and should be learned in the ground school.
This is not simple ignorance of the fact that an airplane will stall if the
speed is reduced too far, in straight flight. Every pilot knows that. Rather,
it is ignorance on two other subjects—one, how to tell reliably when the speed
is being reduced; the other, how much less it has to be reduced, to cause a
stall, in turns or “pull-ups” (from glide to level, or level to climb), or in
turbulent air.
On the first of these points, the principles were covered a few pages back,
in the section, Level Flight with No Horizon; but in view of the vital im
portance of this matter, attention should be called again to the need every
pilot has, to continually make progress in his flying habits. With the devel
opment of modern flight instruction, stall accidents during the flight course
have been practically eliminated. It is after the course is over and the
ânstructor is left behind and the test is passed and the whole wide world is
ahead, that the pilot's really great responsibility begins. For it is then that
his flying technique either continues to improve or starts a slow decline to the
danger point and below, according to whether or not he makes use of all the
Known means of training himself.
He must keep in mind not only how to know his speed at all times, but
also how much less the speed has to be reduced, to cause a stall in turns or
pull-ups or turbulent air. This is primarily a matter of steep turns or fairly
quick pull-ups or fairly severe turbulence. There is practically no occasion
to fly slower than the normal glide except when the wheels are within a few
feet of the ground, in landing or in a take-off from rough ground or tall
weeds; but a steep bank or fairly quick pull-up or fairly severe turbulence
can raise the stalling speed above the speed of a normal glide.
A turn in maneuvering around an airport is no occasion for making
aerodynamic calculations, so it is well to have a fairly concrete idea beforehand
of how much one has to avoid steep turns and quick pull-ups there, and why.
For this purpose, it is fortunate that the increase of stalling speed by a
steep turn can be specified simply in terms of the angle of bank and the
normal stalling speed, or stalling speed in straight flight, irrespective of weight
or anything else, provided there is neither skid nor slip nor change in height
of the nose. At any given angle of bank, the stalling speed is then increased
in a definite ratio, whatever the normal stalling speed may be. For example,
a 45° bank always increases it in the ratio 1.19, or by adding 19 percent. If
the normal stalling speed is 40 miles per hour, this makes it 40 × 1.19, or
nearly 48 miles per hour; if the normal is 50, this makes it nearly 60. The
theory of this is given in more detail in part five, chapter I, which is quoted
from Airworthiness Report No. 10, but for present purposes some typical
data, in the nearest whole numbers, as above, will give an idea of how the
stalling speed rises with the bank. They are given in the following table, and
in figure 86:
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 163

Stalling speed in banks

Angle of bank-------------------------- 30° 45° 60° 70° 80°

Ratio of increase----------------------- 1. 07 1. 19 1. 41 1. 71 2. 40
Stalling speed if normal is 40------------- 43 48 57 68 96
Stalling speed if normal is 50------------- 54 60 71 85 120

Eighty-degree banks with neither slip nor change of height of the nose are
wery dangerous, except in airplanes specially built for acrobatics, because of the
very heavy stresses they impose on the wings, but they are included in this
table and the graphs to show how fast the stalling speed can increase. Even
at 60°, the stalling speed is dangerously near the speed of a normal glide,
if not already higher; and at 70° it is almost surely higher.
These data, of course, do not apply to banks with slips; nor to wingovers,
which involve changes in height of the nose.

SPEED
140m.p.h.:

120

/
//
100

--

60 toº wº I

50–T_sſaulº-Pº
EE0-

Noº:
,- sº wº->
statungstº-
40

20

l Angleof Bank
o
0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

Figure 86.-Stalling speeds in turns with neither skid nor slip nor change in height of the nose.

For pull-ups it is
not quite so easy to express the severity of the maneuver
is,

as for turns. Practically, the only way to state the facts that pull-up
a

raises the stalling speed just which the pilot feels just
as

so as

bank
in

much
a

heavy. very easy pull up feel pretty heavy, for

as

as
to

to
It

few
is

least; airplane stalling pilot has

at

an characteristics
if

seconds and has bad

a

keep this point has any reason slow glide, perhaps

he

or
as to

to

mind
in

if

make
a

reason against doing so. He must also keep mind when landing on
on in
it
a

steep uphill slope, such

If

occasionally mountain airports.

as

one finds
a

glide little slow, pull-up going along the slope may

to

the the extra get

is
a

bring stall, though only few feet from the ground the result may
on

if
is
it
a

sharp reminder the principle pull-ups.

be

no

of

of

worse than stalls

in
a
164 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

it,
Conversely, a “push-down,” if there is room for may avert

It
stall.

a
not only results eventually speed, but immediately lightening the

in

in
more
wing load and reducing the angle attack. More throttle helps,

of

of
so
course,
delayed by the time needed for picking up speed. you ever

If
but its effect

is
sense imminent danger stall, Think—with the stick forward/

of
a
specify than those pull-ups,

of

of
The effects

to
turbulence are even harder
similar rule holds: bump raises the stalling speed just

as

as
but much

A
a

a
is,
turn that makes you feel just heavy. The difficulty that you can plan

as
pull-up, but not bump. On this account, turbulent air low altitudes

in

at
a

a
you must keep enough speed avoid stalling any bump that may occur

to

in
in that air.
rule, because you cannot bump

be
This bad sort of sure how bad
is

a
a

may occur. Fortunately, however, bump never lasts long. So, when

an
a
unexpectedly severe one encountered, the stalling characteristics

of
the

if
is

airplane are not too bad, there one remedy for it—push the stick forward'
is

Climbing out field, with obstacles ahead and the throttle already
it of
a

forward far will go, this rule requires will power. obviously
as

as

It
10 is
far better push the stick forward and miss the trees by only
to

feet than
30

feet; but when the evidence that this

to

stall into them from the

is

is
it

only “theory,” plenty power

of
choice what sometimes called takes will
is

is

Will power this sort, therefore, it

of

of
keep this fact
to

mind.
in

one the

is
primary qualifications safe pilot.
of
a

Finally, for safety against accidental stalls, one must consider the two
danger together: reduction flying speed occurring with increase
of

of

sources
stalling speed. gradual reduction flying
of

far too easy overlook

in
to
It
is

speed during maneuvers around airport while examining it—and the

an

records show that many fatal crashes have involved similar overlooking where
the objects examination were not airports, but friends the ground,
on
of

or
lost
up, “Visiting
be

be

from the air”

or
to

coyotes
to

calves rounded even shot.

very dangerous, and the only merit shooting from airplane
an

that
in

is
ſis

gives the animal good far too easy,

as

as
to

live the hunter.

It

chance
in it

is
a

any sort looking the ground, point

of

to

let the speed get down

or to
at

gentle pull-up mild turbulence, perhaps

or

or

where even medium bank

a

the same time, will bring

on
of

two all three

or

at

these causes stall.

a

prevention this, principle

of

of

The for course,

to

to

make matter
it
is

give special attention speed whenever you must examine the ground, and
to

train yourself advance what you must

to

to

know the speed and know

in

throughout any For such self-training reliable

to

do maintain maneuvers.
it

air-speed indicator, any one for which you have found the reading
or

in
a

normal glide, superhuman “instructor.”

is
a

In tight spot, climbing out some high field among the mountains,
of
a

air, glance “his” face may reward you with

an

with turbulent occasional

at

warning. You must hold the nose lower than

or

at

either reassurance
a

home, and looks all wrong, and you know you are going faster; but “he”
if
it

says the same thing “He”

as
at

home, that where the nose belongs. not

is

is

only consistent, but also serenely impartial may easily warp

to

- factors that -
your judgment either direction.
in
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 165

Under normal conditions, of course, you should not be dependent on any

instrument—not even the tachometer—and even under the worst conditions
you must never “glue your eyes” to The instruction has given should

to it.

it
do
cover any reasonable situation. that, this instruction must first

be
But
given—and taken—and long times elapse between flights may well need

if

in it
repeated. During such repetition

an
kept
be

be
should mind that
to

it
ordinary airport just then may more difficult one with more practice.

be
like

a
the air-speed indicator—only glance—
In

such cases, that occasional glance

at

of
stare—may independent any
be

to be
While

to
not lifesaver. best

is
it
a

a
instrument, dependent

be
to
better that much than crash.
is
it

TAKE-OFFS

an
beginning flight, airplane

of
Definition.—A take-off “the act which

in
of is flight.”

of
from that normal

to
accelerated state rest
is

”
a

Related factors.--Take-offs always should

be
made into the wind. There
are two obvious reasons for this—first, because the speed the ground

on
much

is
less than the take-offs were made down wind; and, second, shorter run
if

a
and consequently much less space are required.
The principle governing ground speeds and drifts wind has been

in
a
explained part one, chapter the section, “Ground Speed, Wind and
I,
in

in

Air Speed.” the take-off this principle starts apply the air
In

as

as
to
soon
plane leaves the ground. So the airplane flying into wind the velocity
if

it is

a
20

which, for example, miles per hour, obviously moving over the
of

is

be is
40 20

ground miles per hour slower than would

speed there
at

if
the case
a

wind, and
miles per hour slower than were traveling down
no

if

were
it

we assume that the airplane requires airspeed miles per

an
If

of
45
wind.
leave the ground when taking off, and that the take-off
to

hour order
in

is
20

miles per hour, the speed which the airplane must

of

at

made into wind

a

prior 45-20,
25
ground immediately taking miles per
on

roll
or
to

the off
is

hour. On the other hand, the take-off made doºrn wind, the speed on the
is
if

ground must 45+20, miles per hour. From these figures, appar
be

or
65

is
it

airplane subjected taking

to

ent that the much less abuse when off into the
is

wind.
By the same reasoning, longer period time,
of

becomes evident that

it

and consequently much greater distance, will required

as to

attain take-off speed

be

when the take-off made down wind. Furthermore, was discussed under
is is

taxiing, the ship much less controllable when moving down wind until its
velocity exceeds that
of

the wind.
Another important reason for not taking off down wind the effect
is
by

climbing caused layers,

on

as

wind connection
in

such were discussed

with down wind turns, the section, “Medium and
on

of

page 135, near the end

Gentle Turns.” much stronger overhead, and particularly
If

the wind
if
is

sharp change from layer light wind strong, with

of

of
to

there one
of is
a

layer eddies between, low-powered airplane may find amazing difficulty

a

climbing through these eddies. conditions,

in

Under such down-wind take-off

a
12

N. A. C. A. Bulletin No. 474.

166 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

from a small field, or a field with high obstacles in that direction, may be
extremely dangerous.
Airplanes equipped with engines of clockwise rotation, which include all
of those likely to be used for training purposes in this country, show a pro
nounced tendency to swing to the left when the throttle is opened at the
beginning of the take-off. There are two reasons for this fact. Since the pro
peller is turning from left to right as viewed from the ship, the slip stream is
given a certain amount of rotation in the same direction. Hence, the slip
stream strikes those portions of the ship which are above the center line of the
propeller, on the left side. Since the fin and rudder usually are above the
propeller axis, the air strikes them on the left and tends to force the tail of the
ship to the right, which in turn makes the nose swing to the left. In addition,
as previously explained in part one, chapter I, the torque of the engine tends
to force the left side of the airplane down. In flight, this is compensated for
by the washin on the left wing, but at low speed, such as that during the early
stages of the take-off, the wings have so little lift that the effect of washin is
negligible. Accordingly, the torque must be resisted by the landing gear and
as a result there is more load on the left side of the landing gear, including
the left wheel, than on the right. This means that the friction of the left
wheel is greater, tending to make it turn more slowly and thus making the
ship swing to the left as though the brake on that side were being applied
lightly. The effects of torque decrease as the speed of the ship increases;
hence the corrective use of the rudder becomes less and less.
Incidentally, the brakesnever should be used on the take-off and care
should be observed to keep the feet clear of the brake pedals.
While taxiing out to the point of take-off, the student should, if possible,
take a direction more or less at right angles to the proposed take-off path and
if this point is any distance away he should S frequently to be sure that his
path remains clear. Such an approach to the take-off point has the added
advantage of assisting the student in watching for other airplanes that might
be coming in for a landing. Both the direction of this approach and the path
ahead should be checked frequently and as the take-off point is reached, the
student also should observe the area in the direction of take-off to be certain
that of flight remains clear.
the line
The ship should be taried to the eatreme down-wind end of the runway.
It should never be forgotten that, if the engine fails just after the take-off, the
landing must be made straight ahead and “the part of the field that is behind
you will never do you any good.”
After reaching the end of the runway, it is desirable to make a complete
turn to the right. This enables the pilot to observe the entire field and the air
in the vicinity of the field and to note the presence of any other airplanes or
ground obstructions. A right turn rather than a left turn is recommended
because in side-by-side seating the pilot commonly sits on the left side. If the
pilot is on the right side, obviously it is better to make the turn to the left.
After the airplane has been placed in the direction of take-off, it should be
brought to a complete stop. The sky to the rear should once more be observed
carefully to see that the take-off will not interfere with any incoming ships.

-
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 167

If the airplane is of the cabin type and does not permit a clear view to the rear,
this observation should be made before the ship is turned in the direction of
take-off and the take-off should be made as soon as possible after turning. The
runway and the path of the intended take-off also should be inspected carefully
again, even if it is necessary to swing the nose of the ship to one side in order
to obtain an unobstructed view.
When the actual take-off is begun, the throttle should be opened very
smoothly and gradually as this will allow time to note any unusual tendencies
of the ship, such as pronounced swinging, before they have developed to a
degree which renders their control difficult.
Check before take-off.-The following items always should be checked
immediately before taking off:
(1) Fuel shut-off valve—to see that it is ON. -

(2) Ignition switch—to see that both magnetos are ON and that both are
functioning properly. The latter is checked by turning switch to each in turn
while running engine at approximately half throttle.
(3) Mixture and spark controls (if provided)—to see that the mixture is
rich and the spark advanced.
(4) The shutters (if provided)—to see that they are open.
(5) The stabilizer setting—to see that it is correct for take-off.
(6) Safety belt—to see that it is fastened.
(7) Controls—to see that they are free and that they move in the right
directions.
(8) The sky on the down-wind side of the field—to see that no ships are
preparing to land.
(9) The runway ahead—to see that it is clear.
Many instructors paste in the cockpit a placard containing a list similar
to the above. This is considered an excellent plan.
Eacecution.—To the beginner, the take-off is a rather complicated maneuver,
but fortunately can be broken down into a series of steps, as follows:
(1) Open the throttle gently until the airplane begins to move.
(2) Then gradually open the throttle to its fullest extent. |NoTE.—After
experience has been acquired, these first two steps will merge into one.]
(3) Use particular caution to maintain a straight path on the ground.
regardless of how much movement of the rudder is necessary, bearing in mind
that the ship probably will begin swinging to the left.
(4) After the throttle is opened fully, easy the stick ahead until there is
definite resistance. Then press against this resistance, raising the tail or
depressing the nose until the longitudinal axis is approximately horizontal.
off

(5) As soon as this longitudinally level attitude has been assumed, ease
pressure that the nose does not go down.
be
on

will
so

the the stick found

It

pressure the ship gathers

be

that the forward

as

can relaxed more and more

speed until finally removed altogether without allowing the nose
to

rise.
is
it

More exactly, smooth runway with smooth air, this “longitudinally level
on
be a

the cruising attitude. Then the airplane will stay

on

attitude” should the

ground until got speed up cruising speed, whereupon will lift off
to

has its
it
it

gently and ready nosed up into

be

be
to

normal climb.
a

201073°–41—-12
168 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(6) If the air is rough, but the runway smooth, the pilot will find it better
to hold the nose just a little lower than cruising attitude until cruising air speed

off
is attained, so as to avoid having gusts lift the airplane and drop again.

he it
least up cruising, and not before,

he
knows the speed

to
When should

at
is
exert enough back pressure “pull the ship off” gently. Then

he
to
could climb
stay off, and then

be
little steeper than normal for few feet,

so
as
to

to
sure

a
a

normal climb. Such take-offs, naturally, should not attempted

be
ease into
a

until the easier ones are familiar.

smooth but the ground rough, the other hand,

on
the air

or
If

(7)

if
or or is

is
the ground lifted only

be
soft covered with tall weeds, the tail should
is

just clear the ground. This procedure tends

of
until the tail skid wheel

is
prevent nosing over and also, such terrain, get the ship

on
the air some
to

to

in
what more quickly. However, this gets into the air with too little speed for

it
safe climbing such cases, therefore, the nose should

be
In
low altitudes.
at

such lowering will not renew contact with the ground, and
as

as

lowered soon
held lower until cruising speed attained, and then raised into
be

should
it

is
procedure, like that for rough air, should not

be
the normal climb. This
attempted until the easier take-offs are familiar.
(8) When both the air and the ground are rough, the pilot must use
especially good judgment and skill,

of
these conflict
to

combine the best features

ing requirements the ground

or
as

to

to
needed avoid either return climb
a

a
without enough speed.
no
In

any case, there should attempt “drag” the airplane into the air
be

to

simply delays make the initial climb too

as

to

this the take-off and also tends

steep.
KEEP THE HANI) ()N THE THROTTI.E. UNTIL A SAFE ALTI
TUDE IS REACHED.
Running take-offs.-Although running take-offs, take-offs made imme
or

diately after landing and before the ship has slowed down any marked
is to

extent, naturally must come after the landing has been made, more logical
it

to discuss them here.

the take-off proper. The chief precaution
be
no

to

There difference
is in
by is

the beginner
be

observed that the stick should held hard back after

landing until the throttle has been fully opened. The stick then eased for
is

ward until the ship assumes the normal take-off attitude.

the increased speed the beginning
It

be

should borne mind that due

in

to

at

running take-off, compared standing start,

of

as

the with the take-off from

a

both control pressure and response

to

there marked difference controls.

in
is
a

Common faults.--(1) Allowing the airplane swing from the line

of

take
to

off. This fault caused by failure line up the check point

on

of

the
to

the nose
is

by

airplane with some distant object, and hold proper use

of

there the rudder.

of it

(2) Taking off not lowering the nose sufficiently

as

stall result
in
a

(failing lift tail.)

to

the
(3) Holding the nose too low, thus retarding acceleration and running the
nosing over.
of

risk
(4) Improper use the throttle—opening too quickly too slowly.
of

or
it

Failing wings
to

(5) hold level.

(6) Overcontrolling with elevators, causing the ship rock up and down.
to
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 169

(7) Failure to head directly into the wind. Although there are times when
circumstances make cross-wind take-offs desirable or even necessary, the be
ginner should not attempt them. Instructions in cross-wind take-offs and
landings will be given later in the course.
Cautions.—Emphasis has been laid on the need for check-up prior to take
off. The matter of gusts, however, needs further explanation. As was pointed
out under “Taxiing,” a gust is a sudden and temporary increase in wind velocity
with variations in velocity of 10 miles per hour or more. It is obvious that
if the airplane suddenly strikes air which is moving at a greater velocity than
the air in which it has been flying, there will be an increase in lift until the
ship accommodates itself to the new air velocity. This means that the ship
will rise suddenly. If it then passes out of the gust, or into a portion of
the gust in which the velocity of the air suddenly decreases, there will be a
consequent abrupt loss of lift and the ship will settle. This latter condition is
extremely disconcerting and may be dangerous, particularly if the pilot attempts
to check the settling by pulling back on the stick. In this case the ship may
stall and possibly strike the ground with considerable force. The correct
procedure, when the ship shows signs of settling, is to regain the air speed as
quickly as possible. This can be done, of course, only by lowering the nose
so that the ship is in a level or (if altitude permits) a slightly nose-down
position.
LANDINGS
Definition.—Landing is the “act of terminating flight in which the aircraft
is made to descend, lose flying speed, establish contact with the ground (or
water), and finally come to rest.” "
In other words, as pointed out before, a landing is a stall close to the
ground.
Related factors.-The average student at the start of his training usually
believes that landings are the sum and total of flying. He feels that once he
has learned to land the airplane he will have learned all there is to know of
flying. This of course is not true. The landing is only another maneuver,
the logical result of all the preparation that has gone before and one of a long
series of extensions of principles by which the student has progressed and will
continue to progress toward his goal of becoming a competent pilot.
With the enthusiasm of the beginner, he usually wants to start landing
practice before he is ready for landings are started too early, the results
If
to it.

definitely will Not having acquired the feel

be

detrimental the student.

and the subconscious reactions necessary for satisfactory flight,
he

be

will much
by

more disturbed the congested traffic and other conditions usually incidental
large part
do

landings. the work,

of

The instructor then will have

to

to

which again demoralizing and perhaps confusing

of

Worst
to

the student.
is

all, not qualified begin landing practice, he

he

to

the student shows that

if

is

necessarily must return general air work with the consequent feeling
of
to

demotion.
18

(".

N. A. A. Report No. 474.

170 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Before beginning practice in landings, it is highly desirable for the student

sit
the airplane while the ground and note the position

on

of
to

in

at
rest

is
it
the nose with respect the horizon, since this

to
the attitude into which the

is
airplane must put just before contact with the ground the land

be

If
made.

is
ing gear the oleo type with large amount wheel travel, blocks should

of

of
is

a
placed under the wheels the ship will the position
be

be
of
so
that the nose

in
would occupy with the landing gear fully extended and the wheels and
it

tail skid just touching the ground.

Vision the most important sense landing, the only way that the

as
in
is

by
student can determine his height from the ground looking However,

at
it.
is
the proper point

be
on
the vision not focused will worse than useless.
if

is

it
Everyone has noticed that while riding fairly high speed, nearby

at
car

in
a
objects are blurred and run together while distant objects stand out clearly.
impossible judge the distance the ground the ground
to

to
It

blurred.

if
is

is
necessary focus the vision far enough ahead see objects clearly.
to

to to
Hence
is
it
In

general, the ground too close the airplane

he
to
the student looks
at
if

will tend high landing;

he
or
level off too stall pancake looks
to

if
and make a
the ground too far away there seems

be

no
need for haste and
he at

to
consequently will fly into the ground make wheel landings.
or

Just how far eliminate blurring depends

on
ahead one should look the
If as to

the airplane. the ship slows down the focusing

of

speed This means that

changed gradually. made too abruptly,
be

distance should the change

is
first looking too far ahead and next too close, the student has

no
basis for
correction and either will pull the airplane away from the ground, with

a
consequent stall, permit
or

to

strike wheels first.

it

Looking far enough ahead has another purpose,

as

as
well the avoidance
blurring. the ground directly under the wheels has not already been
If
of

hit, not the height

of
What counts
as

as

inaccessible the moon. the

it
is

is

ground (provided they are above it), but the height

of

wheels above this bit

by which they will clear the ground ahead. The nearest ground for which the
pilot has any control this height
he
of

the distance will travel the time

in
at
is

airplane any changing angle

of
need for
to

takes him and the the

to

react
it

glide. his eyes give him

on

this half
as
If

to

his reaction time such evidence

is

second, and the ship's reaction time another half second (both being very
is
a

the nearest ground anything about

he

do
to

indefinite) the distance can the

is

making
he

he
no
If

distance travels whole second. wind and

in

there
is
is
a
50

60

miles per hour (as might be, about halfway between glide
he

at

and
a
a

landing
73

What interests him, therefore,

at

40) this distance feet. not

is
is

how high above the ground now under him, but whether his present flight
he
or is

70

80

path will hit clear the ground

or

feet ahead.
Knowing this principle, temptation try
no

to
be

there should focus his

to

all

any nearer ground. He has already made sure

he he
on

eyes will clear nearer

it,

ground, need not worry about any more than walking

to he
so

worries
in

the ground his eyes have already surveyed and

on

about how place his feet

At any instant,
he

he

passed.
to

from the time starts level off the time

to

lands, concerned only with the ground two ahead; and

he

or
at

least second
is

by

about that ground, not the height

as

as
to

its exact distance, but

to

which
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 171

by
his present flight path will clear Only
looking far enough ahead can

is he
it.
either see clearly plan his actions This

or

to
time get them done.

in
especially important fields where the runways are not flat and

on
present

a
expect next; but important

no

of

as
to
clearance index what almost

is

is
it
runways.
on

of
even the best
place time, prefer

be
of

of
The selection

to
land should made well ahead

a
ably while the student flying along the down-wind side the traffic rectangle.

of
is
At this time should note the landing
he the wind cone; the available

or
T
landing lanes; and any ships the ground and the air, estimating

on
far

as

as
in
possible the probable flight path As pointed out previously,

of
the latter.
flying rectangular already discussed will prove great value

of
skill
in

the course
landing practice.
in

the approach not made directly into the wind, the airplane
If

or
if
is

is
permitted slip during the last turn, moving slightly sideways

be
will
or

skid
to

it
ground Any appreciable

of
when contact with the made. amount such move
is

ment will cause the ship one wheel, ground loop, and possibly turn
on
to

ride
(By ground looping

on
over. meant sudden and violent turn the ground.
is

occurs when the airplane swing after landing

or
is to
It

allowed when
is

is
it
a
being taxied too fast down wind, and extremely difficult control.) The

to
ground should appear coming straight back under the airplane. Any
be
to

skidding should corrected before the actual landing

be

at
begun since this

is
time the student has many other things think about.
on by to

Skidding which has been caused improper use the rudder may

be
of
by

corrected readily lowering the wing the side opposite that toward which
the airplane drifting; other words, the ship drifting the right

so
to
to in

if
is

is

ground appears coming slightly right the ship,

of
be

that the from the side

wing lowered,
be

the left should and vice versa.

In

cross-wind landings,
to

the section devoted more complete discussion

a

given procedure ship drifting, either

be
on

as
an to

the followed when the

is

is

so a
improper approach. However,
of

or

result cross wind the student has

a

many things think about during his early practice landings that may
he
of
to

the airplane. Accordingly.

of
to

find difficult correct the sidewise motion

it

go

usually wiser, when this condition occurs,

to

open the throttle and

it

is

around again.
extremely important that the student sit upright while the landing
It
is

being made rather than

or
to

to

one side the other obtain better

to
is

lean
a

runway. Leaning invariably pressure

of

to

to

view the one side almost causes

put the stick toward that side with the result that the landing
be

on

made
is

with one wing lower than the other. Furthermore, there always tendency
is
a
an

keep the wings parallel imaginary line drawn through the two eyes.
to

to

Hence, tilted, the airplane likely

be

tilted also.
If
to

the head
if

the
is is

is

design ship permit adequate vision, the body should

be
of

as
to

the such
kept upright and the gaze straight ahead.
of
If

necessary look out

to

one
it
is

the ship, the head,

of

front
or

to

at

side the other order see the field least,

in

in

kept straight. kept level

be

be

must The eyes must all times.

at

Eacecution.—With the ship flying straight landing, the

of

the direction
in

eased back gently and the airplane put into normal glide.
be

throttle should
a
172 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

From this point on, the landing may be broken down into three phases as
follows:
(1) Breaking the glide and leveling out.—At an altitude of 10 to 30 feet,
depending on the size and speed of the airplane, the backward pressure on the
stick should be increased so that the glide is flattened. In small, light ships
the altitude at which this is begun may be as low as 10 feet. As further
altitude is lost, the backward pressure is increased, but not so quickly as to
cause the ship to gain altitude. The leveling-off process continues until the
ship is gliding level with the wheels 2 or 3 feet from the ground. (See fig. 87.)
Excess speed should have been lost by the time this altitude is reached.
KEEP THE HAND ON THE THROTTLE THROUGHOUT THE
LANDING !

(2) Stalling.—The aim now is to keep the ship in the air as long as possible
without allowing it to gain altitude. This is accomplished by gradually in
creasing the backward movement of the stick as the ship slows down, pulling
the nose up in this manner until finally the airplane is in a full stall and settles
to the ground in the “three point” position, with the wheels and tail skid or

---
LANDING

winddirection

&-4LANDING
3.Points
ALLFLYING
tº
attempting
- SAME
a
to Hold
ALtitude
- tAsingAng
Byincreasing
tº HOLDING
off
2 to3FEEr
rºº
LEvel.
At
2to3 FEEr
u
tº-
continuing
"LEveling
-->-
off"
rir
K.

o
starring
to
"Leveloff"
torotº feet
Guoing
speedtost as speed
isupst is lost Altituot
Figure 87.-Procedure in landing.

wheel touching the ground at the same time. The stick should be all the way
back as this occurs. If the stick has been pulled back too far, causing the
ship to rise, it should not be pushed ahead of neutral to correct the fault. Cor
rection is made by releasing the pressure carefully until the ship resumes its
former height from the ground, then applying backward pressure once more,
though the beginner may do better to open the throttle and go around again.
(3) The landing run.—Although the ship is on the ground when this stage
has been reached, alertness must be maintained. The stick must be held hard
back until the ship has practically stopped except as noted below under
“Cautions.”
Extreme care must be used to keep it traveling in a straight path. The
beginner should not land with his feet on the brake pedals but he should be
prepared to use the brakes immediately after landing to prevent the beginning
of a ground loop. However, brakes should be used with extreme caution,
since their full application before the speed has appreciably decreased may cause
some ships to nose over. It must constantly be remembered that the landing
has not been made until the ship is brought to a stop.
Running take-offs, in which take-off is made before the landing run has
a
been completed, have been previously discussed.
Reasons for specified use of controls.-A review of part one, chapter I, will
call to mind the fact that the lift of a given wing depends upon two factors:
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 173

The speed of a ship through the air, and the angle of attack. In order to keep
the ship in the air, a decrease in one of these factors must be compensated for
by an increase in the other. Since the basic principle involved in the landing of
any airplane is to bring it close to the ground, and then keep it in the air as long
as possible, it is obvious that as the speed decreases because of the absence of
power, the angle of attack must be increased. It is for this reason that the nose
of the ship is gradually pulled up and the angle
of attack increased until the
burble point is reached. It
is impossible to compensate for further
then
decrease in speed and the ship must necessarily settle to the ground.
The loss of speed occurs at a fairly uniform rate, usually between 2 and 3
miles per hour in each second. To maintain level flight, therefore, the nose
must come up a little during each second. Just how much, could be found
from a graph of angle of attack against speed for that airplane, like the
typical one away back in figure 9. In any such graph, as in that, each second's
loss of speed raises the angle of attack more than the preceding one. There
fore, although the rise of the nose is never very fast, it goes on at an increasing
rate. Any failure to appreciate and anticipate this results in a premature
landing, on the wheels. It should not be over allowed for, however, or the

is,
result is “ballooning,” followed by stalling too high. The right way

as
usual, look for, and then watch and learn.
to

to

know what
The for designing airplanes put the main
so

stall that

to
reason takes
it

a
all

the ground three-point landing,

on

wheels and tail wheel once, in

at

is
rough spot afterward, thereby in upa
if of on

that the field throws the wheels

if
a

fly
creasing the angle attack further, does not make the airplane again.
it

On the other hand, the wheels strike the ground appreciably earlier than
the tail skid, there every possibility the angle attack being increased
of

of
is
by

by landing

of
or

the surface. Since the speed the

to in

bounce unevenness
a

airplane has not been reduced the minimum possible for flight, this sudden
angle increases the lift and the airplane simply takes off again.
of

increase
What commonly considered “bounce” following wheel tail-high landing
or
is

actually then another take-off.

is

thorough understanding the foregoing will enable the student

of

to
A

understand why usually bad practice push the stick ahead

to

has
in

case
is
it

it

pulled rapidly during stalling process just prior

to

been back too the contact

with the ground. Such procedure causes sudden decrease the angle and
in
a

consequently the lift, and since there

no

the speed
to

compensate
in

increase
is
its

for this loss, the ship drops brought back too

on

If

the stick
in

wheels.
is

abruptly, that the ship gains altitude even though the power off, great
be so

is

easing will
on

In

care must pressure the stick. most cases

in

observed the
it

use the engine increase the speed sufficiently prevent the

be

necessary
to

to

to

ship from settling, and then repeat the stalling holding-off process.
or

Correting bad landings.-There are two general types faulty landings:

of
by

The “wheel landing,” usually followed bounce and stall; and the “pan
a

a
or

cake,” stall too far from the ground. these may result
of

Either broken
in
a

landing gear airplane.

or

damage
to

other the
The wheel landing may caused by looking the ground too far ahead
be

at

up

the airplane and consequently not pulling the nose soon enough;
of

or
it
174 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

may be the result of leveling off with excess speed. In the second case the pilot
has to wait so long for the speed to decrease that he either becomes impatient
or else feels that his judgment is wrong and that it must be time for the ship
to land.
A thirdcause of wheel landings, which previously has been mentioned, is
the error of pulling back too early and causing the ship to gain altitude, then
attempting to correct by pushing the stick ahead. The prevention of any of
these three faults is obvious.
Unless the runway is very smooth and the controls are handled with great
delicacy after the wheels have touched, the airplane is likely to bounce, increase
the angle of attack, and take off again in a complete stall. If this occurs, the
throttle should be opened enough to regain flying speed, then closed smoothly
and the ship allowed to settle back to the ground. This really constitutes a
“power-stall landing” which will be discussed in greater detail later. Until
some experience has been acquired, the student had better open the throttle and
go around again, meanwhile thinking over his mistake.
A pancake landing is the result of coming in with too little speed so that
the ship drops before the pilot expects it to, or of leveling out too high as a
consequence of observing the ground at too short a distance ahead of the ship.
The only way to correct such a landing is to open the throttle as soon as the
ship is felt to settle. The use of the engine restores the flying speed and, as in
the case of a bounce, permits a power-stall landing to be made. -

Common faults.-The corrections for most of the faults have already been
discussed. The faults themselves are listed here again simply to outline them
clearly in the student’s mind.
(1) Gliding too fast with consequent wheel landing.
(2) Gliding too slow.
(3) Leveling out too low.
(4) Leveling out too high.
(5) Landing with one wing low, usually as a result of leaning out of the
cockpit.
(6) “Fanning” or excessive use of rudder first to one side and then to the
other.
Cautions.—If the ship is “crabbing” as a result of a cross-wind approach it
is best for the student to open the throttle and go around again.
Gusts have been touched upon in the section devoted to take-offs. When
landing in gusty air, even more alertness is required than in the take-off. The
common tendency of the student, when the airplane is lifted by a gust, is to
push the nose down. When he runs through the gust, he then is in a bad
position. If settling is encountered as a result of gusts or any other reason, the
throttle should be opened immediately. If there is room, the landing may be
continued when proper speed has been attained. If not, the student should
make an entire new attempt.
Sometimes a gust will raise one wing after the ship has contacted the
ground and is rolling to a stop. When this happens, rudder and aileron should
be applied immediately toward the high wing side. Some instructors recom
mend that the stick be brought forward so as to raise the tail, thus eliminating
the sudden lift on the wing resulting from the gust.
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 175

The problem of making correct landings is greatly simplified by the use

of special landing gears, such as the tricycle gear, described in connection with
two-control airplanes. In that connection, mention was made only of the
absence of ground-looping tendencies when the wheel or wheels aft of the
center of gravity are fixed, and those ahead of the center of gravity are
castered. The tricycle gear is also so arranged that the first contact with the
ground in a normal landing is back of the center of gravity, and this contact.

it,
therefore, tends to reduce the angle of attack, instead of increasing

as
is,
does the conventional landing gear wheel landing. There therefore,

in
a
no tendency for the airplane resume flying, even though the landing may

to
normal gliding speed. Airplanes with such

of
have been speed
in
at

excess
a

undercarriages may, therefore, landed satisfactorily throughout range

be

of
a
speeds from the stalling speed cruising speed.
to
The obvious simplification landing with this type undercarriage
of

of
raises the question why not universally used. The reason not that
is

is
it it

nobody had thought recently,

of

until for indeed older than the

is
it
conventional landing gear. Instead, the reason the greater drag caused

is
by

three big wheels instead two, with

of

of

of
the use consequent reduction

a
cruising
be

speed unless the wheels can

retracted.
however, two notable advantages other than the one already
has,
It

the ability put the airplane the ground

on
of

to

mentioned. One these

is

down quickly by use the brakes, provided the field

of

and slow known

is
it

smooth, though not landing.

be

With the conventional under

in
to

forced
a

carriage, any excess speed must dissipated the air, and with reasonably
be

in

a
“clean” airplane the distance required for this may exceed that available
small airport the approach
on

not well made.

if

is
a

important advantage the ability make fast landings, however,

of

to

more
A

landing very strong wind. With any kind landing gear, such
of
in

be in
is

a
landing must high enough air speed for control against gusts,
at

made
a

Then the conventional landing gear presents serious danger that the airplane
a
by

will lost, the high angle

be

on

of

overturned gust after speed account

is
a

down, tricycle gear reduces the angle

of of

attack when the tail whereas the

is

attack and lets the airplane rest firmly the ground.

on

PRECISION APPROACHES
Elementary flying course involve
of

Four the maneuvers the controlled

in

precision landings. These landings are designated the “90° approach.”

as

the “180° side approach,” the “360° overhead approach,” and the “spiral
approach.” Although they are not practiced immediate sequence (in fact
in

the first two are stage and the last two stage C), they have many points
in

in
A

similarity. Accordingly, the general factors which pertain

of

in of

all
to

them
discussed here and the landings themselves further discussed
be

will detail
their proper sequence with other maneuvers.
in

not ex
In

the initial practice precision landings, extreme accuracy

of

is

making good landings rather

on

pected. The student should concentrate first

to at

than worrying too much about how close the mark the landing made. Once
is

the final straight glide should forget the mark and concen
he

established.
is

the landing itself. fact, after the final turn has been
on

of

trate As matter
a
176 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

made, the point of contact with the ground already has been established and
cannot be changed appreciably without side slipping, which is not permitted
in this stage. Accuracy in judging the location of the final turn, and conse
quently the landing spot, will come with practice.
The object of all precision landings is to bring the airplane into contact
with the ground and in the normal landing position at a predetermined spot
on the field. In the landing maneuvers of the flight test required for a private
pilot certificate,

its
the student must land the airplane so that wheels touch
ground normal landing attitude beyond and within 300 feet

of

or
the line
in

a
of by
spot designated the examining inspector. Since this done from glide.

is

a
without the use power, the student must learn estimate his altitude, the

to
distance the airplane will glide under varying wind conditions, and the effects
the gliding distance.
of

maneuvering
on

Under these circumstances,

to
all the instructor can do call the student’s

is
the various factors and explain methods association that may

of
to

attention
accurate results. The ability develop proficiency
be

arrive

in
to

at

to
used
estimating and correlating these factors personal attribute the student,

of
is
a
dependent upon his powers observation and his capacity make practical
of

to
Accordingly, con
of

use such observation and his instructor's suggestions.

by
perfect judgment practice
be

of

in
to

stant effort should made distance

ground For the latter, fre
on
of

the estimation distance and the air.

of in
the
quent observation the general appearance the ground and the relative
of

objects when the altitude has been noted from the altimeter reading
of

size
will great assistance. This, course, applies only when the altimeter
be
of

of

is
height ground immediately below and

of
little
to

set show the above the

is
rolling mountainous country.
or

value
in

The judgment altitude, not nearly

of

of
or

hundreds thousands feet,

in

is
important ability maneuvering
of
be so

as

to

the estimate the amount that can

done from any given altitude. This ability can developed only by
be

actual
practice maneuvering from predetermined altitudes with this practice con
in

maneuvering space rather than

of

tinued until the student thinks

as

altitude
For this reason, highly important that the normal
as

distance
in

feet.
is
it
a

glide used consistently throughout gliding and landing practice.

be

If

the
glides flat angle one time and steep angle the next, his judgment
at

student
a

the gliding range never will become thoroughly established.

of

Obviously, predetermined spot the pilot must visu

at to

order land
in

at
a

ally estimate the point which the angle glide will strike the ground.
of

the glide angle may developed and improved by dropping

an be
of

Estimation
the eyes from the horizon through angle which the student believes
be
to

gliding angle, noting point which the eyes strike the airport
at

the and the

after they have been moved downward through this angle. When the landing
made, the student should note whether the contact with the ground ahead
of is

is

behind the point selected and the next landing make the proper cor
on
or

rections. Continued practice this procedure will soon enable him judge
of

to

landing accuracy. angle,

on

his
If

with considerable estimation based no

is

great consideration need given clearer understanding

be

of
to

altitude. this
A
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 177

matter may be obtained from a study of figure 88. When the eyes drop from
the horizon line through the angle of glide, if the altitude of the ship is such
that the line G, represents the ground, the landing will be made at L1. If the

G.,
represents the ground, the landing will

be
altitude is such that line made

*= —RORIZON_

!
ANGLE OF GLIDE

Figure 88.-Estimating the landing spot.

L.; likewise with Ga and La. By acquiring the ability drop the eyes
at

to
through the correct angle, landing spot may

be
evident that the estimated
is
it

without considering the altitude. Naturally the wind will affect the angle
glide and due allowance must
be
of

made for this effect.

*s,
-
*-.
component
+ORuzontal Angºle
of Gude

-
t-

>
`--.“s
*

**
~-:
-

***** *ow
;

*Wr see-
>'s & “º|--ºne
r
-§
;*

HEAD
wind
al: “s *º, -
*~~ *~
** *~
t

`- >.
s

`--
*--
*s, `- component
Horizonta- of GudeAngue --
- - - -:

-o
2

-
**śg*ºssgar
º:

Moss'

tº
a

ºr
fi
# e*

caum
aura
t! ! -
sº.
3.

:*
-
*S.
Tºº--sº sº
*

‘s, *~ -7
as

roRºonialCOMPONENT_of_GLDE
ANGLE

s— *-

- T
| -! I

--~~~
> -T-
*

-
z-
*-* ~
-ºssu.
-****,
º

*.

§§
ºTº--
fºr An

-
Es...~
*

- *Awº-
I

E18- *& fºr

his

T-- T--J.
alsº -railwind
-
T--~
Line -
g

! º

-
T--~
-

ºv
Figure 89.-Effect of wind on glide.

By the time his training, the student should

he

of

has reached this stage

conception upon the angle glide. This
of

of

of

have some the effect wind

is
no

illustrated figure 89. The middle sketch shows the glide path with wind.
in

The flight path may broken into vertical and horizontal components, the
be

vertical component representing the altitude and the horizontal component

given time. the upper sketch, the
In

the horizontal distance covered

in
a
178 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

vertical component remains the same but the horizontal component has been
lessened greatly by a head wind, so that the flight path is much steeper. In
the bottom sketch, the effect of a tail wind is shown. Here the horizontal
component has been extended and the flight path consequently flattened with
a resulting increase in the gliding range.
These diagrams are of course drawn on the principle of allowance for
wind that was explained in part one, chapter I, in the section, Ground Speed,
Wind and Air Speed. Here, if one wishes to think of the wind in terms of
a trial balloon, instead of releasing the balloon from the airplane the pilot
has someone else release it for him at the point on the ground that he is
headed for. Then the distance marked off on the ground is the distance the
balloon drifts before he hits it.
All this, of course, is assuming that the wind blows at the same speed
at all heights. In practice this rarely happens, if ever. With winds as they
are, the differences in wind speeds are such that an airplane, gliding in a
constant attitude against the wind, loses air speed every time it descends from
a layer of strong wind into one of light wind. This loss must be compen
sated by nosing down a little. If the pilot refuses to do this, it changes his
normal glide temporarily into mushing, which results in even more loss of alti
tude. If the changes of wind speed occurred high enough, they might be
offset by greater distances per hundred feet of altitude in the lighter wind
below. Usually, however, they occur mostly within the last one or two
hundred feet, and the net result is a loss of gliding distance. The amount
of this loss is naturally variable.
The gliding range is also lessened by turns or any other maneuvers since,
as has been pointed out before, more altitude is lost in gliding turns than in a
straight glide. To cultivate judgment in this respect, the student while per
forming approaches involving 90°, 180°, and 360° turns should continually
check the angle between the horizon and the landing spot, noting the addi
tional loss of altitude in the turn. This will enable him to determine whether
one or more legs of the approach should be shortened or lengthened.
It is also advisable, in case he overshoots his mark one time, deliberately
to undershoot the next time. Then by comparing the two, it is probable that
on the third and subsequent approaches he will hit the mark accurately.
Landing with 90° approach-Definition.—Landings with 90° approach
are merely an application of the principles of the landing from straight glide
and those of the gliding turn combined into one maneuver.
In the 90° approach the ship is flown, with the engine on, at right angles
to the wind and to the direction in which the landing is to be made, the throttle
is closed and the 90° turn made while gliding.
Related factors.-During the initial landing practice, the student will have
found that it is somewhat difficult to judge accurately the loss of altitude in
proportion to distance traveled while making a long straight glide from any
considerable height above ground. It is much easier, once the principles are
mastered, to judge the flight path through a 90° turn.
Straight glide approach presents the added problem of poor visibility and
the possibility of some obstruction being hidden by the wing or other parts of
the airplane. On the other hand, if the landing is made following a turn.
 ('IVIL PILOT THAIN IN (; MANU AI, 179

visibility is greatly improved as well as the judgment of the rapidity of the

approach to the landing area and the loss of altitude in proportion to distance
traveled. These factors will assume even greater importance later in the
student's training when he undertakes precision landings.
In making landings of the type described, the student will find that there
will be a certain point, on the down-wind side of the field and near the corner
around which the turn is made, from which he can judge his glide and make
a right angle turn into the area. This point is called the “key position” and
after the student has made a large number of landings through it he feels that
when he has maneuvered into this position he is reasonably certain as to
where the airplane will first come into contact with the ground.
The key position is not a definite geographical point but a general position
and in all power-off accuracy work, with the exception of low-altitude forced
landings, the student should attempt to maneuver through this location.
However, it must be remembered that the main objective is the landing itself
and that the key position is merely an intermediate point and a means to
accomplish an end—not the end itself.
Ea'ecution.—This approach is illustrated in figure 90. The ship should be
flown at an altitude of 300 to 400 feet parallel to the down-wind side of the
landing area. When the key position is reached, the throttle should be closed
and the ship put into a normal glide. This glide should be continued to such
an altitude that by making a right-angle gliding turn, the ship will land at
the desired point, but in no case should this altitude be less than 150 feet.

º
X
| Y:
|

*
/ #.
/ /#.
3-4

4
2

2^ 2^
_^
<–––––’
2.
J

ca--
-H-Y-----— =
KEY POSITION

90° TURNS FOR LANDING

A

SHOWING METHOD OF JUDGING GLIDE RADIUS

OF TURN PLACE TO TURN FOR LANDING
A
8

SPOT.
Figure 90.--Landing with 90° approach.
180

It will
U. S. DEPARTMENT
—
OF COMMERCE

be noted from figure 90 that considerable choice is allowed

to the spot where the airplane touches the ground and that this spot is
determined by the point at which the turn is made.
with respect

Caufions.—The cautions which apply to any landing, such as making sure

that the field is clear, that there are no other aircraft on the side toward which
the turn is to be made, etc., also apply here. In addition, special emphasis
should be laid on the care required in making the last turn. In the section
devoted to making turns while gliding, the matter of skidding and slipping
was discussed. This section should be reviewed at this point.
Summary.—The following rules, regarding normal landings, should be
-
come fixed habits of the student.
(1) Be relaxed but alert at all times.
(2) Keep one hand on the throttle at all times.
(3) Keep the airplane accurately headed into the wind.
(4) Maintain a normal glide at all times. Altitude cannot be dissipated
properly by diving nor can a glide be stretched.
(5) Do not look out of one side of the airplane continuously. Be con
scious of everything taking place and of all objects in the field of vision.
Use them in judging attitude, altitude, and speed.
(6) Do not stare at the nose.
(7) Do not look straight down and try to judge either altitude or speed.
(8) Be on the look-out for other aircraft, obstructions, and field hazards.
(9) After breaking the glide, keep the wings level and the flight path
straight. -

(10) Make the leveling-off and the landing one smooth, continuous
process, bringing the stick straight back.
(11) Get the tail down just before the wheels touch.
(12) Never push the stick forward to correct an error. Either ease the
pressure or use the throttle.
(13) If a bad landing or bounce is made, react quickly but without spon
taneity. Spontaneity of action without judgment can make a bad matter
WOI’Se.

(14) When in doubt, open the throttle and go around again.

(15) Do not choke the stick.
(16) After the landing, keep the stick as far back as possible and as firmly
as possible until the ship stops rolling, except as previously noted.
(17) Remember that the landing is never complete until the ship stops.
(18) Always land for a definite spot, for only by this method can the
judgment of glide be developed.
It will be found that in many cases the art of landing will come to the
student, seemingly all at once, after several instruction periods during which
no apparent progress was made. In any case, the student should constantly
work to perfect his landing technique, both during the dual periods and later
during solo.
During his whole flying career the pilot's general flying ability will be
judged, to a large extent, by the way in which he lands.
 CIVIL FIL()T THAINING MANUAI. 181

S-TURNS ACROSS A ROAD

Definition.—This maneuver consists of a series of 180° turns made across

some straight line on the ground, such as a road, fence, or railroad, which lies
at 90° to the direction of the wind (see figure 91).

Figure 91.-S-turns across a road.

Related factors.-The chief purposes of this maneuver are to teach the

student to compensate for drift, and to orient the flight path with ground
objects. In order to do this, his turns will have to be made with the degree
of bank changing constantly. The flight path must be such that the turns on

ºr Ti,
_---H --

tº
www 86.

OSEC20SEG. 40 SEC. eo sec. IGS

WIND
Figure 92.-Effect of wind turns.
in
S

opposite side
of

of

If

the road are the same radius with respect the road.
to

calm air produce the flight path shown

so
as
to

the turn were made

in

in

figure
be
91

the bank would uniform.

20

figure 92. Assume wind velocity

of

of

The effect wind shown

in
is

a
80

feet per second and allow seconds for making each 180° turn. The dotted

-E- --
182 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

line indicates the path that would be flown with respect to the ground if there
were no wind. The solid line shows the path that the ship would follow
when the wind was blowing if no correction were made. The vertical lines are
drawn at intervals of 10 seconds. At the end of 20 seconds the airplane would
have been blown down wind 400 feet or to the position indicated by the dot on
the second line. At the end of 40 seconds it would have been blown to the
position of the dot on the fourth line and at the end of 60 seconds to the posi
tion of the dot on the sixth line. At the end of 80 seconds it would have been
blown to the position indicated on the eighth line and so on. Each of these
dots, in fact, might represent a balloon which would be hit if all the balloons
were released from appropriate points on the dotted half circle at the instant
when the airplane crossed the road. The error of endeavoring to maintain
a uniform rate of turn thus becomes obvious. -

In figure 93, the solid line shows the desired flight path with respect to
the ground, and the dotted line the path that must be flown with respect to the
air to make the ground course good. Here the path with respect to the air
is very much like the former path with respect to the ground, though not
it,

exactly like

of
because the distances that row balloons would drift

in
a

Figure 93.−Correcting for wind in turns.

S

corresponding times are nearly but not quite the same. By noting the change
the dotted line,
be
of

of

the radius curve will realized that the bank must

be in

it

changing constantly from shallow steep when making the turn

on on
to

the
up-wind side the road; and from steep making the turn
of

to

shallow
in

the
Accordingly, the first turn, which
on
of

down-wind side the road. made

is

into the wind, the student should start with shallow bank which gradually
a
its

becomes steeper, reaching maximum steepness just before the airplane begins
directly straight and level flight. On
to

to

head down wind and returned

is

steep first becoming more and more

be

the second turn the bank should

at

shallow until, the ship points directly into the wind, level flight has been
as

resumed.
used for practicing
or

The road other landmark which turns should

is

straight for more—the longer, the better. The

be

of

or

distance mile
a

performed should
be

or
at

altitude which the maneuver about 500 feet the

is
 CIVIL Pl L()T THRAIN IN (; MANU AI, 183

same as that used for traffic around landing fields so as to develop the student's
perception of a specific
altitude. Care should be used not to gain or lose
altitude during the entire series. The series of turns should be flown in both

in is,
directions along the road; that making the first turn into the wind right

a
turn one series and left turn
in
the next series.

a
Eacecution.—Beginning side, the ship should

be
on
the down-wind flown
angle straight and level flight.

an

of

of
at

to
across the road turn

in

A
90°

it
crossed again the ship
be

so
180° should that when the road
made once

is

is
straight and level flight. Another turn 180° immediately begun

of
in

more

is
and the procedure continued until four

or

or
five such turns have been made,
straight portion
of

of

or
the end the the road other landmark has been reached.
Common faults.--(1) The usual errors turns, such poor coordination,

in

as
failure maintain altitude, etc.
to

(2) Poor timing beginning and recovering from turns.

in

(3) Faulty correction for drift.

CLIMB AND GLIDE COORDINATION EXERCISES
glide, gliding turn
of
Definition.—This maneuver consists

in
one

a
direction, climbing turn opposite direction, gliding turn the first
in

in
the
a

a
direction, and figure 94.
so

illustrated
in
It

on.
is

Related factors.-The purpose improve coordination

of

this maneuver

to
is
gliding turns and climbing turns and the same time provide practice
in

in
no at

period straight and level flight

of

of
the use the throttle. Since there
is

between the gliding turn and the climbing turn, the student’s reactions must

- - --
\.

Sº
—º-- 9–9–9:1–92
2

Q.
&
o
-G
G
ºr

º
3
i

Road
-
-

|
| #

|
\\

//
|

`---|--
as seen from Aeove

+ __–*#--
_=+
`ss
*; - - - T------- ~~</
J N

* ^T
--
-
-

+%
~

As SEEN FROMTHE SAMeLevel.

CLIMB AND GLIDE COORDINATIONExERCISES

Figure 94.

201073°---41–––13
184 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

be rapid. Continued practice of the maneuver will develop the automatic

and subconscious use of the controls which is absolutely essential to perfect
flying. A study of figure 94 will provide a much clearer understanding of
the maneuver than a lengthy description. In this illustration the first gliding
turn is made to the right, the first climbing turn to the left, the next turn is a
gliding turn to the right, and so on, the entire sequence being completed as
many times as the instructor considers advisable. The maneuver should be

is,
practiced in both directions; that given above and also with the first

as
by
gliding turn made the left followed climbing turn the right, etc.

to

to
a
practice the maneuver along other straight land
It

or
to
desirable road
is

a
mark. Too much precision should not first, but after reasonable

be

of at
expected
practice the pattern should the S-turns along

be
as

as
acurate that road.

a
1,000 feet and initial practice should
be

be
The altitude should

to
from 800
parallel

no

or

to
conducted either when there wind when the wind the
is

is
facility acquired, performed

be
road. As the exercise may with the wind
is

across the road.

gliding turn

be

to
Ea’ecution.—Assume that the first turn the

to
is

a
right. The ship should the road, the throttle eased back
be

to
flown
at
90°
normal glide established. As the ship crosses the road,

to
and turn the
a

a
right should started. After gliding turn 180° has been completed.
be

of
a

eased open and normal climbing turn This

to
the throttle the left begun.
is

means that the climbing turn will started just the ship crosses the road.
be

The same radius for the climbing turn should for the gliding turn. as
be

as
used
climbing completed and the ship crossing the
of

When turn 180° has been

is
a

road for the third time, the throttle should eased back and another gliding
be

the right begun. At this point the ship the position from which
in
to

turn
is

begun, many repetitions may

be
as

as
the maneuver was and made desired.
Note especially the word “eased,” applied This
as

to

the throttle here.

the engine,
on

as

as
best, and
be

maneuver hard much

at

must eased
is

it

possible.
Recovery.—Recovery consists merely resuming straight and level flight
of

glide climb, airplane

or

as

from either the the the crosses the road.

Common faults.--(1) Opening throttle too abruptly begun.
as

climb
is

(2) Closing throttle too abruptly glide

as

begun.
is

(3) Too much haste transition from glide

to

climb and from climb

in

glide.
to

(4) Generally poor coordination controls, and the usual faults

of
in

use
climbing and gliding turns.
in

30° EIGHTS AROUND PYLONS

Definition.—This maneuver, illustrated figure 95, consists flying the
of
of in in
its

airplane track, ground path, figure

of

with
8,
or
so

that the shape

is

a
a

pylon loop eight. Roughly, the loops

of
or

landmark
as in

the center each the

may thought two circles tangent one another; but this not exactly
be

of

to

is

right. The strictest requirement

of

this maneuver the familiar rule: Neither

is

skid nor slip. Another requirement smoothness. Even without the latter,
is
 ("I WIL PILOT THRAINING MANUAL 185

it would impossible to change instantly from a right turn at the full rate
be
of turn of the circle to a similar left turn at the point where the circles would
touch. This would mean rolling from one bank to the other, literally “in no
time.” So the circles must be joined by appropriate S turns, the like of which
are well know to railroad men as easement curves. Each loop therefore con
sists of about nine-tenths of a circle and the halves of two easement curves, as
shown in figure 95.
(Of course really perfect S-turns contain easement curves, for the same
reason. The only justification for not considering them in discussing S-turns
above in that there was no question there of centers and distances, and the
requirement of smoothness would introduce them in practice, anyway.)
wind
+
i
ſy
* *
-
–", º:
•--- ;: "- .
". *.*
flightParti . .
" *- --~
w- *****t
inati
ivetrunºf ! .- .
*as:"..

***
--> V. :=
LON
tº."
a + !"

Figure 95.-30°. eights around pylons.

The full set of rules to make the maneuver definite, as well as to insure
good flying, are as follows:
(1) Keep at a constant distance from the pylon throughout the circular
part of each loop, and make that distance the same for both loops.
(2) Neither skid nor slip.
(3) Maintain a constant altitude.
(4) Fly smoothly.
(5) If there is a wind, have the line between the pylons perpendicular to
the wind, and fly down wind in the middle of the eight.
Effects of wind.—Rules 1, 2, and 3 here correspond exactly to those for any
turns at constant altitude. By rule 1, you handle the ailerons so as to bank for
such turns as will maintain that distance; and by rules 2 and 3 you coordinate
the other controls as usual.
Rule 4 applies to all maneuvers.
Rule 5 here is the one that needs new thought. If there is a wind, and you
neither skid nor slip, of course you will drift any time you are flying cross
F-mº
186 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

wind. Therefore the headings of the airplane when it is directly to windward

and to leeward of each pylon are not along the flight path, but as shown in
figure 95. As the pilot sees

it, it,
the pylon

he

he
of
when windward

to
not

is

is
pointing one wing right but slightly ahead leeward,

he
of
at

to
it.
When
points that wing slightly behind the pylon. The only places where points

is he
wing right pylon eight,

he
of
at
the the are the ends the where headed
directly up wind.

by
the wind, the same way
of
The degree

in
as
bank also

in
affected

is
makes the bank gentlest the eight,

of
S-turns across road. This

at
the ends
a

when the heading directly up wind, and steeper both when

of
to
is windward
the pylon and when all occur just

of

of
The steepest banks

it.
leeward to
where the circular arcs join the easement curves, and they are equally steep
these points.
In
fact,
of

all four each circle was complete, the bank would

be at

if

In
all where the heading directly down wind. the eight,
of

steepest

is
according the part cut out and replaced

of
to

rule this the circle that

5,

is

is
by

curves, and
of

of
at
the easement course the bank zero the middle each

is
of them.
Related factors.-In common with other elementary maneuvers, the pur
eights develop the ability
of

pose
to

to
divide attention between the actual
is

handling objective, bring home the effect

an
of

of
to
the controls and outside
angle bank upon radius turn,
of

of

to

demonstrate how wind affects the track

or

path the airplane over the ground, and

of

train the student think and

to

to
plan ahead the airplane.
of
In

appreciate the effect the eight,

of

as
to

order wind maneuver such

in
a

practice using
of

other similar
or
desirable several turns 360°, road
to
it
is

straight landmark prac

be
enable the drift
to

to
be

noted. The turns should

wind, when the wind parallel the road, and when
no

to

ticed when there

is

is

96
the wind across the road. These turns are illustrated figures (a)
in
is

(f).
96
to

–H
ſ

_* *—
E
U

(a)
Figure 96 (a).

shown the flight path which would occur

In

96

figure (a) the ship

if
is

bank. This path

no

of

were flown with wind and with constant degree

is
a

circular.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 187

In figure 96 (b) is shown the path produced when the wind is parallel to
the road and the same bank is maintained continuously.

->|-> ROAD
*_
-: *
FINISHNA st at
Tº-sº

(A)
Figure 96 (b).

-º-, E- ***

90°

(c)
Figure 96 (c).
wind

ſ
| | AIRPLANE AT ANGLE TO
CORRECT FOR DRIFT.

(a/)
Figure 96 (d).

In figure 96 (c) the angle of bank used at the start of the turn is main
tained for 90° and then steepened. In this case the ship finishes at a point
188 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

inside of the original circle. It will be noted that this path is approximately
the same as that show in figure 96 (d), in which the wind is blowing across
the road and the airplane is held to a uniform degree of bank.
FINISH

–H P-º-- % ><sº

(e)
Figure 96 (e).

Figure 96 (e) shows the path produced when the bank is relatively steep
during the first 90° and is made more shallow for the remainder of the turn.
In this case the ship finishes on the other side of the road.

NZ START
7. IZN-S
AIRPLANEAT ANGLE TO
CoRRECT FOR DRIFT.

(/)

Figure 96 (f).

In figure 96 (f) is shown the path when there is a cross wind and a uniform
bank is maintained.
It is desirable for the student to try these various combinations so as to
appreciate fully the effect of the wind before he attempts to make complete
eights. Then he should also try complete circles around pylons, taking care
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 189

neither to skid nor to slip, so as to check the statements made above about the
headings and banks in such circles. Then he is ready to try eights.
Obviously, the effect of the wind when making eights around pylons is
the same as that illustrated and discussed above. The landmarks or pylons
selected should be outstanding and readily picked up by the vision even
though the student's attention is primarily directed elsewhere. They must be
in areas well away from other air traffic. Isolated trees, clumps of bushes,
water tanks, bridges, haystacks, etc., all make good pylons, but houses, barns,
or other objects in areas where people or livestock are present should not be
used. The pylons should be located so that an imaginary line connecting
them will be at right angles to the wind.
The distance between pylons is a relative factor, depending on the alti
tude at which the eights are to be performed, the speed of the airplane, and
the type of eight (whether gentle or steep). For gentle eights the distance
between pylons should be such that, with a bank of approximately 30°, com
plete circles around the pylons will be nearly tangent at a point halfway between
them. In the case of steep eights, the distance between pylons should be
enough to permit recovery from the turn and straight flight for a sufficient
length of time to allow proper planning for the next turn. This planning
includes compensation for drift so as to arrive at the second pylon at such a
position that the entire turn around it can be made with the same radius as that
used in the first turn. In other words, the radii of both turns should be equal.
The steepness of the initial bank also affects the distance between the
pylons. Since shallow bank requires a relatively large radius of turn, the
a

distance between the pylons must be greater than when the bank is steep.
Likewise the amount of bank determines how far from the pylons the starting
point must be in the case of steep eights.
The student should guard against wasting time flying around looking for
what he considers suitable pylons. It is not difficult to find points that will
serve the purpose of the maneuver.
In performing eights around pylons, a constant throttle setting should be.
used and a constant altitude maintained. Careful estimation of drift should
be made so that there willbe no jockeying to get into the proper position for
the turn. Itshould be unnecessary to repeat that the turns themselves must be
correct, without slipping or skidding.
When he takes his test for private pilot, the student will be required to
perform eights with a gentle bank of approximately 30° and also with a bank
of approximately 60°. Most of the related factors discussed above pertain
to both the gentle and steep eights. For the present the execution of the gentle
eight only will be discussed; the steep eights are taken up later.
Earecution: Two pylons should be selected, located so that the wind is at
90° to a line connecting them and that their distance apart is such that circles
flown around each in a bank of approximately 30° will be nearly tangent to each
other between the pylons. The ship should be flown directly down wind, half
way between the pylons and at an altitude of approximately 600 feet. When
the ship is crossing the line connecting the pylons, a turn should be started
so as to lead into the flight path of figure 95, and the maneuver should be
 190 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

continued according to the 5 rules given above, with appropriate banks and
headings as discussed under “Effects of Wind.”
A series of at least three of these eights should be made without discon
tinuing the maneuver.
Common faults.
(1) Usual errors in turns.
(2) Failure to correct for drift.
(3) Poor selection of pylons—improper
- distance, not cross wind, unsuitable
objects, etc.
(4) Waste of time in selecting pylons.
(5) Entering maneuver flying into wind instead of down wind.
180° SIDE APPROACH PRECISION LANDING
Definition.—This is a landing in which the engine is throttled while the
airplane is moving down wind at one side of the field, two turns of 90° executed,
and contact with the ground made at a predetermined point. Thus the 180°
approach is built directly upon the 90° approach previously discussed (see
figure 97).

OF AIRPORT
-END

SIDE & AIRPORT

KEY
CUT GUN 53 Põšition
WIND *_ :
DIRECTION Tº +
180° SPOT LANDINGS

DOTTED LINE SHOWS THE PATH OF THE AIRCRAFT OVER THE GROUND.
ANGLE OF TURN AND GLIDE MUST BE MADE TO COMPENSATE FOR WIND
DRIFT SO THAT THE AIRCRAFT WOULD FOLLOW SUCH A PATTERN IF IT
WERE LAID OUT ON THE GROUND.
Figure 97.-Landing with 180° approach.

Related factors.-The importance of selecting a key position for landings of

this nature already has been emphasized. However, there frequently is a
tendency on the part of the student to use some fixed point on the ground for the
key position. This is an error and the student should guard against
of it.
by

the type airplane,

be
of

The degree bank the turns will determined

in
-

length velocity.
of

the legs, and the wind The altitude which the

at

the
started depends largely upon the type airplane but should
be

of

maneuver should
satisfactory.
In

to

never exceed 1,000 feet. most cases 600 800 feet

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 191

Ea'ecution.—The airplane should be flown down wind along the side of the
landing area at the altitude designated by the instructor. At the proper point.
also designated by the instructor, the throttle should be closed and not opened
again except to clear the engine until the landing is made. While gliding, the
ship is maneuvered into the key position, from which, by means of the usual
-
turn of 90°, it is brought into the final straight glide approach.
Common faults.
(1) Incorrect estimation of glide path.
(2) Improper allowance for wind velocity.
(3) Use of throttle to stretch glide instead of merely clearing engine.
(4) Slipping or skidding on turns, the latter frequently caused by an effort
to increase the gliding distance.
(5) Wheel landings in an effort to prevent overshooting the mark.
TAKE-OFFS CROSS WIND -

Although take-offs should be made into the wind whenever possible, if

instruction is given in a narrow field, it frequently becomes necessary to make
cross-wind take-offs. Unless the wind is quite strong, these present no serious
is,

problem. There tendency weathercock, which has been

of

course,

to
a

discussed thoroughly under Taxiing. This tendency becomes less and less

to a as
the speed increases and the controls become more effective. There also

is
tendency for the ship drift sideways begins bounce just prior
as
to

to
it

taking off. This imposes severe abuse the landing gear and connecting parts
on

of the structure.
the normal manner, using
be

Eacecution.—The take-off should started

in
by

straight course
of

The tail
to

extreme care maintain use the rudder.

a

quickly possible and raised somewhat higher than

so as

as
be

should lifted

in
a
normal take-off, acquire ample speed the ground and eliminate
on
as
to

bouncing possible.
as

as

much
As the speed approaches that flight, slight pressure should
be
of

exerted
a

This pressure should

be

as
on the stick toward the windward side. maintained
the ship gets into the air counteract drift. gain suffi
so
as

to

desirable
to

It
is

taking ship may definitely “pulled

be
so

cient excess speed before off that the

off” without danger its settling back the ground.
be
on
of

then should
It

carefully leveled off, and climbing speed has been acquired gentle
as

as

soon
a

climbing turn may

be

made into the wind.

--
-

One thing that may confusing the beginner this maneuver,

be

that
in
to

is

blowing
is,

rudder and aileron are used opposite directions: that the wind
if
in

is

from the right side, left rudder must applied keep the ship from swinging
to
to be

into the wind, but the stick the right

so
as

pressed
to

depress the windward

is

wing.
LANDINGS CROSS WIND
-

By
he

the time the student has reached this stage, should have learned
training, drift frequently
In

recognize early part

of

drift.
to

how the the

is
by

improper during approach for landing, but this

of

caused use the rudder the

tendency usually overcome within reasonable time. Since landing tees
is

a
192 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

and windsocks frequently do not indicate the exact direction of the wind at the
point where the landing is made, the student also has had occasion to make
landings which are slightly cross wind and to observe the effect of a slight drift.
Eacecution.—There are two methods for making smooth crosswind land
ings. In one of these, in approaching the landing area, the windward wing
is lowered slightly and the airplane slipped into the wind just enough so
that the path over the ground is maintained in a straight line in the same
direction that the airplane is headed. Within a few seconds before contact,
the ship is leveled up and then every effort made to prevent a ground loop.
It even may be necessary, when using this method, to land on one wheel if the
wind is strong. In such a case, the wheel on the windward side is permitted
to touch the ground slightly before the other wheel, as this will preclude the
possibility of a gust getting under the wing and turning the ship over.
A second method is to head into the wind slightly and within a second or
two before contact, to rudder into the drift so that the airplane will land headed
in its actual direction of travel over the ground. This method has the advantage
that rudder action is quick and so can be done within the last second or so,
whereas the aileron action in the other method is so slow that the airplane
picks up a drift while getting out of the slip, and often forces the pilot to
supplement it with rudder action anyway. Consequently the rudder method is
preferred in this course.
There are variations of these methods, and many pilots use a combination
of both. Primary objectives are to get the airplane down without subjecting it
to any side loads which result from landing while drifting and to prevent ground
looping while the ship is rolling along the ground.
FORCED LANDINGS
Definition.—As the name implies, a forced landing is one made under some
compulsion of circumstance, such as partial or complete engine failure, adverse
weather conditions, or any other factor beyond the control of the pilot, which
necessitates an emergency landing.
Related factors.-Were it not for the ever-present possibility of a forced
landing for some reason or another, there would be little reason for emphasizing
the development of many phases of a pilot's judgment, accuracy, and technique.
However, since this possibility does exist and since the pilot must be trained
to act promptly and properly in such an emergency if he is to make a successful
its

landing, simulated forced-landing practice, with attendant development

of

coolness, judgment, and technique, becomes important part the flying

of

most
a

-
COUll"Se.

Although only the most elementary types forced landings will given
be
of

before solo, all types will discussed here. The more difficult types will
be

be

started immediately after solo and least one simulated forced landing
at

given by during each check flight

be

should the instructor the advanced

in

The instructor will make these increasingly difficult

as

stages. the student

technique and judgment until becomes impossible for him
to
in

advances
it

catch the student unprepared. Each separate landing will present specific
a

problem that all probability duplicated exactly. The proper

be
in

never can
procedure depends upon the conditions existing the time.
at
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 193

In making forced landings, the safety of the passengers and the pilot is the
primary consideration. This does not mean, however, that the pilot should fail
to make every effort safely possible to prevent damage to the aircraft itself.
In this connection there is one rule which the student must always remember:
Do not try to furn back info fle field in case of engine failure during the fake-off.
The minimum altitude from which a turn-back into the field can be
accomplished safely varies greatly with the type of airplane being flown, as
well as the individual pilot’s ability. In general, such a maneuver never
should be attempted from an altitude of less than 200 feet.
Any turn results in of altitude or speed, unless extra power is used,
loss
#s was pointed out in the discussion of gliding turns, and this loss is increased

when the turn is being made without power, as is the case, of course, after
engine failure. The danger of attempting to turn back or of making a turn
of any considerable degree following engine failure during the take-off, when
a minimum of altitude is available, is then obvious. Further, there is addi
tional danger occasioned by the fact that the turn under such circumstances
will be made down wind and at a low altitude. The hazards of such a maneuver
have been discussed in the section, Medium and Gentle Turns.
In order to make the proper selection of a field in which the landing is to
be made, the student must remain continuously aware of the wind direction
and velocity. Often, a field may be approached in entire safety from one
direction whereas, due to the nature of obstructions, an approach from the
opposite direction would be hazardous or impossible. An example of this is a
field which has a low fence or a hedge or a ditch on one end and high trees
on the other. If the field is small, it is obvious that an approach might be
safely made over the fence or ditch and a safe landing made before the end
of the field were reached, while it would be impossible to come in over the
trees without running off the other end of the field.
Aids in determining wind directions when away from the immediate
vicinity of the airport are such things as the movement of smoke or dust clouds,
flags, clothes hanging on a line, the motion of cloud shadows on the ground,
the movement of tall grain or grass, and even the direction in which birds
alight (which is always into the wind). The student should constantly observe
such signs and there should never at any time be any doubt in his mind as
to the wind direction.
All possible landing areas should be considered whenever one is in the air,
and the student should constantly have what he considers the best of these in
mind. Once the decision has been made and the aproach begun it is usually
too late to change and select another place to land. Since the student will
be judged during his examination by his ability to select suitable emergency
landing spots, he should form the habit of always being prepared to “set down”
at any time.
all

As a general rule, landings should However,

be

made into the wind.

many factors prevent this procedure
an
of
or

inadvisable actual
in

make case
it

forced landing.
Examples such factors are: (1) Insufficient altitude may make
of

it

impossible
or

to

inadvisable maneuver into the wind.

—
194 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(2) Ground obstacles may make it impractical, as well as inadvisable, by

shortening the effective length of the available field.
(3) No field lined up with the wind may be available from the altitude at
which engine failure occurs.
(4) The best available field may run downhill into the wind at such an
angle as to make a down-wind landing up the hill preferable and safer.
(5) The nature of ground obstacles may be such that any misjudgment
in attempting to clear them would cause a crash. (This is particularly true in
the case of power lines, which are hard to see and judge accurately and may
cause a nasty crash when hit.)
The early practice of simulated forced landings will be given by the
instructor from the relatively low altitude reached during the circuit of the
field in the elementary flight training. The instructor will then give forced
landings from increasingly higher altitudes.
For the advanced student or experienced pilot, forced landings become
easier as the available altitude increases.
This is because the additional altitude will:
(1) Give a greater choice of fields.
(2) Allow more time to plan the landing.
(3) Allow more opportunity for maneuvering and thus executing a better
and easier approach.
On the other hand, forced landings from the higher altitudes are more
difficult for the primary student, since at this stage of his training he has not
developed the perception and judgment that make them easier for the advanced
student or experienced pilot. This is due to the following:
(1) Most of his power-off work has been from much lower altitudes.
(2) Drift is less apparent, the proper counteracting of which will
complicate the maneuver.
(3) Altitude makes it harder for the student to select the proper field
insofar as its surface is concerned. All fields are quite likely to look flat to him.
Instruction on cross-wind landings is given later and different types of
terrain are discussed in the section devoted to cross-country flying.
The forced landings which are given in the controlled Elementary flying
course before solo are of three types: (1) Those on the take-off with less than 200
feet of altitude; (2) those in which a 90° turn is made, with over 200 feet of
altitude; and (3) those in which a 180° turn is made, with over 400 feet of
altitude.
Eacecution (straight ahead).-This type of forced landing occurs shortly
after taking off. The procedure is the same whether the engine actually fails
or whether the instructor closes the throttle and calls “forced landing,” and
may be divided into several steps. As soon as the engine stops:
(1) Remain relawed.
(2) Establish normal glide without devoting undue attention to (By
it.

this time the student should have learned that the nose drops automatically
when the power pushing
of

shut off and should not make the error down

is

it

gliding range.)
as

too much this tends shorten the

to
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 195'

(3) Select a landing spot straight ahead or nearly straight ahead (slight
turns are permissible to avoid obstructions).
(4) Iftime and altitude permit (in the case of actual engine failure).
attempt to determine the source of the trouble. Sometimes it may merely be
some simple thing, such as the gas not turned on properly, which may be
remedied before landing becomes necessary.
(5) Make a full stall landing. As a rule, if the airplane is landed in the
three-point position, even in rough terrain, high grass, or trees, the occupants
of the ship will escape injury.
Eacecution (90° and 180° approach).-The procedure here is the same as
in the case of the landing straight ahead except that much more time is
allowed for planning the approach. Consequently, a considerably wider choice
in the selection of the actual landing spot is afforded. As soon as it has been
determined where the landing is to be made, the ship should be maneuvered
into the key position. From this point on, the procedure is identical with
that followed in a normal landing.
Cautions.—The proper gliding speed must be maintained since its loss
-
cannot be corrected by use of the engine.
The student should guard against eagerness to get down and consequent
steepening of the glide to such an extent that when the edge of the field is
reached considerable amount of excess speed has been built up.
a It must be

its
remembered that an airplane cannot be forced to land until speed has been
properly decreased. Thus, too much speed may dangerous too little,
be
as

as
since, dead engine,

he

of
the student overshoots the field with must necessity
if

land the broken territory beyond.

in

STEEP TURNS
Definition.—Steep turns are those which the bank more than 50°.
in

is

Related factors.-If the student has learned the proper coordination

of
the controls, particularly the rudder and elevators, making general and
in

medium turns, should experience great difficulty

he

no

steep turns.
in
In

the early days flying, many instructors incorrectly taught that

of

interchange in
an
of

of

turns with bank more than 45° there was functions

a

This was referred variously

as
to

between the rudder and elevators. “reverse

control,” “crossing controls,” “the elevator becomes the rudder, and the
of

or

reemphasize this point

at

rudder becomes the elevator.” seems desirable

It

to

that such conception wrong. The rudder rotates the ship about the axis
is
a

the pilot regardless

of

of
or

that moves the nose one side the other

to

the
the airplane. The elevators rotate the ship about the lateral axis,
of

attitude
regardless its attitude. The pilot may
be
of

of

considered the center such

all

more important
at

movement this stage than ever before

at

It

times.
is

clearly comprehended. (Refer back

be

to

that these facts fig. 81.)

by

The correct coordination for steep turn, therefore, found exactly

is
a

no

for gentle turn. There are

of or
in as

the same rules medium differences

in
a

kind, but only degree. Some these differences degree, however, are
in

important.
196 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

One of these concerns the elevator pressure. The aileron and rudder
pressures are small even in a steep turn. Starting the turn, they need not
be any greater than in starting a medium turn, if more time is allowed for
Circling

its
acquiring the bank, in proportion to

at
steepness. constant

a
bank, and recovering also, these pressures are still weak. But the elevator
pressure relatively strong. This higher,

of
is natural. The rate turn

is

is
and from the pilot’s viewpoint the horizon tipped much that keeping

so
is
the nose moving along primarily elevator pressure.

of
matter

is
it

a
anticipate

of
Failure follow the
to

to
this results failure

in
the nose
This often causes student try make up for lost time with

to

to
horizon.

at a
a
little more elevator pressure, but still not enough; and his surprise

in
things going wrong, neglects the other control pressures, particularly the
he

opposite aileron pressure needed prevent overbanking. The final result

to

is
a
diving turn, with too much speed and inordinately steep bank, ultimately

an

up
requiring much elevator pressure that the centrifugal
so

to
get the nose
The practical remedy for this state

of
force becomes intolerable. affairs

is
angle coordinating
of

first reduce the bank with aileron pressure, the rudder

to

usual, and then get the nose up. Then leisure, the pilot should think
as

at

it
anticipate more exactly what the rules will require
to

over and see how

next time.
There are many common misconceptions about steep turns, such

as
the
one about the alleged “reverse control.” This makes especially necessary

to
keep the principles clear and it
remember that the rules for coordination are
to

especially important part

an

of
as

earactly medium turns and that

in

them

is
their logical order.
For emphasis this and caution against common faults, they are repeated
on

here with some brief hints, follows:

as

(1) Ailerons: Just enough sidewise pressure

on

the stick control the

to

prevent overbanking.
as

to

bank desired. Remember

(2) Rudder: WEITHER SKID MOR SLIP; RIDE WITH THE
so

SHIP and use just enough rudder pressure that you always FEEL VERTI
so

OAL. This all there to it.

is

is

(3) Elevators: Use just enough back pressure

to on

the stick
to

make the
nose follow the horizon. Use enough pressure now really follow this rule,
-
that you will not later need too much
so

Another difference degree

between medium and steep turns the
in

on in
is

centrifugal force and the resulting need for increased lift, either the
airplane the pilot himself. the most important
on

of
or
as

whole One
a

this has been discussed already,

of

features the section “Stall Accidents.”

in

Other features, particularly with regard the possibility structural failure,

of
I, to

length part chapter studied carefully.

be
at

are treated five, which should

in

Here, therefore, the main conclusions are merely summarized briefly

as

follows:
(1) Always have eartra speed steep turn,
so

stall.
at in

to
as

not
a a

(2) Never make steep turn low altitude.

a

60° bank, with neither skid nor slip nor change height
is of

(3) the
in
A

every part the ship just twice what

of

nose, makes the stress

in

in
it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 197

straight flight: 70°, nearly three times: 75°, nearly four times; and at four fimes,
parts of the airplane may begin to fail. So never make a furn at more than
700 / . -

(4) This does not apply to wingovers, which involve changes in height of
the nose, but it does apply to steady climbing or diving turns.
A point often questioned is what to expect about the overbanking tendency
in a steep turn. If the wings were exactly vertical, what would there be to
cause overbanking? So how about it at 70° Strange as it may seem, there
is more of it there than at 45°, though not much more. The approach to

is,
vertical is responsible for this “not much”: but the steeper the bank the
of This makes every foot

of
difference be

is.
shorter the radius the turn
tween the two radii for the wings count for more.

of
The net result these
two opposing influences is,
the bank increases the overbanking tendency

as
that
very slow. ap

In
or
also increases, but beyond about

50
60° the increase

is
proaching the vertical, you could, the overbanking tendency would approach
if

zero, one might

as

finite limit neither first expect, nor infinite like the

at
a

lift: but only percent more than So the opposite aileron pressure
15

at
60°.
temains with steep bank.
us
in
a

When making sharp turns bump will often felt just

of

as
360°,

be
a
by

the turn completed. This caused flying into the propeller slipstream
is

is

and the downwash from the wings, which, due the sharpness

of
to
the turn.
dissipate. felt when this occurs;

be
have not had time No concern should
to

rather, the student should feel pleased that practically

he

has maintained

a
constant altitude throughout the turn and has made perfect circle.
a

To find out how much pressure each control, fake the rules
on

as
fo

use
given abore, their logical order, and obey them the leffer.
in

to

Recorery.—Recovery from performed

as
steep turn the same manner
in
is
a

the recovery from the medium turn with slight exceptions, chiefly the han
in
up

dling
of

The down. This

or
to
be

the elevators. nose must not allowed move

ease off the back pressure the stick,
in be

on
to

means that care must observed

much greater gentle
or

which steep turn than medium turn.

in
is

entering the
of

('ommon foru/fs.—(1) Lack smoothness and coordination

in

turn, usually producing sideslip with consequent fanning “walking”

of
or

the
a

rudder and over-control.

(2) Using bottom rudder, thus allowing the airplane perform spiral
to

rather than turn given altitude.

at
a

(3) Using top rudder, thus producing slip.

a

stick, usually with attempt

on

an

(4) Too little back pressure hold

to

the
the nose up with the rudder, the latter error causing slip.
a

or

stick, causing climbing turn, mushing,

on

(5) Too much back pressure

a

stall.
a

(6) Failure relax backward pressure rapidly enough during recovery.

to

thus coming out straight and level flight.

of

of

the turn climb instead

in
a

SPINS
Definition.—By definition spin airplane
an
“a

maneuver which
in
is
a

along helical path large pitch and small radius while flying
of

descends
a
198 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

at a mean angle of attack greater than the

angle of attack at maximum lift * * *.
2^ *N A spin which is continued by reason of

&”
s. T \ the voluntary position of the control sur
\
\
faces, recovery from which can be effected
| within two turns by neutralizing or revers.

all
| ing the controls, called normal spin,

is

a
controlled spin.” The maneuver fre
|

or
quently called “tail spin.” (See fig. 98.)

is

a
Related factors.-A spin

of
the result

is
\ severe stall which has been developed

a
|
\ either intentionally accidentally. Due

or

to
!
N
\ the fact that many fatal accidents have
\ been caused by ignorance

of
the causes lead
! \
ing up spin and

of

to
how recover from

to
\

a
| it,many students have deep-rooted sub

a
conscious fear of this maneuver. There

is
spin performed

to
no occasion fear

if
is
it
a
•vº.
under the proper circumstances, one

of
- the
|
most important adequate alti

of
which

is
|
| tude for recovery.
-
/
/
An airworthy airplane will recover from
its

spin
of

/ own accord the controls

if
a

/ are released. The maneuver imposes much

/ lighter loads on the structure than steep

a
properly per
F
bank. This assumes
is
it

formed, particularly with respect recov

to
/ ering from the dive which follows the spin.
/ entirely possible airplane
an

build
It

to
is

/
/ which spin-proof; spin
in

fact there are

is

|
proof ships
on

ſ now the market. Such a

r
| ship, however, may have characteristics
which render unsuitable for certain train
it

ing purposes. Since most airplanes will

spin under proper circumstances, neces
is
it

|
sary for competent pilot
be

familiar
to

|
a

|
t
i.
with the maneuver, particularly the ap
\
proach and the recovery from
to

it.
it

\
The training spins divided into two
in

is

phases: First that given prior

to

solo.
is

which confined to the fundamentals of

is

entry and recovery and the development

in

-\ the student of confidence to the extent which

\
will enable him automatically react prop
to

| \ erly should accidentally fall into spin

he

early work, give

in

his solo and him sufficient

|
Figure 98.-The spin. Report No. 474, Nomenclature for Aeronautics.
*
 ("I WIL PILOT THAIN IN (; MANU'AL 194)

experience in sensing the approach of a spin to make such an accident a remote

possibility. The second phase of training in spins is that given after solo,
during the practice of precision maneuvers, which will teach the student
orientation under adverse conditions, accuracy of judgment and timing, and
further the perfection of the development of his senses or feel as applied to
flying.
Only the first phase will be discussed here. The second will be covered
later in stage C of the Secondary Course.
Before starting a spin, the airplane always should be climbed to a safe
altitude—never less than 3,000 feet. If the ship is not stalled completely it
may refuse to spin and instead fall into a sloppy spiral. Ships which do not
spin readily, even from a full stall, often may be induced to spin by opening
the throttle just as the wing drops and closing it again innmediately. Easing
off on the controls even after a spin is begun is likely to cause the ship to stop
spinning and go into a spiral instead.
The loss of altitude during the stall preceding the spin particularly should
be noticed and also the feel of the ship. The latter is very important since
in making precision landings later on in the course the student is forced to
give his attention to the objective rather than the maneuvering of the airplane
and, unless the sensations preceding a spin are impressed thoroughly on his
mind, he may get into difficulty at low altitudes.
After the student has had some practice in spins from straight stalls, he
will be shown by the instructor how a spin can develop accidentally: spins
may occur, for example, in an improperly performed steep bank, either as a
result of the nose being allowed to get too high or from pulling the turn too
tight. In the first case, the airplane is flown into the spin and in the second
it falls into the spin as a result of the stall caused by “squashing.”
He will also be shown how spins may result from a climbing turn, as a
consequence of a too steep
climb combined with a skid. and as a result of too
shallow aglide, an improper gliding turn, or a skid in a normal turn. In any
of these, the resulting stall can develop into a spin.
Some beginners experience a certain amount of dizziness in a spin. This
usually is caused by maintaining a fixed stare over the nose of the airplane.
The student should force himself to remain relaxed and to observe objects on
the ground rather than letting it spin before his eyes. If the vision is con
centrated on a given object and held there as long as possible by turning the
head, and then the same object is picked up again as soon as possible by turn
ing the head in the other direction, there is little likelihood of dizziness. Fur
thermore, this practice will be of great value in the execution of precision spins
where recovery must be made after a definite number of turns or fractions of
a turn.

Ea:ecution.—When a safe altitude—3,000 feet or more—has been attained,

the throttle should be closed and the ship fully stalled, with the stick hard
back. This should be done smoothly and gradually. Just before the nose
begins to sink, full rudder should be applied on the side toward which it is
desired to spin; that right rudder for
is,

right-hand spin for clockwise

or
a

rotation, and vice versa. The ailerons should kept neutral through the
be

in

20107.8° -41–14
200 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

all
entire maneuver. The stick should be held the way back and the rudder
hard over until stop the spin. Both right and left spins should

to
desired

it
is
practiced.
be
Recovery.—Recovery from spin can accomplished the air

be

of
most

in
a
by

on
planes used for instruction simply relaxing pressure the rudder pedal and
neutral. Many airplanes will recover
on
then the stick until the controls are

in
before the controls have reached the neutral position; may

be
few neces

in

it
a
sary use opposite rudder and move the stick forward the neutral position.

of
to

The ship will come out the spin into straight dive fairly steep

of

at
a
a
angle, the steepness depending upon whether the stick reaches neutral before
the spin stopped still well back
or
whether recovery occurs while the stick

is
is

neutral, often the case. Recovery from the dive accomplished by

of

on as

is
is

easing back the stick when flying speed has been regained.

If
the stick

is
pulled back too quickly, the ship will simply stall again. not brought

If
is
it
quickly enough, acquired,

be be
back excessive speed will which causes unnecessary
altitude and causes heavy loads imposed upon the structure during
of

to
loss
the pull-out. After establishing normal glide, the throttle should

be
eased
a

open and straight and level flight resumed.

Particularly light aircraft, remembered that the wings are
be
should
in

it

certain maximum diving speed. There

no
designed for acquire

to
need

is
a

much, any, more than half recovering from spin. However,

of

this speed
in
if

a
particularly first, excitement may cause neglect this important factor,
of
at

possible airplane

be
with
as

structural failure the result. The should allowed

reach only enough speed

be
reestablish adequate control. This need not
to
to

percent greater than the normal gliding speed.

20
to

more than
5

Common fau/fs.—(1) Using controls too hesitantly entering the spin,

in

due to an unconscious reluctance or nervousness.

(2) Relaxing controls too quickly after entering spin.
on

ailerons, particularly opposite aileron,

an
of

to
(3) Use instinctive effort
in

lift the low wing.

(4) Pulling out dive too quickly upon recovery.
of

(5) Not pulling out dive quickly enough.

of

Reasons for specified use spin,

of of

of

confro/s.--From the definition will

it
a

noted that the mean angle greater than the angle

be

of

attack maximum
is

lift. The angle not the same for all parts the wings.
of

of

In

attack
is

right spin, for example, the tip the right wing going nearly vertically
of

is

the airplane
of

so

down and the axis inclined that such motion makes the
is

wing tip angle considerably greater than the stalling

an

air strike that

at

angle. Meanwhile the left wing tip moving helix (or corkscrew curve
in
is

its a

popularly but incorrectly called “spiral”) and angle

of

attack less than

a is
a

the stalling angle. almost impossible show these angles diagram,

in on
to
It
is

but they may seen readily by making toy airplane move this way.
be

For this purpose right wing tip rod, set up

be

in

the should near vertical

a
it,

and the fuselage should

be
of

front inclined about 20° from the vertical.

at

Then the wings can easily described, keeping the fuselage always
be

as

moved
reasonably good
be

obtained will
so

the same inclination. The motion

at

Spin.
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 2()1

In this motion one wing, on the side toward which the ship spins, is
stalled, and the other is flying normally. To prove this in actual flight, short
pieces of tape can be tied to the struts of a biplane, just above the lower wings,
and it can be spun. The tapes over the stalled wing get tangled, as in any
stall, while those over the normally flying wing blow straight.
The explanation of the spin is now simple. The stalled wing has more
drag than the normally flying one; the difference in drags gives the torque
needed to maintain the spin; and the resisting torque, that keeps the spin
from speeding up beyond any limit, is due to the resistance offered by the tail
fin when it is swung around in this way. Because of this resistance, the spin

is,
is a stable form of motion, as stability has been defined above; that

if
the
right spin,
of

for will tend

or

speed or steady

to
rate turn attitude not

is

it
a
become right.
Recovery from spins also explained Straightening the

on
this basis.
is

by
swinging around.

its
the tail

In
rudder increases the resistance offered

to
many ships this stop spin,

no
enough
to

with change the elevators.

in
the
is

Another way stop push the stick forward, thus tipping the fuselage
to

to
is
it

straight down that the angle the stalled wing

on
of
so

attack reduced below

is
the stalling angle, and the driving torque for the spin taken away. This

is
stopping the spin results vertical dive, and
of

method the rudder

in

is
if
a

still held violent slip. So stop the spin

to

to
one side there better
is

is
it
a

by straightening the rudder, easing off the back pressure the stick only

on
enough wings
be
to

sure the are not stalled when the rotation stops.

In

many modern ships the vertical fin big enough stop the spin with
to
is is

In
no help from the rudder, when the rudder simply left loose. such ship,

a
spin kept going only
to be

the the rudder held hard over the direction

in
if

can
is

the spin, intentional spin,

on

an
of

of

offset some the force the fin. For

then, the rudder must that way long the pilot wants spin,
be

as

as

to
held
in

recovery slowly sloppily merely by

be

and can made, either somewhat and

of by

releasing the rudder, more quickly and neatly straightening

or

it.

any part spin. With theory

no

The ailerons should not

be

in

used
a
by

the spin one might expect stop using stick pressure

be
of

to

able
to

on it

against the rotation. This turns down the aileron the wing that already
is

stalled, and simply makes the stall worse, while turns the other aileron up
it

by

and thereby insures continuance normal flight that wing. So this

of

the ailerons does not stop the spin, but speeds

of

“natural” use up. For this

it

very early years spins fatal,

no
of

reason, the aviation all matter how

in

were
high they began, until the theory the spin was discovered and intentional
of

spins were tried with the correct method recovery. To the best
of

of

the
author's present knowledge full credit for this amazing combination
of

wisdom
and courage should given
be

to
at

least two men, who are said

to

have made
the discovery independently: the American inventor, Orville Wright, and the
British physicist,
A.
F.

Lindemann.
 Chapter II.-STAGE B, PRIMARY SOLO

This of the controlled Elementary flying course is devoted to primary

stage

is,
The outstanding feature of stage B course, the FIRST SOLO.

of
solo work.
student, permitted try

he
This for

is to

to
memorable occasion last

at
the
is

is
a

his fledgling wings alone. gratifying occasion the instructor, for

to
It

it
a
definite point his instructing.

of
marks the fruition
in
a

The uninitiated will anticipate the first solo flight the ultimate goal

as
training merely another
of

the course. This not true. The first solo

is

is
step the student's training. means that the student has proven

to
the
in

It

that, background
of

to of

of
satisfaction his instructor with his minimum

8
a
hours' dual training basic maneuvers, take the airplane
he
now
in

able

is
off the ground, circle the airport, and land safely. No one can become

an
expert even capable automobile driver

to of
or

or
10
hours instruction and
of in
8

practice, and obviously height

be

of
the overestimation confident
is
it

having obtained all the knowledge more complex

of

of
the fundamentals

a
art short time.
in

such
a

by
However, once the student has soloed,
he

be
may assured that the
30

40

application approximately
of

more hours instruction and directed

to

to

practice, flight well ingrained and his flying

he

of

will have the fundamentals

habits well started their growth, thus forming sound basis for the further
in

development judgment and technique with additional experience.

of

These
30

40

important student, they probably

or

in
to

hours are the fact are the

most important the entire training period, simply because during them his
in

flying habits will tend the hours are spent properly (as
If
to

become fixed.
the controlled course, for example), his competency pilot will
be
as

outlined
in

assured after experience gained. they are misspent and poor habits are
If
is

form, much time and patience will have erasing

be
to

to

allowed
to

devoted
hope competent pilot.
he

It
to

these bad habits before can ever become

is
a

far easier—and cheaper—to acquire the proper habits the first place.
in

Habits are indeed hard change quickly; yet they are far from perma
to

flying habits, like the best

40

nent, especially after only

of

hours. The best

airplanes, will deteriorate unless given proper maintenance. As noted
of

already, this means conscious effort. The pilot must know the principles
of

aircraft operation, and all the available means improving his own technique.
of

Only way can his good flying habits

he

be

And must use them. this

in

maintained; and unlike the good airplane, they respond

of
to

more such
treatment by being improved.
Returning the first solo flight, the instructor will usually have the
in
to

it

the field and landings immediately following

of

student make two more circuits

flight. for the purpose building up confidence and
of

the first solo This

is

202
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 203

showing the student that the first landing was not an accident. It is done
even when the first landing is a poor one, which is sometimes the case due to
tension on the part of the student. In the majority of cases, however,
the student's first solo landing is an excellent one, far better than any he
subsequently makes in his first few hours of solo flight.
The student will be impressed on his first solo flight with a feeling that the
airplane seems “different.” It will leave the ground after an unusually short
run—it will climb more rapidly—and it will feel “light” on the controls. This,
of course, is due to the fact that the ship is no longer carrying the extra weight
of the instructor, and consequently does perform better. The change par
ticularly will be noticeable in small light planes. Many pilots claim that this
feeling of lightness was the most outstanding feature of their first solo. In air
planes with tandem seating arrangement, there will, in many cases, be a change
in the fore and aft balance when one seat is empty due to the change in the
weight and consequently the force acting around the center of gravity. For
example, if the instructor has been sitting in the front seat, the ship may be
tail heavy when he gets out and the student flies solo. Ifhe has been occupying
the rear seat, the ship may be nose heavy. To compensate for these changes, it
may be necessary to make a proper adjustment of the stabilizer. The instruc
tor will show the student how to make this adjustment for the particular
airplane being used. -

The first solo flight and the two subsequent circuits of the field, if the
instructor has the student make them, will take but a few minutes. Therefore,
the major part of the time in stage B of the controlled Elementary flying course
will be spent in review and practice of certain stage A maneuvers. A minimum
of 5 hours will be spent in such practice, interspersed with check time, during
which the instructor will point out any errors.
During the stage B review work, the student will practice all of the
stage A maneuvers, except the “confidence maneuvers,” “stalls,” “spins,” and
all

“simulated forced landings.” He will make take-offs and landings into

the wind only, and all landings without power.
Upon successful completion
B,

ready for the

be
in of

stage the student will

will perfect his flying technique
of

C.

stage
he

advanced solo work which

by

gaining greater precision, accuracy, coordination, orientation, and sense

of

judgment.
 Chapter III. STAGE C, PRECISION MANEUVERS

In stage C, the student will spend a total of 11 hours in combined solo

practice and dual check of certain of the maneuvers previously learned, together
with dual instruction in more advanced maneuvers.
During this stage it is expected that he will acquire precision in all of the
work previously given as well as the new portions.

STALLS AND SPINS

In practicing these maneuvers, the student should endeavor to achieve an

increasing degree of accuracy and precision in both execution and recovery.
Before starting, he should review the discussions on stalls and spins in chapter I
of this part.

360° overhEAD APPROACH PRECISION LANDING

Definition.—This is a landing in which the throttle is closed when the
airplane is flying into the wind, and a turn or a series of turns made through a
total of 360°, so that the landing is made into the wind and at a predetermined
point. (See fig. 99.)
Related factors.--This maneuver should be performed from an altitude
between 1,000 and 1,500 feet, depending on the particular airplane. It is built
upon the 180° landing which, in turn, is built upon the 90° approach.
Due allowance must be madé for the wind, as regards the location of the
key position, as well as the altitude. The final approach should clear any
obstacle at the boundary of the field by at least 50 feet, in the case of student
pilots.
Eacecution.—The airplane is flown upwind at the proper altitude over the
landing area. When a point directly over the selected landing spot is reached,
the engine is throttled and the ship put into a normal glide. A turn is then
made bringing the ship into the 180° side approach position. From here the
regular 180° side approach is executed. (See fig. 99.)
Common faults.—(1) Usual faults in gliding turns.
(2) Improper allowance for drift.
(3) Faulty planning of flight path.

STEEP 720° PRECISION TURNS

Definition.—This maneuver consists of two complete circles flown at con
stant altitude and at a constant bank of 60° or as near 60° as possible, depending
on the capabilities of the aircraft.
204
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 205

CORRECT
ALTITUDE

–º-
IOOO-12OO END OF

/ _T
FEET . AIRPORT
WIND º
XI ++

F---|->~\
| N.

| \\\
h
SIDE OF AIRPORT

CLEAR
ENGINE §42-. KEY

+4
/ POSITION

I8O° POSITION

2-4-------------------
S—

SURFACE OF AIRPORT ____*-*

Figure 99.-Landing with 360° overhead approach.

Related factors.-The purpose of this maneuver is to aid the student in

attaining perfect coordination and accuracy in turning and recovering from
turns. Proper execution of it demands, and conversely further develops, a
very fine control touch and analysis of control function. The maneuver
should be practiced both to the left and to the right, and equal proficiency
acquired in both directions.
The path of the airplane over the ground is not a factor in this maneuver.
However, it will aid the student in his problem of orientation if a road or
some other straight line landmark at right angles to the wind is selected and
the maneuver practiced on the downwind side. By starting on this side and
initiating the turn into the wind, the student will be able to use the road as an
aid in making the recovery at the proper heading.
During the second 360° turn, a sharp “bump” should be felt. This is
the propeller wash and downwash made during the first turn. Failure to
encounter it indicates that either the altitude or the radius of turn has changed
and hence is evidence that the maneuver was not performed correctly.
Ea:ecution.—The ship is flown at an altitude of not less than 1,500 feet,
parallel to the selected landmark and far enough on the down-wind side of it
to allow a 180° turn to be made without crossing
it.
206 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

The ship is then rolled into a bank of 60° or as near 60° as the ship will
permit without losing altitude. The turn is continued through two complete
circles without loss of altitude, slipping, or skidding.
Recovery.—As the ship approaches the latter portion of the second turn
and is nearly parallel to the landmark, the recovery is begun. This is no dif
ferent from the recovery from any other steep turn. The most important factor
is the matter of resuming level flight at the proper point.
Common faults.--(1) Vertical movement of the nose during entry or
recovery.
(2) Roughness on the controls.
(3) Attempts to start recovery or sneaking out of the bank before the
proper point for starting a normal recovery to straight flight on the original
heading.
(4) Failure to stop the turn exactly and maintain the heading during
the recovery. -

(5) Too much rudder during recovery, causing skidding and requiring
adjustment before straight and level flight can be resumed.
(6) Inability to hold the same degree
- of bank in both left- and right-hand
turns.
(7) Inability to hold a constant degree of bank.
(8) Failure to maintain constant altitude.

60° EIGHTS AROUND PYLONS

Definition.—This maneuver consists of figure eights flown around pylons,
with an initial bank of 60°. The radii of the flight path must be uniform, with
one pylon or the other as a center as shown in figure 100.
Related factors.-The majority of these have been previously discussed.
However, in steep eights, the ship is flown definitely along a straight path
between the turns. During this straight flight proper compensation for drift
should be made and the next turn planned.
Eacecution.—The ship is flown at an altitude of 600 feet directly down-wind
toward the point halfway between the pylons, and then is put into the maneuver
as shown in figure 100. The banks at all points throughout each of the circular

/ `s -S
_-T
2^ ...” T
~s Y.
/ NS-> --T \

--T \ *
\
\

+
STEEP EIGHTS AROUND PyLONS
Figure 100.-60° eights around pylons.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 207

arcs must be such as to keep a constant distance from the pylons, the same for
both arcs, making whatever allowance is necessary for wind, and there must
be neither skid nor slip nor change of altitude. The distance from the pylons
in the circular arcs should be such that the maximum bank, with the proper
allowance for wind, will be approximately 60°. As in 30° eights, the maximum
bank occurs at the beginning and again at the end of each circular arc, with
slightly

its
less bank at middle.
Recovery from the bank that the ship will come out

of
the turn

so
made

is
flying straight, with due allowance for drift, toward the point where the next

-
be

turn
to

begun.
is

mushing, slip

on
Common faults.--(1)

as
Usual faults steep turns such
ping, skidding, etc.
(2) Failure maintain uniform distance from the pylon.
to

the straight course between turns.

on
(3) Incorrect allowance for drift
correct point.
to to

at

(4) Failure enter turn

(5) Failure recover from turn correct point. at

SPIRALS
Definition.—A “spiral.” flight maneuvers, though
as

this term

in
used
is

technically more correct, simply steep gliding turn,

be

“helix” would
is

a
maintained through several revolutions.
improving power
of

Related factors.-The chief value this maneuver

in
off turns, teaching orientation, and eliminating possible is

in in
tendencies the
student toward vertigo dizziness. The practice spirals also aids
of
or

the
teaching normal recovery from steep gliding turns and corrects the faults
or of

of
stalling diving out turn—dangerous errors close the ground.
of

such to
a

purpose introducing spiral point

of

Another this that the maneu

at

the
is

the spiral approach for landing,

to
be

ver involved
in

discussed next.
is

Plenty obtained before starting this maneuver

be
of

altitude must

it in
spiral may continued through long series turns, since
be

of

order that the

a

probably difficulty
no

will will exhibit

be

found that the student the first

in

only when prolonged that the student prone

or

two three turns.

It
is

is

is
it
let

the ship get away from him, become dizzy, position.

of
or
to

lose his sense

No judgment
of

This maneuver should not

be

continued below 1,000 feet.

drift first, except
or

necessary
to

altitude see that the recovery altitude

at
is

sufficiently high. The objectives are constant gliding speed and constant
is

Later, ground object

of

as

degree
be

bank. should used center and due

a

allowance made for drift.

spirals from glides, using
on

The student should start the medium bank

then, practice, gradually increase the bank for each spiral
in

and successive
until the 60° bank required for tight spiral attained and held throughout
is
a

the maneuver.
Slipping, skidding, and vertical variations the nose are,
of

of

course, not
permissible, just any other turning maneuver.
as
in

constant speed and constant bank are very important. Since this
A

is
a

necessarily performance maneuver,

of

speed
to
be 10

15

not maximum from

a
a

miles per hour above that normal gliding turn

of

equal bank may

in

used.
a

but should not be more.

it
208 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

be given to the recovery.

Particular attention must Smoothness must be
attained and the controls must be coordinated so that no increase or decrease
of speed results when the straightglide is resumed. Considerable practice will
be required by most students before this can be accomplished consistently from
a 60° spiral held through 6 or more complete turns.
As proficiency is acquired, the student should endeavor to make precision
recoveries toward an object on the ground. He then should select such a point
before starting the maneuver, execute a predetermined number of turns, and
come out on the point. The greater the number of turns, the more difficult it
will be for the average student to retain his orientation.
Such practice will be of great value as a preliminary to the spiral approach
precision landing and advanced maneuvers requiring a high degree of orienta
tion, such as lazy eights and chandelles.
Since there are no new features involved in its execution, it is not consid
ered necessary to break this maneuver down into the customary divisions.

SPIRAL APPROACH PRECISION LANDING

Definition.—This landing is a precision landing made from not more than
2,000 feet with engine throttled and is composed of at least 2 turns of a spiral
followed by a 360° overhead approach. (See fig. 101.)

BEGIN SPIRAL FROM

2OOO FEET OR LESS END OF AIRPORT
CUT GUN

WIND |

-—
|

H---
|

SIDE OF AIRPORT |

CLEAR
ENGINE §3. KFY POSITION

____------------ <=2 NOT OVER 2000

~~ FOOT ALTITUDE

- 5. T ->
<--
T
_-_* - -->

_T *- *- *-
* T ~ --
concLUDE AT
-
APPROx-
IMATELY IOOO 12OO FT.
~~
START 360° APPROACH
-- T ...A.

__------T SURFACE OF AIRPORT

Figure 101.-Spiral approach precision landing.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 209

Related factors.-This maneuver requires considerable judgment of the

true glide path through an accurate extension of it if the arrival at the proper
location for the key position is to be made at the proper altitude. Failure in
this causes more trouble than any other part of the maneuver. This makes the
spiral an excellent maneuver for further developing such ability, and in addi
tion adds still a different altitude and position from which to maneuver to the
same familiar position and execute the 90° turn for a landing. It also brings
about a further development of orientation over the 180° and 360° landings.
While executing the spiral gliding turns, the landing spot must be kept in
the center of the turn by making the bank steeper on the side where the
heading is down wind and shallower where the heading is up wind. Normal
gliding speed must be maintained throughout the maneuver and no slipping or
skidding is permitted.
It will be noted that the definition above states that “at least two turns of
a spiral” must be made. The number of turns that upon
can be made depends
the airplane. In a given airplane, the number possible depends upon the
steepness of the initial bank or the radius of the turn around the spot.
Eacecution.—The airplane should be flown into the wind at an altitude not
to exceed 2,000 feet. When over the landing spot, the engine should be
throttled and a spiral glide begun immediately. The throttle should be kept
closed throughout the maneuver except for the usual periodic opening (this
periodic clearing of the engine is more important in this type of landing than
any other due to the length of time during which the glide is maintained).
When two (or more) complete turns have been made, the airplane should
be in the position for the beginning of the 360° overhead approach. The
landing is made by using the approach which has been previously explained.
Common faults.--(1) Poor planning resulting in coming out of the spiral
at a point not suitable for the 360° approach.
(2) Too much loss of altitude during the spiral so that the final 360
cannot be properly executed.
(3) Improper allowance for drift so that the flight path is not circular
around the landing spot.
(4) Neglecting to clear engine due to concentration on the landing.
(5) Usual faults in gliding turns, slipping, skidding, mushing, etc.

POWER APPROACHES

Definition.—The power approach is an approach to the landing area in

which the engine is not throttled fully during the descent.
Related factors.-A power approach is used chiefly to provide more com
plete control when coming in to a landing area over obstructions, particularly
if the airplane is of a type with which the pilot is not thoroughly familiar.
The power approach may be flatter than the normal glide or it may be steeper,
depending on how much power is used. It is entirely possible to bring the
ship in over a low obstruction with the nose up almost in the landing attitude.
then by closing the throttle as soon as the obstruction has been cleared, to land
very quickly. In the discussion of the execution of this maneuver given
below, the steeper-than-normal glide type will be described, since if the power
210 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

is used merely to decrease the angle of glide, no specific instructions are

necessary. It should be pointed out that in light aircraft difficulty may be
experienced in making the steeper-than-normal type.
Eacecution.—The ship should be headed in the direction in which the land
ing is to be made, the throttle should be partly closed and the speed reduced
by raising the nose slightly until the ship begins to settle. The rate at which
this settling occurs can be controlled entirely by the use of the throttle. It
should not be allowed to reach the point where appreciable mushiness is felt
on the tail controls. Some inefficiency of the ailerons, however, is to be expected.
As the ship gets closer to the ground, the nose may be raised more and the
throttle adjusted accordingly.
If, for any reason, it is desired to end the approach with a normal glide,
great care should be used in easing the stick ahead, as obviously a sudden
decrease in the angle of attack without proportionate increase in speed may
cause the ship to “drop out.”

POWER LANDINGS

Definition.—The power landing is one in which the power is left on until

the ship has actually made contact with the ground. When made with the
airplane in the normal landing attitude, it frequently is referred to as “a
power stall” landing.
Related factors.-This type of landing is of great value at night, or when
a landing is to be made in mud or snow, or when for any reason it is desired
to make an unusually tail-low landing. Usually, however, the power is left
on only in the first of these instances. In the others the power is on up to the
last second or two before actual contact is made and the throttle is then closed
so that the landing is not strictly the power type. Obviously, if the landing
is made at night when it is impossible to see the ground, there is no way of
determining when to close the throttle until the ship actually is felt to touch.
the landing surface.
Eacecution.—The execution is identical with that of the power approach .
except that the ship is put more nearly in the landing attitude, and the power
is kept on until the ship is on the ground. -

It sometimes happens that even when due precautions have been taken
with respect to the weather before a flight is begun, a landing must be made
in a wind velocity approaching or exceeding the normal landing speed of the
airplane. In such cases, though there is no great likelihood of serious injury
to the occupants of the ship, there is a strong probability that the airplane will be
turned over and badly damaged if a normal landing is made. -

The procedure when landing in a high wind is to bring the ship in with the
power on and in the position of level flight, so that a wheel landing is made;
in other words the ship is definitely flown onto the field. After the landing has
been made the ship may be taxied to the windward side of the field without
allowing the tail to come down. If assistance is at hand, someone should get
hold of each wing as quickly as possible. If such help is not available, the only
procedure is to taxi to the lee side of any shelter which may be at hand.
 Chapter IV.-STAGE D, CROSS-COUNTRY FLYING AND
FLIGHT TEST

This chapter is divided into two

sections. The first deals with particular
maneuvers which may be necessary in cross-country flying, the second is devoted
to a detailed discussion of the matters pertaining
to a cross-country flight.
The maneuvers discussed are those with which every student must become
familiar before he can become a competent pilot. Although they may not be
used regularly in every day flying around the airport, they are in no sense
“stunts” and form an important adjunct to the pilot's repertoire and often
may prove of inestimable value to him.

PRACTICE MANEUVERS
Two of landings, will, perhaps,
these, cross-wind take-offs and cross-wind
be used most frequently. Both will have been practiced with the instructor
during stage A of the controlled course and further practiced when wind per
mitted during stage C. When instruction is given on small fields having
limited runway or landing strip facilities insofar as choice of direction is
concerned, cross-wind take-offs and landings necessarily will be taught
thoroughly to the students before solo.
The execution of cross-wind take-offs has already been covered adequately .

in stage A. This discussion should be reviewed.

SLIPS
The student should by this time have become familiar with the feeling of a
slip. However, the slips within his experience have been accidental except for
the very gentle slip used with cross-wind landings. Since intentional slips
are to be discussed now, it seems desirable to define the maneuver more specifi
cally than has been done before. A slip is a combination of forward move
ment and sideward (with respect to the longitudinal axis of the airplane)
movement, the lateral axis being inclined and the sideward movement being
toward the low end of this axis.
The purpose of slips is to dissipate altitude without increasing the speed,
particularly in ships not equipped with flaps. There are many circumstances
requiring the use of slips, such as in landing short over obstructions and in
making forced landings, when it is always wise to allow an extra margin of
altitude for safety in the original estimate of the approach. In the latter case,
if the accuracy of the original estimate is confirmed by arrival at the boundary
of the field selected with some excess altitude, this excess is dissipated by
slipping.
The student must never form the habit of slipping to every landing, for
this not only will prevent his attaining any degree of judgment of glide dis
211
212 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

tance but also will destroy it after it is attained. The use of slips in normal
landings, except for adequate practice in slips, is a confession of error in
technique or judgment.
Slips have definite limitations and too many students will try to lose alti
tude by violent slipping rather than by maneuvering and exercising judgment
of glide, with a slight or moderate slip, if necessary, at the very end. In emer
gency landings this practice invariably will lead to trouble since enough excess
speed will be gained by the average student to prevent his getting down any
where near the objective and very often will result in his overshooting the
entire field.
Forward slips.-Definition.—The forward slip is a slip in which the direc
tion of motion continues the same as before the slip was begun. (See fig. 102.)

- - -- -
-T "
T -

Forwardsup,SHowING
HowGLIDEMAYBE
SHORTENEDFORLANDINGINRESTRICTED
SPACs.

Forward sup, seenFROMABOVE.

Figure 102.-The forward slip.

Related factors.-The forward slip is the type commonly used to shorten or

steepen the landing approach or glide. It is valuable not only for this purpose
but also when landing in fields where obstructions may be encountered, since
the pilot has an excellent view of the landing area during the entire slip. In
a ship with side-by-side seating, it usually will be found more comfortable to
slip toward the side on which one is sitting since the structure of the airplane
provides something to lean against. It also is likely that the range of vision
will be much better if the slip is made to that side. In ships with a tandem
seating arrangement, either side may be used. Most pilots prefer to slip to the
left since throttle is on the left and there is no tendency to be thrown away
from it or to have to stretch to reach it when the slip is made. The only
 UIVIL PILOT TRAININ (; MANUAL 213

difference between the control operation in a right slip and a left slip is that the
control pressures, naturally, are reversed.
Slipping should always be done with the engine throttled. There are two
reasons for this: first, there is no sense in slipping to lose altitude if the power
is on ; and secondly, there is likely to be severe vibration if the engine is running
because of the fact that the air strikes one blade of the propeller at a different
velocity than it does the other.
This is due to the fact that when the airplane is moving sideways one blade
is traveling into the side wind while the other is traveling away from

it.
Eacecution.—Assuming that the ship gliding, the wing

on
the side toward

is
by
which the slip the ailerons, and the fuselage
be

of
lowered
to

made means
of is

is
by

swung opposite rudder, that the longitudinal axis angle with

an
so

at
use

is
the flight path. The nose raised well above its gliding position. The original
is

flight path maintained unchanged.

is

by
Recorery.—Recovery accomplished raising the low wing, easing the
is

resume normal glide and easing off the rudder the wings

as
to

stick ahead

—#- __3=----

,’
-|
\\

2’
\\

/
N
N

|z
|
|
//
\

z
N
N.

/
N

wº
/
\
z

z
w
z

-
N^
z
2^

- - <=4 -
NS
- 22
-:

-º- wav
5.

frontwitw

-ſoº slip
Figure 103.−The side slip.

the pressure abruptly the nose will

on
If

become level. the rudder removed

is

swing too quickly into line and the ship will tend acquire excess speed.
to

('ommon faults.--(1) Failure raise nose, resulting nose-down slip,

in
to

with increase speed.

in

(2) Releasing rudder too quickly.

changed and the slip
of
so

(3) Insufficient rudder that direction motion

is

becomes side slip rather than forward slip. -

a

Side slips-Definition.—A side slip, distinguished from forward slip.

as

during longitudinal approximately parallel

to

one which the axis remains the

is

original flight path, but with the resulting flight path varying direction
in

according [NotE.-In this definition the

of
to

the steepness the bank assumed.

the inclination
is or
to

the compass
to

word direction refers direction and not

flight path toward change
of

This
in

steepness the the surface.] direction

appreciable
as

moderate bank but the difference becomes less and less the
in
a

bank increased until true vertical the flight path the slip
in

in

in

the same
is

is
a

the original flight path.

as

direction (See fig. 103.)

 -
214 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE:

Related factors.-Beyond practice in control use and coordination, the true

side slip has little value. It is not suitable ordinarily for landing since the
flight path (except in the very steep version) is changed from that originally

all
set up and vision ahead is not improved and may even be impaired. About
accomplishes permit quick loss

of

of
altitude without increase forward

to
it

is
speed.
However, combined with the forward slip, the side slip may

be
when

a
valuable maneuver. When such combination made, called “turning

is

is
it
a

a
slip” “spiral slip.” The slip flying

90
begun when the airplane
or

at
is

is
a

off
proposed landing path. By easing pressure the upper

on
degrees
to

the the
rudder pedal, ship allowed turn toward the direction which the land

in
to
the
it is
ing has assumed the position forward slip. From this
be

of
made until
to
is

a
point on, the remarks pertaining the forward slip apply.

to
pulled well up, the ship banked, and top

be
Eacecution.—The nose should
applied. eased forward enough prevent

to
be
rudder The stick then should
turning.
Recovery.—Recovery accomplished by raising the low wing and easing
is

the rudder, observing due care complete the recovery with the nose
on

off to
its gliding position.
in

“DRAGGING” THE LANDING AREA

The instructor will merely demonstrate how this done, and the student

is
required practice
be

will not
to

solo.
it

his later flying, particularly when making the first landing

In

strange

at
a
has not visited for some time, the student will find this
he
or
at

field one that

extremely valuable maneuver from the point safety.
an

it of

of
view
Except forced landing, when course impossible, the
of

of

the case
in

is
a

pilot should always circle the strange field

an

of

or
altitude more

in
at

500 feet
In

general inspection before landing. this, will pay he

of
to

order make
it
a

particular attention its size, contours, approaches, surface condition and

to

obstructions, and He should plan approach which,

an
to

the wind direction.

taking into consideration the wind direction and other factors, will permit
the longest run after landing.
from this general inspection the field appears satisfactory, the pilot
be
If

to

more careful inspection the area upon which

to he
of

then should make intends

a

by

“dragging the field,” which means flying

of to

land. He does this one side

approach safety and circum
an
of

as

as
at

the intended line low altitude

stances will permit, while carefully scrutinizes the ground. While doing
he

should look for stumps, holes and soft ground, and carefully observe
he

this
As soon the intended landing area traversed, he
as

the field’s inclination.

is

reasonably
be

safe altitude. The maneuver then can

to

should climb repeated

a

absolutely
he

necessary, until certain that the surface suitable for

if

is

is

landing. -
In

“dragging the field” the airplane should flown upwind

be be

at

speed
a

well above the stalling. Extreme care must taken observing any
in

flight possibly might during

of

obstructions the line which

in

have been unseen

be
of

the initial circle the area. While low altitude will necessary, this should
a
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 215

hot be so low as to bring the airplane dangerously close to the ground or other
objects.
“Dragging” the landing area usually is necessary only at sites not used
ordinarily as landing fields. It should not be done, nor is it necessary, at air
ports when flying activities are going on. In such cases, the pilot can gain a
conception of the best landing areas by watching other ships landing and
taking-off during his preliminary circling of the field.

THE CROSS-COUNTRY FLIGHT

A cross-country flight is one in which the airplane is navigated beyond the
locality of the airport. This type of flying is a phase of training which de
velops the student’s self-confidence and initiative to a greater degree, perhaps,
than any other. On solo cross-country flights, he has only himself to rely
upon and it is imperative therefore that he understand thoroughly and be able
to follow the procedures necessary to accomplish successfully such flights.
Moreover, in his later flying career, he undoubtedly will derive the greatest
pleasure from such flights, and at the same time will be able to utilize the
its
inherent advantage of the airplane to fullest extent. His natural inclina
“go somewhere” rather than spend his flying hours circling his
be

tion will
to

s
home airport.
Applicants for private pilot certificates competency are required by the
of

Civil Air Regulations have certain minimum cross-country experience before

be to

their applications will this experience varies with

of

considered. The amount

type they approved private an
of

of
the instruction have received. Graduates
pilot course, including, course, graduates the Civilian Pilot Training
of

of

Program, must have logged solo cross-country.

of
at

least hours Other

2

applicants for private pilot certificates are required have logged

to

minimum a
flying

In
cross country
be
of

of

of

hours which hours must solo.

at

least
5

any case, during this cross-country flying experience, the applicant must have

50
more solo cross-country flights over
at or

of

made one course not less than

a

full-stop landings points

on

miles with least two two different

at

the course.
The advanced solo training (stage D) the controlled Elementary flying
In of

course complies with these requirements. this stage, the student will receive
necessary instruction and practice cross-country work and will required
be
in

flight.
to

make the specified 50-mile solo

Cross-country flights require the use navigation and
of

of

some form
planned carefully they are performed efficiently.
be

be

should advance
in

to
if

By the time the student ready make his first trip, should have completed
he
to
is

the ground school work navigation which part

of

For this
in

the course.
is
a

reason, many pertaining navigation following

of

the details are omitted

in
to

the
pages.
On the other hand, many the points already discussed
of

detail
in

in

the
navigation course are mentioned, chiefly
In
as

to

reminder. order make the

a

the greatest possible value the student,

an
of

to of
to

material outline the various

topics given first. This outline will serve prevent the
as

check-off list
is

pilot from making mistakes and failing supply proper reports and records.
to

201073°–41– 15
-
216 U. S. DEPARTM ENT () F COMMERCE

A discussion of each of the items is given in the pages immediately following

the outline.

CHECK OFF LIST FOR CROSS-COUNTRY FLYING

I. PRE-FLIGHT DUTIES
(1) Schedule flight on school flight board.
(2) Select designation.
(3) Secure up-to-date charts and lay out course.
(4) Compute range of plane.
(5) Select refueling points.
(6) Check suitability of landing fields and airway aids to navigation.
(7) Study landmarks.
(8) Check airplane and engine log.
(9) Check compass and Compass error.
(10) Check night flying equipment and radio.
(11) Check and set altimeter and clock.
(12) Check equipment.
(13) Assemble “Cross-Country Packet.”
(14) Check fuel and oil and top off fuel.
(15) Check kind of fuel and oil.
(16) Stow baggage.
(17) Check weather, compute drift angle and ground speed.
(18) File a flight plan.
(19) Check Sunset and Sunrise table.
(20) Notify— (a) Airway traſlic (b) Control tower (c) School dispatcher—of estimated
departure time.
(21) Airline cooperation.
II. IN-FLIGHT DUTIES
(1) Clear field and take departure.
(2) Keep an accurate flight log.
(3) Cruising speed climb to proper altitude.
(4) Fly straight and level.
(5) Hold chart properly.
(6) Check time over landmarks, compute estimated time of arrival at first stop.
(7) Observe air traffic rules and keep constant lookout for other aircraft.
(8) Check fuel consumption.
(9) Observe wind and weather changes.
(10) Fly around bad weather.
(11) Forced landing procedure.
(12) Identify intermediate fields.
(13) ('heck instrument readings.
(14) Make radio contacts.
(15) ("heck direction of traffic around terminal fleld.
(16) Make an arrival.
(17) Mountain area flights.
(18) Hot weather and high altitudes.
III. POST-FILIGHT DUTIES
(1) Taxi to parking area.
(2) Cancel flight plan.
(3) Report to airport flight office.
(4) Refuel and service ship.
(5) Arrange for hangar or parking Space.
(6) Inspect plane and arrange for any repairs.
(7) Notify airport flight office of expected time of departure.
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 217

| V. I’RECAUTIONS

(1) Eliminate possibility of fuel shortage.

(2) Check weather frequently.
(3) Keep constant lookout for other airplanes.
(4) Check instrument readings at regular, frequent intervals.
(5) Maintain constant cruising speed.
. (6) Avoid flight over areas where a forced landing would be dangerous.
(7) Avoid flight into turbulent air.
(8) Avoid flight into birds.
(9) Avoid flight too close to mountainside.
(10) Use the latest charts available.
(11) Use true airspeed for drift computations.
(12) I)on't “S” turn or wander around if lost but follow a definite plan for determining
where you are. -

(13) Avoid restricted areas such as Government reservations for artillery practice, etc.

V. FLIGHT ERRORS

(1) Flight time error.

(2) Course error.
(3) Altitude error.
VI. PROCEDURE WHEN LOST

I. Pre-flight duties.—When the student reaches the stage in flying where

he is considered safe enough and advanced enough to make a cross-country
flight, the instructor will confer with him concerning details about local con
ditions which will modify the information contained herein, since this in
formation of necessity is generalized.
The information in this chapter will apply to all forms of cross-country
flying except instrument flights. Naturally, all items covered will not apply
necessarily to every cross-country flight. Only such portions as are required
for any flight should be used in making that flight, and the rest-
ignored when
not applicable.
(1) Schedule flight on school flight board.—Each school operating under the
Civilian Pilot Training Program has been asked to use a flight board for
scheduling flight operations. When a student is ready for his cross-country
flight, he should arrange with the school dispatcher to have this flight scheduled
at a time convenient to both the school and the student. At this time, the
assignment of an airplane will be made, and perhaps the determination of the
nature of the cross-country flight.
(2) Select destination.—Prior to departure on any cross-country flight.
it is essential that the student know sufficiently in advance what his destina
tion will be. This is important because a student should spend several hours
in concentrated study and preparation before he attempts to make a departure.
After he has gained a large amount of cross-country experience, he can reduce
materially the time required for preparation but until such experience has been
gained, it is not advisable for him to attempt a poorly prepared cross-country
flight.
(3) Secure up-to-date charts and lay out course.—The student should
obtain the latest aeronautical charts available for planning a cross-country
flight and flying his course. These charts are subject to constant revision to
keep them up-to-date and pilots are cautioned against using obsolete charts.
218 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

The charts are available at most airports or else may be secured from the Coast
and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. The next step is to locate the
destination on the chart and draw a straight line in red pencil from the point
of take-off to this destination. If it happens that the destination is beyond
the border of the chart, it will be necessary to match two or more charts
together in order to complete this line from starting point to destination. A
distance in miles between the starting point and destination should be obtained
by measuring the length of the line in inches and converting this into miles,
or else by stretching a string along the course and then taking the length of
the string along the border scale to determine the mileage equivalent.
At the same time, the student should determine the average magnetic
variation for the flight by observing the isogonic line nearest to the center of
a course. He also should determine the direction of the course as measured
clockwise from the meridian nearest to the center. This then is corrected for
variation and to get the magnetic course which is recorded for later use. It
sometimes is desirable to mark the chart track in 10-mile intervals with a
number total at the 50-mile intervals as an aid to checking ground speed
later on.
When the course has been laid out, the map should be folded in accordion
fashion as described in the navigation manual.”
(4) Compute range of plane.—At this time it is necessary for the pilot to
determine what distance the airplane can fly without refueling, in other words,
the range. The range permissible will depend upon several factors, which
include weather conditions, altitude of flight, condition of the engine, load in
the ship, and performance characteristics of the ship. These must be consid
ered from the viewpoint of safety of operation and no compromise should ever
be made which will reduce the safety of flying.
With regard to the weather, it is apparent that unfavorable weather will
require that a pilot allow a much larger reserve of fuel than would be required
for favorable weather. In other words, the estimated range of an airplane
should be reduced when the possibility of bad weather at the destination will
require that the flight plan be altered to make an arrival at some other point
or cause a return to the starting point. If there is the slightest possibility that
a landing at the destination will be impossible, enough fuel must be carried as
reserve to permit a flight to some intermediate airport which is known to have
favorable conditions. This amount of fuel is over and above that normally
carried for emergency.
The amount of fuel allowed for emergency reserve will depend upon the
kind of flying which is being done. Ordinarily, about 25 percent or 45 minutes
emergency reserve is desirable for cross-country flights. This fuel never should
be considered as useable fuel for navigation purposes. It is carried to provide
for errors in computation of the navigation and for changing winds which at
times materially alter the estimated time required.

* Practical Air Navigation, Civil Aeronautics Bulletin No. 24, obtainable from Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D. C.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 219

Flights made at other than normal altitudes at times may affect greatly
the range of an airplane, especially if improper mixture setting is used. If the
condition of the engine is such that there is loss of power and excessive specific
fuel consumption, this again will alter the range. A plane carrying a heavy
load generally will burn more fuel for the same distance than it will when
lightly loaded. The performance characteristics of an airplane materially
affect range and it will be found that some one cruising speed will give the
greatest range, and that cruising at speeds faster or slower will reduce the range.
For short flights which are well within the cruising range of a plane, very little
consideration need be given to these last items. However, a student should
analyze his flight and treat it as if the maximum allowable range were to be
used for each cross-country flight. This point of
view will cause the student to
try to determine the best way to arrange his flight and select cruising speeds
which will bring about the desirable results.
Information on the performance characteristics of any particular airplane
with regard to range may be obtained from the manufacturer's handbook and
by consultation with experienced pilots.
(5) Select refue/ºng points.-After the useable range has been determined
accurately, the pilot should check back on the chart to determine at which points
he must land for refueling. For this purpose, he should have preliminary
information from the Weather Bureau concerning the wind conditions which
are likely to prevail during the intended flight. These refueling points should
be close enough together so that there will be no need for the pilot to use any
of his emergency reserve fuel supply.
(6) ('heck suffability of landing fields and airway aids fo marigation.—
Before definitely selecting an airport as a refueling stop, it is necessary to
determine that the field condition is satisfactory for the ship which is to be
used. I)uring the spring and fall thaws, the fields are alternately soft and hard,
depending upon the temperature. A field may be so soft as to make landing
and take-off hazardous. Information concerning the condition of the field may
be obtained from the local teletype station and from the WEEKLY Notic E to
AIRMEN which are posted at most airports. In winter, it is important to deter
mine whether or not deep snow would cause the operation to be unsafe and
whether or not skis will be required. Some airports have ways of reducing the
snow hazard by rolling the runways or by the use of some snow removing pro
cedure. If any doubt exists as to the suitability of the field for a refueling stop,
the field should not be used.
At the time the pilot is checking up on landing fields he should also check
the condition of C. A. A. intermediate fields and the condition of the aids to
navigation which are located at various points. Tables listing radio aids to
navigation and charts showing other aids to navigation are available and should
be consulted prior to flight. Recent editions generally are available in the
teletype station or in the airport flight office.
(7) Study landmarks.-Landmarks are the most useful information shown
on charts. Pilots flying cross-country almost invariably will depend upon
landmarks for determining position and direction of flight. Since during
220 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

flight, there usually is only a limited opportunity of studying the chart for
landmarks, the inexperienced pilot should make a careful analysis of all the
landmarks on the course which may be of service. The distance at which land
marks are visible will depend upon the transparency of the atmosphere and the
size of the landmark. Generally, landmarks beyond a 10-mile radius from the
airplane will be too far away to be of much help. Therefore, the landmarks
which should be studied are those which lie within 10 miles to either side of
the course. These landmarks should be analyzed from the viewpoint of how
easily visible they will be against the background in which they probably will
occur. For example, it may be difficult to see a silver-painted water tower
against snow-covered fields, while if the background of the tower is green grass
it easily can be picked out. It also is apparent that landmarks such as water
towers and church steeples may be easily visible against the horizon if they are
some distance away from the cockpit during minimum altitude flight, but may
be difficult to see when the pilot is directly overhead. On the other hand,
distinctive land features such as intermediate fields, will be seen more easily
when the pilot is nearly over them than when he is off to the side.
(8) Check airplane and engine log.—Although it seldom is necessary for a
pilot who is flying a ship owned by an approved school to perform this check,
it still is recommended as good practice. The airplane and engine log should be
checked to make sure that the airplane or engine will not require any routine
checks and inspection during the cross-country flight. This is a serious con
sideration if the airplane is due for a check within the time alloted for even
shorter flights. This check should include a determination of whether proper
inspection had been made as required by the C. A. R. The log also may indi
cate that the ship has been altered in some way as to fuel capacity which will
affect the range.
(9) Check compass and compass error.—A compass properly installed on
an airplane is a very dependable instrument and seldom fails to give a good
reading. The nature of the instrument is such that changes in the magnetic
structure of the ship and the changes in equipment and baggage stowed may
cause deviation errors which a pilot will consider if he intends to use the indi
cation of the compass as an aid to navigation. The determination of compass
error is accomplished by swinging the ship on a compass rose and reading the
compass headings which are indicated for known magnetic headings. A table
is prepared with this information and is located near the compass where it may
be referred to by the pilot during flight. Should a long cross-country flight
be planned when considerable reliance will be placed on the compass, a new devi
ation card should be prepared prior to flight after equipment and baggage, which
might affect the compass reading, having been stowed. Otherwise, it should be
determined that the deviation card is not more than 60 days old. If the com
pass error is excessive, it may be necessary to compensate the compass or to
The compass error may used during preliminary navigation
be
it.

relocate
by

computations, but generally this error applied the pilot after

he

has
is

entered the ship just before departure.

possible that aircraft used for short contact flights will not have
It
is

compass installed. are required

on

Compasses aircraft which are flown

distances of 100 miles or more.
 CIVIL PlDOT TRAINING MANUAL 221

(10) Check night flying equipment and radio.—If the cross-country flight
is to be made at night or if there is a possibility that sunset will occur before
the flight is completed, it is necessary that the ship be completely equipped
with night flying equipment as required by the C. A. R. This equipment
should be adequately tested prior to departure to determine that it is in good
operating condition and that the battery, fuses and lights are all functioning.
If flares are required by the C. A. R. it shall be determined that these flares
'an be released by the pilot in the event of forced landing at night. The land
ing light retraction mechanism used on some planes should be operated prior to
departure to make sure that it is functioning satisfactorily.
If a radio receiver is installed in the ship and the pilot anticipates any
need for it at all, he should determine that it is functioning properly and that
a suitable headset is a part of the plane's equipment. The functioning of the
radio should be checked when the engine is being warmed up, at which time
it is possible to check for ignition noise. The battery should be checked to
make sure that it has ample capacity for continuous operation of whatever
lighting may be required. The pilot also should secure a recent list of radio
aids to navigation and alter his flight charts so that they will conform to this
information. If a radio transmitter is installed, the pilot must have a
radiotelephone operator's license to use should check carefully

as he
This
it.

prior departure, and any doubt its operation, should

of to
case there
of in
to

is

consult with the owner the ship. The functioning the transmitter may
by

contacting
be

tested the control tower.

(11) Check and set altimeter and clock-During primary instruction,

is
it
common practice the airport level. However, for
to

to

at

set the altimeter zero

cross-country work the altimeter should sea level since the flight levels
be

to

set
always are designated heights above sea level and well for the beginner
to in

is
it

possible. primary airplanes are

as

as
to

become accustomed this soon Most

not read closer than 200 feet. These in
do

equipped with altimeters which

struments indicate only the approximate height. Sensitive altimeters used

on
more advanced aircraft and occasionally some primary trainers read
on

the to
nearest 20 feet. The sensitive altimeter should not be used as an assistance
by

landing unless the pilot can obtain the proper altimeter setting
to

radio
the vicinity his landing field.
he

of

when
in
is

No cross-country flight should

be

an

or

made without accurate watch clock.

set prior departure by comparison with
be

This clock should

in to

standard
a

timepiece. Clocks are installed some pr:

on

most advanced trainers and

mary trainers panel instrument. panel clock not available, the
If
as

is
a

pilot should carry

an

adequate watch.
equipment.—The equipment installed
be

(12) Check aircraft should

in

checked prior any cross-country flight

be
so
as
to

to

sure that installed

it
is

properly and good working order. The

A.
R.
C.
in

specifies the various items

equipment which are required and the pilot should make certain that
of

to he

has inspected
he
of

In
it.

knows the location each item and that addition

the items required, the pilot probably will carry items navigation equipment
of

and other things which ordinarily are not considered part the airplane.
be

of
to

a
222 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(13) Assemble “Cross-country packet.”—A cross-country packet is a useful

part of a pilot's equipment. What is contained in the packet will depend a
great deal upon the nature of the flight. The following items appear to be
most important, but they may be supplemented by others which the particular
operation requires:
(a) List of telephone numbers of C. A. A. communication stations
(Published in AIR NAVIGATION RADIO AIDs).
(b) Travelers checks or credit slips to assist in the payment of bills for
fuel and servicing.
(c) An indelible pencil.
(d) The C. A. A. or school regulations concerning the reporting of forced
landings.
(e) Fuel and oil specifications, system diagrams, and rigging diagrams.
(14) Check fuel and oil and top-off fuel.—Prior to departure, it is essential
that the pilot make absolutely certain that the fuel and oil tanks have been
filled properly. He should be familiar, of course, with the fuel system used in
the ship so that he can check accurately the work of servicing crews who may
be unfamiliar with the particular type of plane. If the airplane was serviced
prior to warming up and any appreciable time is used for the warm up, the fuel
tank should be refilled to the top prior to departure.
(15) Check kind of fuel and oil–Since the aircraft manufacturer specifies
imperative that the pilot make
oil

a certain grade of fuel and for the engine,

is
it

sure the proper kind put into the tanks. At the point departure the

of
is

operator, course, will furnish the proper grade, but refueling

of
or

so at
school
points, the service crew may not familiar with the requirements the pilot
be

exactly
be

he

to

should certain that knows what kind use. -

grade
of

Sometimes different oil specified for winter and summer

is
a

operation, and plane flying from south north during wintertime

in to
if

it
is
a

oil

may the colder locality.

be

necessary after arrival

to

change the
baggage.—An airplane, have proper stability for
to

(16) Stow order

in

operation, way
be

safe should not loaded that becomes unbalanced.

in

such
it
a

The baggage compartment should placarded with the weight which can
be

he

carried. imperative that the pilot determine that this loading not
It

is
If is

loading upon carried,

of

exceeded. the depends the amount fuel care must

be be

that the fuel load and the baggage load are balanced. This will
exercised
the placard. addition, the baggage should
be
on

In

in

indicated secured
the baggage compartment
no

chance for shift around.

so

to

that there
is

it

No baggage ever should carried any place the plane except where the
be

in

provided space for Many

it.

manufacturer has serious accidents have occurred

the carrying baggage the pilot's compartment when this baggage
of
to

due
in

has shifted accidentally and fouled the controls.

..

(17) Check weather, compute drift angle and ground speed.—A prelim
inary check the weather may have been made much earlier
at of

of

the sequence
in

final, detailed weather report should

be

events, but this time obtained.

a

This report should indicate adequate ceilings and visibilities for Contact Flight
R.) and the wind velocity should low enough assure safety
be

to
F.

Rules (C.
when landing. Check with the Weather Bureau concerning expected changes
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 223

in the above items for the duration of the flight. Should it be necessary to
take some airport which does not have a weather-reporting station for a
destination or refueling stop, the Weather Bureau should be consulted to
determine the probable weather at this point. The Weather Bureau can fur
nish winds-aloft information at its principal stations. These winds aloft will
serve as a guide to the probable winds anticipated during flight. The next
step is to prepare a drift triangle, using the cruising speed decided upon after
a consideration of range. The true course obtained from the chart will be
drawn out on a sheet of plotting paper, and the wind at the planned flight
altitude which is obtained from the wind-aloft reports will be used as a wind
vector in the triangle. The anticipated ground speed and drift angle can be
determined from this drift triangle. After experience has been gained in the
construction and use of drift triangles and in actual cross-country flying, the
pilot no doubt will discover that wind information is scanty and inaccurate.
Consequently, he will not actually prepare the drift triangle but will estimate
the effects of winds on navigation and make corrections to this estimate during
flight. The use of a slide-rule computer to determine the speed-time-distance
relationship and for correcting the indicated airspeed to the true airspeed is
strongly recommended. These computers eliminate much of the arithmetical
el"I'Or.

At this time, italso is necessary that the pilot recheck to determine that
his ground speed is adequate to permit arrival over refueling points within the
allowable fuel supply.
(18) File a fight plan.-If the airport lies along a controlled airway, it
is desirable that the pilot file a flight plan as provided in the C. A. R. At the
same time he may obtain information concerning the traffic on the airway.
When the flight plan is filed, it will be transmitted along the airway to any
refueling points which are on the airway. This flight plan will inform the
refueling point of the anticipated time of arrival.
(19) ('heck sunset and sunrise fable.—Since the time of sunset and sunrise
is the dividing time between day and night flying, it is necessary that a pilot
who is equipped only for day flying land before sunset; otherwise he is
operating in violation of C. A. R. and may incur penalties for such violations.
In no case should a plane not equipped for night flying be flown after sunset.
(20) Notify (a) air-ray traffic, (b) control tower, (c) school dispatcher of
estimated departure time.—At this time, it is possible to inform airway traffic,
the control tower, and the school dispatcher of the estimated departure time so
that they may give any last-minute instructions which are desirable.
(21) Airline cooperation.—Some of the airlines offer a service to itinerant
pilots which greatly assists them in making cross-country flights. This co
operation consists frequently of furnishing weather reports and weather
forecast by two-way radio, checking through system and position reporting
service, as well as the use of servicing facilities at the various airline stops.
A nominal charge is made for this service.
II. In-flight duties—(1) ('lear the field and fake departure.—After the
pilot has secured clearance from the school dispatcher and others concerned, he
will taxi to the take-off position and wait for final clearance by radio or visual
224 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

signal from the control tower. A normal take-off is made and the field circled
with a left climbing turn until the proper heading is reached. [Note: At cer
tain fields traffic may be required to make right turns instead of left. Needless
to say, local rules must be obeyed, both as to turns and altitude over the
airport.] The turn is straightened out on this heading and the climb is
continued. When the pilot crosses the centerline of the field along the heading,
he records that as the departure time for purposes of navigation. (The
departure time for the flight plan is the time when the pilot takes off.) The
maneuvering required after take-off to get onto the course should not be
included in navigation time.
(2) Keep an accurate flight log.—Included in the navigation equipment, a
pilot should have a pad and pencil for recording navigation information
obtained during the flight. This pad may have written on it the weather
reports and information concerning traffic if desirable. The first entry made
after take-off will be the time of departure from the vicinity of the field.
During flight an accurate record of the speed, altitude, course, time, and check
points are marked down. During the first cross-country flights, a student
should attempt to keep very detailed records. Later, as he gains experience,
these records may be simplified to include only information which is required
for navigation. This information will include the time of passage over fixes
and course, speed and altitude when any of these items are altered.
(3) Cruising speed climb to proper altitude.—The practice of maintaining
constant speed during climb always should be followed carefully. What the
speed will be depends a great deal upon the performance characteristics of the
plane and upon whether or not an immediate gain of altitude is required.
After the pilot has cleared himself from the vicinity of the airport, it no longer
is necessary for him to maintain a rapid rate of climb. It is more efficient and
better practice to climb at a moderate rate. In some airplanes and generally
under conditions of poor visibility, it is desirable to climb and glide at the
level-flight cruising speed, which means that computation of the speed-time
distance problem will be simplified and navigation by dead reckoning will be
more accurate. In some aircraft, however, the allowable power output for
climbing is not high enough above the cruising power output to give a reason
able rate of climb at cruising speed. In this instance, the speed will be
lowered below cruising in order to increase the rate of climb. In any case the
airspeed during climb may be predetermined and allowed for in the navigation.
The flight level at which the flight has been scheduled is measured above
sea level. It
should be maintained accurately unless weather conditions require
an alteration in accordance with Contact Flight Rules (C. F. R.).
(4) Fly straight and level.—As noted in the section, Straight and Level
Flight, in part two, chapter I, many pilots just miss doing every maneuver
well because they just miss the point from which every maneuver starts, namely,
straight and level flight. In cross-country flying this becomes even more
important, because most of every cross-country flight is—or should be—straight
and level.
It of common observation that many students often fly straight
is a matter
for considerable distances, especially in cross-country flights, staring at the
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 225

nose while one wing droops lower and lower. Of course the airplane starts
to sideslip, and the slip makes the air strike one side of the vertical fin, so
that the airplane tries to turn. This change comes on so gradually that the
student, in keeping the nose headed for a fixed point on the horizon, quite
unconsciously applies more and more pressure to the rudder. If it is the right
wing that droops (perhaps as a result of the weight of his right arm pulling
the stick that way), then the rudder pressure required for holding his heading
is to the left. Right aileron pressure and left rudder pressure, or vice versa,
are called crossed controls. -

Sooner or later he notices the cant of the nose, and checks it by turning
to look at one wing, usually the low one (in this case the right). Then, sud
denly conscious of a big error, he concentrates attention on that wing and
raises it with the ailerons. Meanwhile, with the rudder pressure still on but
the slip reduced, the airplane starts to turn (in this case to the left). It skids
this turn, because the bank is in the wrong direction as long as there is any
bank. So the dihedral helps to raise the low wing, and he gets the wing level
with the controls still somewhat crossed, though only about half as badly as
before. When he is satisfied that the wings are level, he looks back at the
nose and discovers, to his dismay, that it is headed in the wrong direction.
So he makes a turn to the proper direction (in this case, to the right). Having
the controls already crossed, and applying fairly well coordinated changes of
pressures, but with the pressures themselves never well coordinated, he slips
(in this case, to the right) throughout the turn.
Settling down to straight flight in the new direction, his controls are still
crossed. So the low wing never gets up to level, and the slip is in the same
direction.
Then again he lets it droop farther, and the whole wearisome cycle of errors
is repeated.
Such errors can be avoided by the very simple technique recommended
in part two, chapter I, of looking around at both wings, the nose, and elsewhere.
never staring at any one thing but shifting one's eyes so as to encompass the
whole airplane and landscape and be conscious of their relationships as a whole.
On very long flights, where coordination becomes monotonous, leading
through weariness to errors, many pilots prefer to take their hands off the stick
entirely, and simply hold the airplane on its proper heading with the rudder.
In smooth air this works fairly well, though in rough air it may waste too much
power by slipping. In rough air, if one must rest from coordination, it is
often better to leave the rudder fixed, or to remove one's feet from the pedals
and leave it free, and then to steer with the ailerons only, as if the airplane was
of a two-control type with no rudder. Using the rudder only, of course the
airplane must be trimmed well, presumably by adjusting an aileron tab, so
that it will stay level when held straight; or using the ailerons only, it must
be trimmed either with a rudder tab or with the pilot's feet resting lazily on
the pedals, so that it will fly straight when held level.
(5) Hold chart properly.—The chart is essential for identification of land
marks passed over during the flight. In order that the pilot be able to interpret
the appearance of the ground below, he must hold the chart so that it will be
226 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

oriented properly. Each pilot will have his own preferred method of orienta
tion and after considerable experience in the use of charts he can interpret them
without any need for a definite system. In the beginning, it is considered good
practice to hold the chart so that its north-south direction lies parallel to the
north-south direction on the earth. This will give a true relationship between
the objects seen on the ground and those on the chart with respect to the course
and position of the plane. This arrangement particularly is important when
the pilot is endeavoring to identify the intersection of roads and railroads, since
the direction of these intersecting lines is of importance. It frequently happens
that there is some uncertainty as to which railroad is observed. This uncer
tainty often can be eliminated by determining the direction of a railroad and
comparing that with the line shown on the chart.
(6) Check time ocer landmarks, compute estimated time of arrival at first
stop.–When time over landmarks is used to estimate time of arrival, care must
be exercised in measuring the time of passage accurately. Some reference point
on the ship, preferably the intersection of the left strut or lower wing root with
the fuselage, is used for sighting the landmark. The time of passage of a land
mark under this point on the plane is checked accurately by the clock and
recorded on the flight log. A second landmark is timed in exactly the same
manner. The distance between these landmarks may be obtained from the
chart after which the average ground speed may be computed easily and time
of arrival at distant points forecast with reasonable accuracy. At intervals of
about 15 minutes, an additional check of ground speed should be made. If it
appears that the speed is reduced to such an extent that an arrival at the refuel
ing point cannot be made within the allowable fuel time, some alteration in the
flight plan must be made. This may require that a new fueling stop be selected
or else that the ship be flown back to the starting point and the flight cancelled.
No flight should ever be continued when there is the slightest doubt of the
outcome. -

(7) Observe air traffic rules and keep constant lookouf for of her aircraff.
At this point attention is called to the necessity of observing air traffic rules of
the C. A. R. in order to avoid accidental violation.
Pilots on long cross-country flights are likely to become careless about
keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft. It is exceedingly important that a
pilot constantly be on guard against the possibility of approaching other air
craft more closely than allowed in the air traffic rules. Planes coming an
opposite courses will approach with a high relative velocity which means that
they should be observed as soon as they come into view and any alteration in
the course made prior to the time that an emergency could arise. The pilot is
warned to fly “with his head out of the cockpit,” so to speak, and to avoid
any lengthy study of the map or chart which will interfere with his paying the
proper attention to other aircraft or obstructions to flight.
(8) Check fuel consumption.—At definite intervals, which may be every
half hour, the fuel consumption should be estimated so as to determine that no
excessive consumption or accidental leakage has occurred. Most aircraft are
equipped with fuel gages which may be used for estimating the fuel consump
tion during flight. In case of doubt, it is much better to land at some inter
mediate field and measure the fuel with a clean stick.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 227

(9) Observe wind and weather changes.—During flight a pilot should never
become so absorbed in other details that he fails to give proper attention to
changes in wind and weather. These changes easily may become serious enough
to make continued flight exceedingly hazardous or cause the pilot to violate the
contact-flight rules. It may be desirable for the pilot to record changes in
these items in the flight log as an aid to navigation and the forecasting of
weather.
If a radio receiver is installed, the pilot should listen in to scheduled
weather broadcasts and copy those parts of the broadcasts which give informa
tion of value to him. In order to have the skill necessary to copy these broad
casts during flight, the pilot should be trained thoroughly in the use of teletype
symbols and abbreviations; otherwise the broadcast will be too rapid for easy
and accurate recording. It is not enough for a pilot merely to listen to the
broadcast, because his memory will be very inaccurate under these conditions.
The clock or watch which previously was synchronized with a standard time
piece should be used to determine when the weather broadcast will occur. A
schedule of weather broadcast and the frequency of transmission is given in
the AIR NAVIGATION RADIO AIDs issued monthly by the C. A. A.
(10) F/y around bad weather.—Pilots frequently run into unexpected
weather conditions which may make continued flying hazardous. In this case,
it may be necessary to make a forced landing on account of weather and continue
the trip after the weather has improved. The C. F. R. weather minimums for
contact flight are such that if flight is discontinued when weather falls below
these minimums there is little chance for an emergency to develop except in the
case of thunderstorms, linesquails, and other intense storms which have rough
gusty air, lightning, hail, etc., associated with them. It is necessary that a
pilot determine when the intensity of these storms is severe enough to make
flight under them dangerous.
fly

Many storms are of such size that a pilot can around them without any
passed around safely,
be
In

trouble. order determine whether the storm can

to

the pilot must study with great care, taking into account the height
to

which
it

up appearance vicinity.
of

the clouds are built and the other clouds

in

the
Intense storms, hail and lightning are associated with the high built-up type
up

the vicinity are built approximately

of

If

to

cumulus clouds. other clouds

in

the same height, but not yet showing evidence their intensity, caution should
of

exercised before selecting flight path under these clouds because they may
be

develop quickly into Two storms near each other may

be

severe storm.
a

expected join hence, generally speaking, the pilot should not fly between
to

of :
In

them. case doubt the pilot should land until weather conditions improve.
(11) Forced landing procedure.—Forced landings are not expected
to
an

occur, but still every precaution should navigate airplane

be

taken such
in
to

way that engine failure will cause the least possible danger equipment and
to
a

personnel. Whenever the engine single-engine plane fails loses power,

of

or

a it
a

may require that emergency landing some point other than

be
an

at

made
prepared airport. This possibility constantly must
be

borne mind when

in

flights are made beyond easy gliding distance airport. imperative

an
to

It
is

pilot such flights distinguish landing areas which will

be

be
on

that
to

able
a
228 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

well within the gliding range

lie
smooth enough and large enough and still

of
flight, pilots often display

an
In
his plane. cross-country

to
effort shorten their

by
poor judgment flying over rugged terrain while slight alteration

of
the

a
course would put them over smoother ground and make possible forced landing

a
-
less hazardous.
In
previous paragraph, emphasis was laid

on
a the need for accurate
computation range forced landing due

be
of

so

to
that there should never lack

a
fuel. Many have occurred
of

observe these simple

of
failure

as

to
result

a
precautions. Other causes forced landings are the result careless inspec

of

of
engine,

of

of
tion and maintenance the and structural failure for which abuse on
the part the pilot frequently responsible.
of

is
Two types forced landings will

be
of

considered here. The first caused

be is
by

complete powerplant failure which requires that landing made

a

a
by
immediately; and the second partial powerplant failure, which does not

a
mean necessarily that immediate landing must made, but does require

be
an

the flight
of

The latter
at

discontinuance the earliest convenient moment.

may by per minute, excessive vibra
or be

condition indicated loss revolutions

of
tion, loss fuel pressure, excessively high temperature, etc. The handling
of

oil -
of

the two types

of

the situation different.

in

each
is

complete powerplant failure, the pilot must find

In

the first case, with

a

landing area immediately and arrange glide path which will make landing
a

a
possible. All during cross-country flight continually

he
be on

this area the should

estimating the gliding distance which can comfortably cover. Ordinarily
he

the plane
of it of

still air Thus

to

ratio mile above the

in

if

reasonable.
is

is
8
a

1
ground, would glide apparent that the be
an

of

air distance will

It

miles.
8

length glide path ground by

be

the over the will altered the direction and

velocity made for maneuvering
be
of

the wind and that some allowance must

near the ground. Since the slowest landing and the steepest approach can

to be be
by

landing directly into the wind, this direction landing much

of

as to
made
is

preferred. However, the landing area shape and direction

of
if

such
is

a
no

make this impossible there should making

be

hesitation cross-wind
in

a a

approach. Pilot judgment will have

to

determine whether cross-wind

landing large field will up-wind landing
be

an
in

less hazardous than

in
be a
a

making this decision will

be

small field. Factors which must considered

in

the performance characteristics the plane, the relative sizes the landing
of

of

areas, and the strength

of

the wind.
Any forced landing must take into account wind direction and velocity:
pilot cross-country flight must constantly and continuously
on

therefore
a

use every means available determine what the wind direction and velocity are.
to

following points estimating wind. Others

of

The
as

are suggested means

by

developed easily pilot who applies himself the job

be

of
to

can the cautious

cross-country flying:
(a) Wind shown by water.—Bodies water, whether large small, are
of

of or
In

very good indicators velocity. large

of

wind direction and the case lakes

by
or

bays, wind streaks easily can

be

seen and identified the trained and

experienced pilot. The streaks are parallel
of
to

the direction the wind and

To determine which way the wind
be

should not confused with the waves.

is
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 229

blowing along the streak, an estimation of drift or the appearance of whitecaps

will help. Whitecaps appear to flow against the wind, relative to the waves,
though of course they really go with the wind and the waves go faster. In
smaller bodies of water, wind streaks may be difficult to see but the direction of
the wind may be determined roughly by observing which side of the lake has
the larger waves. Very often a pond will have a slick or glassy side which will,
of course, be the upwind side.
(b) Wind direction from blowing smoke, dust, etc.—Smoke from chimneys
is a very good indicator of wind direction, unless the chimney is moving over
the ground, as in the case of a smokestack on a railroad locomotive. Occa
sionally wind will pick up dust from plowed fields or from dirt roads. This
dust, like smoke, will be a good indication of wind direction provided it does
not originate from a moving automobile or similar vehicle. During the har
vesting season in the grain fields, the threshing machines will blow straw
downwind onto the straw pile. This may be used as an indication of wind
direction.
(c) The appearance of vegetation, etc.—A pilot may determine the wind
direction by observing streaks on large grain fields. These streaks are similar
to streaks produced on water. Occasionally in strong winds, it is possible to
determine the wind direction by the appearance of trees which frequently have
a lighter color on the upwind side and sometimes can be observed bending with
the wind. It has been reported that cattle in a field will stand with their tails
into strong wind.
After determination of the wind to the best of his ability, a pilot next
should ascertain that the landing field which he intends to use is smooth and
as nearly level as possible. Fields in cut-over sections will be almost sure to
have stumps unless they are cultivated thoroughly. This sort of field should
be selected only as a last resort. Fields which are used for grazing cattle very
often are filled with ditches but the underbrush is low enough that these
ditches are readily visible and can be avoided. Landing on a cultivated field
when the ground is dry and the crops are not too high is considered to be safe,
providing the pilot
assures himself that there are no fences in the way. Con
siderable caution should be exercised when attempting a forced landing on the
ground which is in the vicinity of swamps. Frequently a smooth, grass-covered
swamp will have water standing on the roots of the grass and very soft mud
below.
Considerable care must be exercised if a landing is to be made on sloping
ground. Such a landing should, almost without exception, be made up the
slope. This is because it is impossible to get the tail down on an airplane if it is
landed down hill and the airplane will be very slow to stop after it hits the
ground. Ifa landing is attempted across the slope of a hill the pilot must be
exceedingly careful to prevent a ground loop and to avoid ditches which almost
always run up the slope.
In the second case, with partial powerplant failure, a pilot may delay the
actual landing until he arrives at an intermediate field or a sufficiently large
landing area to assure a safe landing without damage to the plane. From the
time when partial failure is noted until the landing is made, a pilot generally
 *
230 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

should anticipate complete failure and arrange the flight of the aircraft so that
an emergency landing can be made with the least possible hazard.
The same procedure in determining wind direction and picking possible
landing areas as noted in -the discussion on complete powerplant failure should
-
be followed. -

Forced landings due to weather should follow the same procedure as that
used for partial powerplant failure. "..

(12) Identify intermediate field.—During flight the pilot should locate and
identify each intermediate field over which he flies. These fields are located
at about 50-mile intervals along established airways. They are maintained by
the Federal Government and are intended for use in case of emergency landing
or bad weather. The pilot is referred to the text on navigation for description
of this type of field and he is urged to visit one and make - a careful study of
the facilities and equipment which are provided.
(13) Check instrument readings—During flight the pilot should keep con
stant watch on the instruments, so as to anticipate engine failure- or other
troubles which the instruments may show. -

(14) Make radio contacts.-If the plane is equipped with two-way radio
and the pilot has the required radio license, he should take advantage of the
radio communication facilities offered by the C. A. A. These facilities and
the service furnished will keep the pilot informed concerning weather condi
tions and airway traffic and provide a means for reporting and checking posi
tion during flight. If the ship is equipped only with a receiver, he should
tune in on the weather broadcasts.
(15) Check the direction of traffic around terminal field.—As a general
rule, local traffic around an airport will circle making left turns. However, in
some instances when there are two fields close together or when a field is close
to a dangerous flying area, right turns may be used. In the case of airports
which have right turns at all times a letter R is placed in the circle near the center
of the field. If the direction of traffic depends upon the wind direction, a
portable R or L may be mounted in some prominent spot on the airport and
the proper letter shown to indicate the direction of traffic.
(16) Make an arrival.—The airplane should enter local traffic tangentially
and should circle the field through at least 180 degrees. If it is a strange field
it is better for the pilot to make at least one complete turn (360 degrees). Dur
ing this circling procedure, the pilot should observe the airport to determine
what landing area is being used and whether or not any field equipment, such
as a tractor, is in the way. He should examine the portion of the field near
the control tower for some indication as to landing direction and then should
observe frequently the tower itself for any visual signal which might be given.
If the tower flashes green, the pilot may proceed for landing, and if it flashes
red, the landing should be delayed until the green (go ahead) signal is received.
In case radio equipment is available, the receiver should be operated on tower
frequency. Landing instructions then may be given by radio. In case the
airport is a small one with very little traffic, some other means must be used
to determine the best landing area. In this case, it is recommended that the
pilot drag the field two or three times until he is certain that he has located
a smooth, safe landing area,
 ('IVII, PILOT TRAININ (; MANU AI, 231

In circling the airport, and even more in dragging the field, the pilot should
keep very thoroughly in mind the need for care to maintain flying speed.
Precautions for this have been discussed in part two, chapter I, in the section
Accidental Stalls, and the records show that many of these accidents occur in
maneuvering around strange airports. That section, therefore, should be
reviewed thoroughly now.
(17) Mountain area flights.-If cross-country flights are made in moun
tainous areas, the pilot should observe certain precautions to avoid danger.

fly
In the first place, he should not attempt to

in
mountainous areas where the
height the service ceiling plane. the flight
of

of

If
to
the mountains close

is

a
course leads across the mountain ridge, the pilot should use extreme caution

to
avoid entering down drafts, since the vertical velocity these down drafts may

of
easily greater than the rate airplane and thereby prevent the
be

of

of
climb the
plane from reaching altitude high enough Down drafts may
an

to
pass over.
by

reaching clear the ridge safely

an

adequate

to
be

avoided altitude which

is
before the plane the vicinity the ridge. safe clearance ordinarily
of
in
is

A
1,000 feet over the high point the ridge. Down
be

of

of
would
in

one excess
drafts are more serious with winds which are coming across the ridge than with
any other direction. Frequently
of

to
winds difficult determine wind

is
it

a
top ridge, tendency
of

of
so

in to
direction the use the direction the
at

the there
is
a
by

wind shown other means from some point the valley. This wind
or

smoke
up

may flowing hill back eddy which, course, then will indicate of
to as
be

a
a

wind direction opposite the actual direction. -

In

any doubt plane can

be
or
to as
to

case there whether not flown over

is

mountain ridge, the approach the ridge should 45-degree angle

be

at
made
a

a
that only required fly away from Air
be

relative small turn will

so

to

it.
a

planes never should up valley into canyons because

be

of
or

flown narrow the

a

danger which will exist necessary

of to

to

turn come out.

if

make
is
it

Downdrafts are not the only source danger such narrow valleys,

or
in

approaching mountains out the open. Another danger, especially

in

in

even
at by

novice, anyone's warped

be
of

for the the illusion which sense level can

is
by

sloping ground ahead. least one locality (the head the San Joaquin
of of
In

Valley, California) this illusion well known because the overheating

in

is
by
of

engines places, who fail

to

automobile drivers from other perceive how

In

steep grade they are climbing. airplanes, the same illusion can easily
a

pilot hold the nose too high. The result, usually, only mushing
to

cause
is
a

gain altitude, the blame for this being charged against imagi
an

and failure
to

nary downdraft; but least two fatal accidents have occurred recently (in
at

stalls and spins under these conditions. To avoid

of
as

1939 and 1940) result

a

this danger, and even more holding the nose really right for what
be

of
to

sure
ever climb you want,
of
is to

well remember that this illusion one those

is
is
it

which the air-speed indicator

to

immune.
18. Hof weather and high altitudes.—A related factor mushing
in

in
a

climb over mountains the fact that the maximum climb high altitude
I, at
is

sea level, part one, chapter the section,

as
at

not what was

in

in

noted
is

it

Best Climbing. Up high, the rate less; and

of

climb get the maximum

to
is

got there, the nose must Any

be

be

rate that can held lower than sea level.

at

attempt only mushing.

to

hold the same results

in
it

201073°... .41 –-16

232 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Practically, though not quite exactly, the best rule at any reasonable alti
tude (say, less than 10,000 feet) is to hold the nose where you get the same
indicated air speed as at sea level. (More exactly, it might be 2 or 3 miles per
hour less, but the difference in rate of climb for that change is too small to
justify the complication of making it). The true air speed is then higher
than at sea level, because of the correction for air density; but the feel of the
stick is governed by the same law of pressure, speed, and density as the air
speed indicator, so whenever you have the same indicated air speed you have
also the same feel of the stick.
This constancy of feel is quite contrary to a common misconception, appar
ently derived largely from motion pictures, that there is a loss of control at
high altitudes. Of course, one cannot get the same top speed in level flight up
there, nor, therefore, all the firmness of the stick which goes with that speed.
But the feel in the maximum climb, at any altitude, is far from being a loss
of control.
If
one must find some difference in feel at different altitudes, it is in the
coordination between the stick and rudder. At any given indicated air speed,
or feel of the stick, rolling to a given bank in a given time requires the same
pressure on the stick at 10,000 feet as down low; but if you coordinate the
rudder pressure with this in the same way (by habit, without thinking) you
get an appreciable skid. This is because the true air speed is higher, so the
same bank requires a longer radius of turn to avoid skidding, and therefore
less rudder. The difference is easily found by simply following the usual rule:
“Ride with the ship” . . . and feel vertical.
Returning to the difference in the maximum rate of climb and the height
it,

of the nose to get importance climbing

of

that matter the utmost

in
is
a

high airports. related fact, that the take-off run longer.

of

out So also
is

is
a

One light airplane, for example, was tested get typical data this point,
on
to

by timing repeatedly take-offs 7,200 feet and again sea level, each
in

at

at
it

for maximum climb, with similar

to

at

time from the start take-off the speed

a

ground conditions, practically the same temperature, and

no

wind. The aver

seconds; but sea level only
of

age
15

the times
at

at

7.200 feet was seconds.

9

Since the true air speed was percent higher 7,200 feet, the distance there
14

at

was nearly twice that

no

This was with

at

If

sea level. passenger. there had

been passenger, the difference would have been considerably greater. Take
to at a

offs high altitudes, therefore, require care, though they are simple. Don't
try “pull the ship off,” but wait till you have your speed; then climb with
the same feel and indicated air speed home, even though that does mean
as
at

holding the nose lower; and before taking off all remember that they take
at

770,07% 7'OO770. -
.

Hot weather take-offs Every extra

come under exactly the same rules.
temperature requires
percent more true air speed, just
of

10° (Fahrenheit)
1
So

hot day (say 100°

of
at in as

does 500 feet altitude. the difference between

a

day (say equivalent

of
to

the sunshine) and cool 50°) 2,500 feet altitude

is
a

any one temperature. This does not mean much powerful airplane, but
to
a

may mean quite lot low angle

of
to

one with climb.

a

Along with any difference temperature there usually

in

difference
in

is

temporary drag,
of

another factor: turbulence. Turbulent air causes increases

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 233

which often average up to the equivalent of a fairly serious change in the

airplane. As noted away back in part one, chapter I, in the section, Best
Climbing, any increase of drag reduces the maximum climb. Furthermore, it
requires the pilot to hold the nose lower, and it penalizes any failure to do so
with mushing and more loss in rate of climb. When turbulence is added to

is,
heat, therefore, as it usually

be

of
the nose must held lower for each two
In
any airplane with low angle climb, this combination may cut

of
reasons.

a
off large fraction that angle. Any attempt airport

an
of

of

in in
climb out

to
a

hot, rough air, with the nose high cool, smooth air,

as
result

in

to
as
sure

is
dangerous mushing.
To avoid this danger, the best practical rule again use the same indi

to
is
cated air speed and the same feel. Again this practical rule, rather than

is
a
climb. But again the difference

of
the one for the absolute maximum rate

is
slight, and there great practical advantage not having remember any

to
in
or is
a

different figure feel.

high airports present less problem than climbs.

of
or

Glides into hot

a
Here again, you want the same feel and the same indicated air speed all

at
temperatures and altitudes. This time the rule theoretically exact, provided

is
turbulence, practically best. less needed, however,
no

as

is as

there well

It
is

is
no

because with turbulence satisfied automatically held

at
if
the nose
it

is
exactly the same height glides, angle

of
all and under these conditions the
in

glide also the same.

In is

glides, climbs, turbulence increases the drag. So demands hold

as
in

it
ing the nose little lower, and makes the glide path little steeper. For how
it
a

much, again the best practical rule get f/he same feel and the same indicated
to
is

air speed.
common misconception that any high temperature requires steeper
A

is

a
glide than low. This idea glides
on

of
based the common observation steep
is

days; understanding airplane

be
on

of

hot but for clear the should noted

it

the steepening not the high temperature itself, but the turbu
of

that the cause

in is

lence. Smooth, hot air, early summer morning, gives glide path
as

flat
a

as cold air.
Finally, notice should high cruising.
be

on
of

hot air
or
of

taken the effect

possible, and many places customary, certain engine speed
on
It

in

to

decide
is

for cruising and then under all conditions. done, that engine
If
to

use this
is
to it

presumably such airplane normal glide

as

as

as

speed drive the fast

at

least
is

(or speed for minimum drag) under the worst conditions. These are, the
highest and hottest. Lower and cooler, however, the use the same engine
of

quite unnecessary fuel consumption and wear the engine.

on
in

speed results
rather questionable way treat “the pilot's best friend.”
to

So this
is
a

To see how this comes about, and incidentally really

to

see what that

is
it
fly

high, the case may the principle that all

be

airliners
to

makes referred back

aerodynamic pressures vary the same way with speed and air density. Ac
in

cordingly, the drag

its

any given airplane

of

the same whenever indicated

is

the same. For example, suppose flying

an

air speed airliner 12,000 feet

at
is

is
its

with temperature air-speed indicator reads 150 miles per hour.

of

20° and
a
234 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

The true air speed is higher by 1 percent for every 500 feet, and lower by 1
percent for every 10° below the standard 59°. So here it is up 24 percent and
then down almost 4 percent, or altogether, up 20 percent. This makes the true
air speed 180 miles per hour, though the drag is only what it would be at sea
level at 150, the indicated air speed.

its
Of course, propeller blades must slice off sections air adding up

of

to
180
miles each hour, not just 150. So the engines must run that much faster.
in

However, this does not require any stronger forces, but only just the same, and
revolutions for the trip

In
fact, neglecting
the total number of the same.

is
the engines this would even mean that the total

of
differences the efficiency
in

fuel consumption would the same. From this viewpoint there saving
be

no
is
fuel. The advantage flying high, then,
of actually any ability get
in

to
not

is
less fuel, but rather get there higher speed.
on

on
to

at
there the same fuel

a
Turning now light airplane, suppose these speeds are all cut half:
to

in
a

flying
90

per

of
miles hour instead and its indicated air speed
at

180,
is
it

75.

is
its

Suppose also that engine making 2,250 revolutions per minute. Two
is

thousand two hundred and fifty just 25×90. So sea level, and 59° F., with

at
is

no
25

the same drag, would need only

or
75,

If
1,875 revolutions. there
it

is
X

hurry, why run there 2,250?

at
it

More probably, the same engine speed used under all conditions,
if

is

is
it
not chosen for any altitude high 12,000 feet, but for 2,000 Under

or
as

as

3,000.

these conditions, all moderate altitudes, but up really

at

works well enough

it

high results mushing.

in
it

For best results, therefore, the engine speed should changed with the be
altitude. To cruise attack, thereby having the same drag,
of

the same angle

at

same feel, and same indicated air speed, the engine speed must changed
be

in
proportion Considering temperature
of

the true air

to

speed. the change that

usually goes with altitude, and considering that most engines make
of

change
a

something like 2,000 revolutions per minute, this means that good rough rule
a

eatra 100 revolutions per minute for every 3,000 feet.

an

add
to
Žs

For route flying, far from the ground, these extra “revs” are unim
portant unless the altitude great enough cause mushing without them, and
to
of is

then they are only matter efficiency, not safety. For high airports, however,
a

they are definitely needed for safety. Flying from San Francisco Reno, for
an to

example, the change 4,400 feet. This requires

to

from sea level extra 150

is

revolutions per minute. With that change “revs,” circling Reno

in

Airport just like circling San Francisco—the same feel, the same subconscious
is

for safe maneuvering, the same indicated air speed, the same
to

reactions
it

height the nose, and the same safe angle

of

of

attack. Without it—don't!

level, temperature can equivalent
be
of
as

Even above, changes

at

sea noted
altitude—50°, temperature;
of

or
to to

changes
to

at

moderate 2,500 feet constant

temperature. So
an
of

about 3,000 feet with the normal lapse extra 50°

means also extra turbulence,
an

If

demands extra 100 revolutions. demands

it

it

Conversely, engine upon for hot,

an

speed
if

even more. has been decided

rough air, some revolutions can
be

cut off when the weather cools off.

all temperatures,
If

that the indicated air speed

be so

this the same,

at

done
is
is

the feel also will the same, and again the same subconscious reactions
to
it
 C1VIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 235

will When your attention must

be safe. be partially on something else, this
standardization is a great advantage.

19.
Speeds for Different Loads.-In connection with engine

of
choices
altitudes, may

be
speeds and air for different
speeds

to
well note that the

it
by
any altitude made another factor, the load. With

be
at
choices affected

a
passenger some trips, but none others, will you keep the engine speed for
on

on
cruising the same, the air speed,

or

or
neither?
for climbs and glides And angles

of
And how about air speeds climb and

:
glide?
these questions answer are those about glides. For the
of
The easiest

to
glide air, you ea'acf/y the same height, regard

af
normal
in

smooth set f/ve nose

load, and then you get the same angle glide.
of

of
less
This may seem surprising—indeed many students,

so

is to
has seemed

it
though with unanimity about what else
no

to
expect. easy

to
But see how

it
happens, you work back from effect cause. With the same attitude and

to
if
it

the same angle glide (measured,

of

of
the air still air)

22 or
course, relative

in to

or in
you have the same angle attack, may figure 23. With
of

as

be
seen back
angle weight passenger),
of

so
the same attack but less (without the and less
lift, the airplane does not need
so

so
much speed. Therefore does not have

it
much drag.
For specific case, take the typical 1,000-pound airplane part one,

of
a

chapter glide. drag pounds, just

of
Its
I,

its normal then tenth its

in

is

100

a
weight. Suppose now that part this weight passenger weighing 190
of

is
a

pounds. Without him, the airplane weighs only 810 pounds. To glide the

at
its

angle, drag only just weight, its

of
must still have

or

81
same tenth now
it

pounds. This just what happens. Keeping the same angle attack,
of
the

if
is

reduced by the right amount for change weight from 1,000 pounds
of

speed
is

81

810 pounds, the drag will reduced from 100 pounds pounds. Both
be
to

to

ratio, percent, their previous

of
or

0.81,
81

forces are reduced the same

in

to

strengths.
In

any such case, whatever the values the forces and the ratio may be,
of

by

the forces are always the same ratio. Therefore, the principles
I, in

reduced
outlined part one, chapter the section, The Normal Glide and Others,
in

in

the glide angle will

be

the same.
The question often asked. How does get that way? Suppose that 190
is

it

pounds for the passenger includes parachute, and jumps out, and the pilot
he
a

holds the airplane steadily the same attitude. Does the ship just slow down'
in

weight quick change

of of

of

of

The answer no. The first effect the loss

is

is is
a

the flight path, attack till the lift

reduce the angle right, much de
as
to

part one, chapter

figure change
I,

of

with for the effect

in

scribed back
5,

a
In

the present case, the change reduces the angle

of of

at

speed fixed attitude.

a

glide. But the drag not yet reduced,

of of
so

the forces are out balance and

is

the speed starts decline. This change increases the angle glide again
to

until, the old angle.

of
as

at

seen above, there new balance forces

is
a
In

the special case above, was assumed that the forces were changed
in
it

the ratio 0.81. This figure was chosen because

to of
in or

0.9 0.9, the square 0.9,

is
it

×
all

its

any given angle attack, vary proportion

of

and forces with speed

at
236 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Square. In this case, therefore, 0.9 is the ratio in which the speed is reduced. If
it was 60 miles per hour before (the speed for a normal glide in this typical
1,000-pound airplane), it is now 0.9 × 60 miles per hour or 54 miles per hour.
The stalling speed is reduced in the same ratio, in this case from 40 miles per
hour to 0.9 × 40, or 36 miles per hour. In general, the speed requiring any
particular angle of attack is reduced in the same ratio.
Another way to look at this change is to note that the passenger's weight,
190 pounds, is 19 percent of the original gross weight of 1,000 pounds, and the
reduction in the normal gliding speed is 10 percent of the original speed, and
10 percent is not far from half of 19 percent. In general, unless the percentage
by which the weight is changed is unusually great, the percentage by which the
normal gliding speed is changed is about half as great.
For climbs, we still have the rule that the maximum climb is obtained at an
indicated air speed just a few miles per hour above the normal glide. In this
case, if the normal glide was at 60 miles per hour and the maximum climb at 63,
the new normal glide at 54 miles per hour makes the new maximum climb occur
at about 57. And this is near enough for all practical purposes.
The rate of climb, of course, is changed in a very different ratio, and greatly
increased. How much, could be calculated by the method sketched in part one,
chapter I, under Performance; but exact calculations of this sort are beyond
the scope of this book. The outstanding fact is that the change is always
greater, in proportion, than that of the gross weight; and in low-powered air
planes or at high altitudes it is much greater.
For cruising, it is not so easy to set a definite rule. Many pilots just keep
the same engine speed without the passenger as with him, and rejoice in a
higher cruising speed. The calculation of how much gain they have to rejoice
in is another one, more technical than those of this book. The general result,
however, is fairly simple—the gain does not justify much rejoicing; it is not
by as many percent as the change of weight, nor even of normal gliding speed.
This raises the question, Why keep the same revs? Why not rather use this
opportunity to save some wear on the engine, by using fewer revs?
unnecessary
One possibility that can be calculated readily is that of reducing the
cruising speed in the same ratio as the normal gliding speed. In our numerical
case, the latter was reduced in the ratio 0.9, from 60 miles per hour to 54.
70.

Suppose, then, that you had been cruising with the passenger at reduc
A

this same ratio takes made, the drag re

If
to

tion this change

in

it

is

is

63.
the weight,
be
as

so

the same ratio the thrust can reduced likewise.

in

duced
This will happen the engine speed the same ratio the air
as
in
if

reduced
is

every part propeller

of

blades will meet the air

at

speed, because then the the

same angle similarly reduced speed. the engine speed had
If
of

attack and
a

been 2,000 revolutions per minute, for example,

be

to

can cut 1,800.

it

fuel consumption per mile roughly

If

in

of on in

this done, the reduction

to is

is

proportion
or

the drag weight. The fuel consumption per hour,

of

that
the other hand, roughly proportion the power, which the product
in

to
is

is
If

two factors, drag and speed. the drag reduced the ratio 0.81, and the
or in
is

speed 0.9, the power the ratio 0.81 0.9,

in

reduced 0.72.
is

practical this, airplane, somewhat higher and

of

As illustration
in

one
a

considerably slower than this typical one, cruising this way, the log and
in
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 237

the gasoline invoices for a considerable period did show 3.3 gallons per hour
with a passenger and only 2.5 without, the ratio being 0.76. Such a saving as
this carries with it a great saving in wear on the engine, and a great increase
in its reliability.
Whether is it worth while to change the cruising speed in this way, depends
on other factors as well as fuel and engine wear, notably the pilot's need for
speed, for any reasons of his own. The choice of his speed is his; the important
aerodynamic facts are, that when the passenger gets out there is little gain of
air speed by keeping the same engine speed, and a slight reduction of speed
gives a considerable saving of fuel and increases the life and reliability of the
engine.
III. Post-flight duties—(1) Taari to parking area.—The pilot should taxi
to a parking area after landing so that he may cut-off the engine and leave the
airplane while he takes care of various jobs. This parking area generally is
along the hangar line of the airport. At most airports, some member of the
service crew will signal to the pilot and indicate where the ship may be parked.
During the taxiing and parking, the pilot should keep careful watch for
signals from the control tower and for other aircraft. If he should receive a
red light from the tower he should stop where he is and delay any further
taxiing until the green clearance light has been received.
The rules of airports will indicate how taxiing and traffic around the field
are to be handled. These field rules generally are available to any pilot who
has need of them. Usually they are in conformity with rules of other fields
and reasonable care and good judgment will protect the pilot from criticism
from the airport management. A few rules are included here which will -
aid
the pilot in avoiding trouble.
(a) Do not taxi across runways which are in use, except at the ends.
(b) Land on the side of the runway nearest the hangar line (if runways
are used), and continue in a straight path until it has been determined that no
other ships are landing. Then make the first turn toward the hangar line.
(c) Taxi at a moderate rate of speed.
(d) Report to the flight office immediately after landing.
After the plane has reached the parking area the engine should be cut
and parking brakes set or the wheels blocked adequately.
(2) Cancel flight plan.-The flight plan or P.X. which was initiated at the
take-off point should now be canceled without delay. This should be done
bv reporting to the C. A. A. teletype station either in person or by telephone.
The pilot should never fail to take care of this part of his arrival because search
routine will be started shortly after he is overdue and considerable embarrass
ment and expense will be caused.
(3) Report to airport flight office.—The next step is to report to the airport
flight office where the pilot will sign the visitors' book and give any information
concerning his whereabouts until departure time. This will make it possible
for messages received at the airport to be delivered to him promptly.
(4) Refuel and service ship.–The pilot then returns to his plane and
arranges for refueling and servicing which he ordinarily should supervise care
fully. He should ascertain that the proper grade of fuel and
oil

to

added the
is
238 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

tanks. From the quantity of fuel required, the pilot can recheck his fuel
consumption and compare it with anticipated fuel consumption. If
the amount
of fuel used during the just-completed flight appears excessive, he should make
an effort to determine the cause. The servicing of the ship should include
cleaning the windshield and checking the engine compartment for evidence of
fuel or oil leakage.
(5) Arrange for hangar or parking space.—After servicing, the plane
should be stowed in a proper place until the pilot is ready for departure. For
overnight storage, he should arrange for hangar space if possible. If hangar
space is not available, or if the stay at the airport will be of short duration, the
pilot should arrange for adequate parking space.
If it is necessary that the plane be left out overnight, it is desirable that
the engine be covered to protect it against rain or dampness, and that the
wings and tail be lashed down with securing lines to adequate stakes or anchor
age to prevent damage to the plane in the event of a sudden storm. The con
trols also must be tied securely. If the ship is parked with tail to wind (the
best procedure), the elevators should be down; if nose to wind, they should
be up. If a real gale is expected, an excellent procedure is to dig holes, from 10
to 20 inches deep, for the wheels; then tie wings, tail, and controls. Planes
never should be parked outside unless the latter precaution has been taken.
(6) Inspect plane and arrange for any repairs.--While the plane is being
sery iced or after it is parked or anchored, it may be thoroughly inspected if
this is considered desirable. An inspection made at this time will permit
repairs to be made immediately and thereby avoid any delay at the departure
time.
(7) Motify airport flight office of ea pected time of departure-Before
leaving the airport the pilot should notify everyone concerned and in particular
the airport flight office concerning the time he intends to depart. If
this
information is given, field personnel can arrange their day's work more con
veniently, and many times, considerable delay in take-off will be avoided. For
example, if the airplane is stowed in a hangar, it may have several other planes
between it and the door. If the service crew knows when that plane will depart,
they can arrange better for its storage space and move it out on the line soon
-
enough before departure to preclude any delay.
IV. Precautions.—The following precautions are listed again as a reminder
to pilots of some of the things which may cause trouble.
(1) Eliminate possibility of fuel shortage.
*
(2) Check weather frequently.
(3) Keep constant lookout for other airplanes.
(4) Check instrument readings at regular frequent intervals.
(5) Maintain constant cruising speed.
(6) Avoid flight over areas where a forced landing would be dangerous
(7) Avoid flight into turbulent air.
(8) Avoid flight into birds.
(9) Avoid flight too close to mountain sides.
(10) Use the latest charts available.
(11) Use true air speed for drift computations.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 239

(12) Do not S-turn or wander around if lost but follow a definite plan for
determining where you are.
(13) Avoid restricted areas such as Government reservations for artillery
practice, etc.
V. Flight errors.-Errors will occur in any flight operation and must be

by
all
proper main

be
of
considered at Some the errors can
times. avoided

by
the plane and adequate training the pilot.
of

of
tenance Other errors.
flying,

be

be
which are inherent avoided but must considered when

in
cannot

-
ever cross-country flights are made.
In

general, these errors may either compensating errors

be

as
classified
or

noncompensating errors. Compensating errors are those which alter

as

nately will appear first one direction and then the other,

so

as
that
in
net

a
apt small. Noncompensating errors are those
be
result the total error to
is

which appear continuously one direction, that the total resulting error

so
in

following example compensating error:

an

of
accumulates. The

if
is

a
fly

pilot attempts

90
miles per hour,

he
an

of
indicated air speed will
to

with

90

90
that the air speed will increase above

90 an in
observe and decrease below
proportional amounts due bumps and other irregularities. After
to

about
flight, however, very close

be
average indicated air speed will

to
hour's the
miles per hour since the increases above and the decreases below 90 will com
pensate the one for the other.
example noncompensating error, the pilot the previous
an

of

As

of in
a

may computed navigation 100 miles per

on

illustration have his the basis

90

hour indicated air speed, but actually flew miles per hour. There will
at

tendency the part the plane the pilot

be

no

on

of

compensate for this

or

to

difference between computed and actual air speed, and consequently there will
miles per hour for each hour flown.
be

of
10

an error
This discussion for the purpose assisting the pilot estimating how
of

in
is

large any given flight.

he
an

of

error should expect the end

at

(1) Flight-time error.—Flight-time error the difference between the

is

estimated arrival time and the actual arrival time. The principal cause of
inaccurate ground-speed computation due
of

this error ack accurate wind

to
is

the drift triangle requires that true air speed

of

information. The solution

by

used, and thus another time error may the pilot

be

be

of

failure
to

caused
change true air speed indicated air speed.
to

pilot makes the best possible estimate

If

of of

average wind between two

a

points, taking into account the probable change wind during his flight,
he

may consider his wind error compensating error since quite probably
as

it
a

will alternate above and below the estimated velocity and the right and
to
its

Thus the net result may considerably more

be
of

left estimated direction.

anticipated first. The air speed meter error, how
be

accurate than would

at

ever, noncompensating and the time error caused by this will accumulate.
is

(2) Course error—Course error the difference between the desired

is

course and the course made good, measured

or

either degrees Course

in

miles.
by

wind velocity direction,

of of

or

errors are caused errors the estimation

in
by

by

faulty use faulty correction compass errors, or,

in of

compass, rare
in
by

rigging ship.
of

cases, faults the the

24() U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

As in the previous discussion of time error, the wind, if it is determined

carefully, may be a compensating type of error and therefore will not accumu
late to any marked degree. Of course, if the wind correction is computed
improperly or if any error has been made in the estimation of the average

fly
wind, drift angle will be applied which results in the pilot attempting to
the wrong heading. These errors would noncompensating and would

be
accumulate.
pilot incorrectly applies variation and deviation,
If

of
or
the values

if
a

these errors are determined incorrectly,

be
will error

to

in
the course steer
even though the wind problem has been worked out accurately.
the compass reading for the steerage course has been worked out
If

accu
rately and the pilot attempts hold this compass reading, errors due oscil

to

to
by
rough air may ignored since they will

be
of

lation the compass caused

compensate.
Airplanes
used for accurate navigation should rigged that there will

be

so
turning tendency
no

In
wing heaviness cruising speed. other words,
be

or

at
If,
fly

its
plane straight cruising

of
the should and level speed own accord.

at
rigging, ship pilot
of

incorrect the tends turn the left and the has

to

to
because
hold right rudder straight cruising speed, noncompensating
to

to

keep
at
it

a
the periodical relaxing the pilot,

of
This results from

at
course error caused.
he is

which time allows the plane swing off course. When the plane straight
to

is
again, position
on

of
will have assumed

to
ened out the course the left the
it

reduced when the pilot realizes its presence a

be

desired course. This error can

the alert for accidental course changes and will at
he

be
on

because then will

tempt for the left turn by equal right turn and thereby correct
an
to

compensate
for the error.
in

some degree

-
by
(3) Altitude error.—The most frequent altitude error caused the pilot
is

failing set his altimeter correctly prior take-off. This error may

be
to

to
by

eliminated subsequent information obtained from radio broadcasts, but

if
not corrected for, will cause the pilot fly improper level.
an
to

at
it

take-off and no radio equipment

If

in
to

the altimeter sea level

at

set
is
is

the plane for correcting the instrument during flight, may

be

at at
error the
in
it

the difference between the barometric pressure

to

terminal field due the

point. may
be
on

This error
at

terminal and that set the altimeter the take-off

quite large and therefore the altimeter should not depended upon for assist
be

ing the approach possible.

of
in

at

the terminal unless some means correction

is

altimeter reading during flight are compensating types

of

Errors error
in

fly

provided the instrument set properly and the pilot attempts

to

at

the
is

proper flight level.

VI. Procedure when lost.—Almost all pilots who have done lot flying
of
a

have experienced the unhappy circumstance being lost, which

of

of

one the
is

most annoying and disconcerting situations into which pilot can fall. Being
a

lost may knowledge

of

of

of
as

fixes with respect

be

defined lack the location

the plane. An expression commonly used when person
to

“I

lost have
is

is
a

lost my bearings,” which true and accurate statement because the person
if
is
or a

knew the bearings longer would

he

be
no
of

two more fixes lost.

by

For contact flight, bearings visually

be

and fixes may obtained reference

the ground where identifiable landmarks can important,
be
to

found.
It
is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 241

therefore, that a pilot on a cross-country flight using pilotage, keep an accurate

check of landmarks, and that if landmarks are too far apart, he perform accur

all
ate dead reckoning between them. Almost cross-country flights will require
both piloting and dead reckoning assure reasonable certainty

of

of
to
the use
navigation.
The principal reason why pilots flying cross country

on
contact get lost
they vigilance checking the identifica

or
that relax their landmarks

in

in
is

else
Of course, the visibility and ceiling are low, the
of

tion some landmarks.

if
by

so by
fly
pilot attempting landmarks may run into difficulty.

he
If
to abides
flight rules, however,

he
the contact never should find himself weather

in
bad that will cause him become lost.

to
it

as do
One serious difficulty facing pilots that they not realize when they are

is
lost and keep flying along “fat, dumb, and happy,” the expression goes, until
desirable for pilot

as

as
to
the situation becomes serious. It determine soon
is

a
possible that lost and make immediate plans
he

determine his location.

to
is

This will prevent too great navigation and will allow him con
an

to
error in
his original destination within the fuel range the plane.

of
In to

tinue
the discussion which follows concerning the proper procedure when lost.
when the pilot flying steady
be

two cases will considered. The first case is

is

a
compass course and keeping accurate navigation log. The second case
an

is
when the pilot not flying compass course and his navigation log inade
is

is
a

quate.
In the first case cited, the situation will not be serious until considerable

a
time interval has elapsed since the last fix was established. The pilot simply
continues his course and speed and extends the true course along the chart with
indicate estimated position. At the end given amount
of
to

intervals marked a
flying time, say
of

30

minutes, determine the approximate

he

be

will
to

able
by

probable error his position estimating the possible change wind direction
If in

in
20

and velocity. miles per hour and

of of

this estimated change wind amounts

to

miles from his estimated position.

a he

be
on

180°,
10

should circle radius

a

appear time,
he

Should landmark this need not examine the whole chart but
at

should limit his chart study the space within this 10-mile circle,
as
in to

this circle
represents the probable error wind for period one-half hour, which
If be of

the
is
a

flying time from his last fix. This procedure will great assistance since
of

it

limits the chart area which the pilot must check. the landmark the inter
of is

tracks, might find that there are several

he
of

section two railroad them on

the chart which look alike and the above procedure will assist him determin
in

ing over which intersection passing.

he
an is
In

the second case, where accurate navigation log has not been kept, the
position
be
of

determination may rather difficult. Under this circumstance the

pilot should allow possible
he

little time determines his

as

as

to

elapse before
position, because the probable error may surprisingly large. still pos
be

It
is

represents probable
on

so

sible establish circle the chart which the error

to

that only landmarks any case, the pilot should

be

In

this area need studied.

in

not zigzag start circling around because then even the questionable location
or

lost completely and pure chance

be

be

an
of

the last fix will will identifiable

if
it

landmark appears.
242 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

An examination of the chart will indicate that railroads and highways

eventually arrive at sizable towns and cities. Therefore it is possible in most
cases to locate a landmark by following either a railroad or highway, provided
that the pilot has patience enough to continue the flight without alteration
until such a landmark has been found. If an airport is located, the pilot should
land there unless he can positively identify the pilot should running

be
If
it.
fuel supply and still cannot determine his position,

he
on

low should land

in
a
suitable field before the fuel exhausted. field near highway and telephone

A
is

a
possible. landing made, the pilot
be
lines should Whenever such

if
selected

is
a
immediately should communciate with Airways Traffic that they will not

so
initiate search procedure.

FLIGHT TEST FOR PILOT CERTIFICATE

The concluding the controlled Elementary pilot course

in of
phase devoted

is
instruction and practice the maneuvers comprising the flight test which
to

required get his private pilot certificate.

to

pass

go to
the student order
in
is
In

this phase, the instructor will through the entire test with the
go

student, and then require him through two complete tests alone. Addi
to

tional practice will given any particular points.

be

on
as

needed
The purpose the flight test
to of

to

show that the student now has sufficient

is

warrant his being certified pilot and that fully

he
aeronautical skill as

is
capable assuming all the duties, responsibilities, and privileges such cer a
of

tification gives. -

is,
The flight test, which concerned only with the student’s flying ability,
is

the other requirements the regulations which the

of

of

course,
to

addition
in

do
eligible for the certificate. These have
be
to

student must meet with his

to
age, character, citizenship, education, physical condition, and aeronautical
knowledge. As proof the latter, required
he

be
of

will pass written exami

to

aircraft operation and the Civil Air Regulations are pertinent

on

as

as to
nation
the private certificate, the prevailing weather conditions the United States
in

flying forecasting thereof, analyzing

of

encountered and the weather

in

the
maps and sequence reports furnished by the United States Weather Bureau,
as

by

practical air navigation and the use maps, and navigation terrain (pilot
of
by

age) and dead reckoning, including the use

of

instruments and other aids

navigation visual-contact flying. these subjects
of

in
to

Each
in

covered
is

ground-school Training Program.

of

the controlled course the Civilian Pilot

the flight test, the student will demonstrate his ability
In

required
or be

to
to

pilot aircraft solo flight through any

of

all the maneuvers the controlled

in

in

Elementary flying course.

In

required
be

this test the student will

to

demon
accuracy and precision prescribed
of

in
as

strate the same degree execution

in

the Civil Air Regulations for the private certificate

of

competency.
No properly trained student should fail pass the flight test. All
of
to

the
maneuvers required the controlled Elementary flying course
in

in

are covered
is it

upon which this book based. The properly trained student will have learned
mastered, step by step logical sequence, the various maneuvers
to

and and
in

qualify for private pilot certificate.

he

be

will
to

the end that able

a
 CIVII, PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 24.3

The student should not consider himself a finished flyer just because he
has completed his flight training and has received his pilot certificate. He
still has much to learn which he can learn only through additional experience.
In fact, he still should consider himself a student until he has flown under all
sorts of conditions for several hundred hours. The experience thus gained will
improve further his flying technique and judgment, enabling him to solve more
and more of the problems connected with the proper handling of the airplane
under widely varying conditions, Experience will continue to build up his
judgment until the problems which will continue to arise can be solved by
common sense. But even then he should not consider himself a finished pilot.
He always will be subject to unguarded moments which may become fewer as
experience is gained, but which always will be a liability as long as the human
mind is fallible. The wise pilot never stops learning.
 Part Three
SECONDARY FLIGHT COURSE

This part covers the maneuvers which the student will learn in the Secondary flight
course of the pilot-training program. Completion of the Elementary course is a prerequisite
to this second course.
In general outline, this course follows closely the Elementary course. Advanced inter
pretation of the maneuvers comprising the earlier course and their application to heavier
aircraft are supplemented by instruction in acrobatic maneuvers, which will develop still
further student’s knowledge and technique. Night flying also is included in this section of
this manual although it is not now required in the Secondary course.

Chapter I.-STAGE A, FAMILIARIZATION AND REVIEW

FAMILIARIZATION WITH NEW EQUIPMENT
Since larger, higher-poweredairplanes are used in the Secondary flight
course, the student will familiarization procedures of the Elementary
repeat the
course as applied to this different equipment. In the actual flying he will
learn the somewhat different handling characteristics of these heavier, higher
powered craft.
Inasmuch as many of the maneuvers in the Secondary course are identical
with those in the Elementary course, no description is given as to their execution.
The sequence is in general the same, the chief difference being in the type of
equipment. As each maneuver in the second is taken up, the student
course
all

the material pertaining the foregoing pages. As he

to

should review
in
it

progresses types airplanes,

of

different the student will learn that each

to

type (and indeed each individual ship) differs from all others certain respects,
in

although these differences usually are minor. For example, the use
of

the
controls performing given maneuver any airplane but the
in

in

the same
is
a

control pressures will vary with each type. Likewise, the landing characteristics
and the landing speeds will vary but the basic principle landing, namely,
of

bringing the ship close the ground and holding long possible,
be as

as
to

there
it
In

applies higher-powered ships, the take-offs will quicker and the

of to

all.
angles climb noticeably steeper, but the feel stall will
be
of

the same,
a

-
regardless power
of

or

the speed. -

The student now approaching point which many young pilots begin
at
is

feel that they are pretty “hot.” All too often, through knowledge
of
of to

lack
a

many things happen they happened

to

the that can (because have not them

yet), they begin think that unduly fussy and old-wom
as

to

the instructor
is

things which they think are well

he

anish because refuses allow them do

to

to

within their capabilities. Unless this feeling nipped

in

the bud and the

is

244
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 245

advice and counsel of the instructor followed to the last word, the new pilot's
career is likely to terminate abruptly.
Having acquired his private pilot's certificate and thus having become

fly
entitled to away from the field, the young pilot often tempted, when out

is
airport,

do
of

sight things

he
of

of
never would think while

a to
his own which
“show off,”

to

to
under observation. He has natural inclination dive his
girl's

do
house, and other things which violate the Civil Air Regulations and
often furthermore are highly dangerous. He should remember that such per
formances are not only illegal and risky, but are definitely dishonorable, since
they violate the trust that the owner the airplane has placed

of

in
him.
say, any violation

of
Federal rules will result imme

or
Needless local

in
to

diate earpulsion from the controlled course. However, the important thing

is
such violations upon the pilot himself, upon newer
of

the detrimental effect

students who may tempted follow his example, and upon aviation
be

in
to
general.
Students the Secondary course naturally will receive dual instruction
in

to in
by of fly

any new airplane before they solo and the instructor will call attention
it

the particular characteristics the ship question. However, probable

in

it
is
many who are not enrolled
be

that this manual will

in
the course and

flyin
used
any case, occasion may arise for graduates ships
of

to
the course with which

In
they are unfamiliar without the opportunity being given check flight.
of

a
this connection, emphasized that advisable for any pilot

to
have
is

is
it

it

is a
check hop before taking out new airplane solo. On the other hand,

it
a

realized that sometimes this not possible, and even when such check hops are
is

given, they frequently cover only the take-off and landing. Accordingly,

it
is
outline the general procedure
be
to

considered advisable followed when the

to

pilot begins fly strange airplane.

to

In
The first and most important thing
to

“take easy.”
to

remember
or is

it

other words, not attempt any violent maneuvers try

to

to

obtain extreme
all

performance until the airplane have been thoroughly

of

the characteristics
“felt out.” -
fly
In

take-off, ship itself off, and the ensuing

be

to

the the should allowed

considered the maximum for the particular
be

climb should well below what

is

be an

airplane. possible,
be
no
If

of

made until
at

turns should altitude least 500

feet has been attained and even then the turn should gentle.
The ship should
be

an

of
to

climbed altitude least 3,000 feet before the

at

“feeling out” process begun. The pilot then may begin making turns, usually
is

In

figure eights, increasing steepness. this connection,

of

of
in

the form
it

low-wing monoplanes greater

be

should borne mind that often show

in

tendency than biplanes fall into spins. This

on
to

to

mush turns and due

is

partly relationship wings gravity,

of
to to

the between the and the center and

partly the higher wing loading usually found the low-wing types. Accord
in

ingly, when making banks approaching the vertical, the pilot should
be

con
stantly his guard for spin. He also should remember that the low-wing
on

monoplane likely require considerably more altitude pull out

of
to

to

dive
is

than the biplane.

246 U. S. DEPARTMENT () F (!()M M1EHCE

After the characteristics of the ship in turns have been determined, its
stalling characteristics should be checked, particularly with respect to the
effect of the ailerons during the approach to a stall and in the stall itself. In
some airplanes, the ailerons will rock the ship readily, even in a full stall.
Obviously, this is a desirable characteristic since it permits adequate control
in bumpy air while landing. Other points to note while checking the stali
characteristics are the quickess with which the nose drops, the tendency for
one wing or the other to drop, the effectiveness of the elevators in holding the
ship in a stall, the effectiveness of the rudder, and the altitude required for
t
recovery.
If the pilot has hadtraining in acrobatics and is equipped with a parachute
(as he should be on such flights), he then may check the spin characteristics
and any acrobatic maneuver he considers desirable.
The angle and speed for the best glide should be checked, and the effective
ness of the controls while gliding. This should be done first at an altitude of
1,500 feet or more. The ship then should be brought in for a landing and the
glide noted while close to the ground. It is desirable not to land on the first
approach, but to drag the field several times until the pilot is thoroughly famil
iar with the glide and approach at low altitudes. Many pilots, when actually
making the first landing, make a power approach, particularly if the field is
small and the airplane has a high landing speed. The pilot should be on the
alert for ground looping tendencies and should be prepared continuously to
gun off again if there is anything about the landing which seems unsatisfactory.
Needless to say, the practice followed by some pilots of stepping blithely
into a strange airplane and pushing off on a cross-county trip without such a
check as that described above, not only indicates inexperience and lack of
common sense, but definitely is foolhardy and dangerous.

SEQUENCE OF MANEUVERS FOR PRACTICE

The following maneuvers, with the exception of forced landings, will be
practiced first with the instructor and then solo: Taxiing, take-offs, coordina
tion exercises, stalls, spins (accidental), landings—90°, 180°, 360° precision.
forced landings, eights around pylons (30° and 60°), cross wind take-offs and
landings, 720° turns, and landings—spiral approach. -

The student is familiar with all of these (on lighter equipment) and in
reviewing them should refer to the descriptions and directions in part two of
-
this book.
 NOT ICE
THE FLIGHT MANEUVERS DESCRIBED IN THE FOLLOW
ING PAGES ARE THOSE WHICH, IN ADDITION To A REVIEW
AND PRACTICE OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE MANEUYERS,
CoMPRISE THE SECONDARY FLIGHT COURSE.
SINCE SOME OF THEM ARE ACROBATIC MANEUVERS,
THEY SHOULD BE DONE ONLY IN SHIPS STRESSED AND
APPROVED FOR THIS TYPE OF FLYING. FoR THE SAME
REASON, THE CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS
PROVISIONS OF THE
REGARDING ACROBATIC FLIGHT, SUCH AS THE WEARING OF
PARACHUTES AND MINIMUM ALTITUDES TO BE OBSERVED
MUST BE FOLLOWED STRICTLY.
ALL STUDENT AND OTHER PILOTS WHO HAVE NOT BEEN
INSTRUCTED IN THEM ARE CAUTIONFI) AGAINST ATTEMPTING
THESE MANEUVERS WITHOUT THE AID AND ADVICE OF A
CERTIFICATED ACROBATIC INSTRUCTOR. STUDENTS TAKING
THE ELEMENTARY FILIGHT ('OURSE IN THE CIVILIAN PILOT
TRAINING PROGRAM WHO ATTEMPT THEM WILL BE DROPPEI)
IMMEDIATELY FROM THE COURSE.
BEFORE TAKING-OFF ON ANY ACROBATIC FLIGHT
1. INSPECT (BE SURE IT HAS BEEN RE
PARACHUTE
PACKED WITHIN 60 DAYs) AND ADJUST IT.
2. INSPECT AIRPLANE, INCLUDING COCKPITs (BE SURE
ALL LOOSE EQUIPMENT HAS BEEN REMOVED).
3. INSPECT AND PROPERLY ADJUST SAFETY BELTS.

THE GOOD PILOT IS THE SAFE PILOT

247

20107:3° 41. –17

 Chapter II.-STAGE B, ADVANCED PRECISION
MANEUVERS

The following maneuvers will be practiced first with the instructor and
then solo, together with other maneuvers previously named according to the
direction of the instructor: Pylon eighths, precision landings—180 degrees semi
circular approach; chandelles, precision landings—360 degrees circular ap
proach; lazy eights, wingovers, and landings—spiral approach.
The purpose of these maneuvers is to enable the student to acquire pre
cision in handling the ship in positions with which, up to now, he has been
unfamiliar. They all require a thorough knowledge of the effect of the controls.
relaxation, good “feel” of the ship, and proper timing. They are introduced
not as “stunts,” but, by developing the qualities mentioned above, to improve
the handling of the ship under normal flight conditions.
wind

*
.* .*
\ *~~ **
& `----------- ... *
----
* = **
S{}s

TART
Figure 104.—The pylon eight.

PYLON EIGHTS
(Required Army maneuver)

Definition.—The pylon eight the eight pylons

on
or

maneuver which
in
is
a

the airplane flown around two pylons, the flight path having the shape
of
is

figure and the turns being such that some portion the airplane, such
of

as

the
8

lower wing tip, held continuously line from the pilot's eye the pylon.
on

to
is

parallel the airplane. The maneuver,

be

of

This line should

to

the lateral axis

figure 104, Army training maneuver.
an

illustrated
in

is

Related factors.--This maneuver differs from eights around pylons two

in

important respects. the eights around pylons the

be

will recalled that

It

in

distance from the pylon remained unchanged. eights pylons, the dis
on
In

tance from the pylons varies any wind. This the first point
of
if

there
is

is

difference. The second point that the bank varies quite different way,
in
is

increasing pylon
as

the distance from the decreases.

by

bank may
be

The reason for this increase

or to

understood reference
in

figure 104. Since the airplane the pylon

on

closer the windward

to
is

248
 CIVII, PILOT TRAININ (; MANUAL 249

upwind side, it is obvious that the bank must be increased in order to hold
any given point on the wings in line with the pilot's eye and the pylon.
Conversely, on the downwind side, the bank must be shallower because the
airplane is further away from the pylon. As a result, the degree of bank, the
radius of the turn, and the distance of the airplane from the pylon continuously
are changing.
Pylon eights are considered the most difficult type of eight since their exe
cution is affected by the speed, the altitude, and the angle of bank as well as
the other factors which affect all eights. If the pylon eight is to be performed
perfectly, there is only one altitude for a given air speed, and this altitude is
the same for all angles of bank, as shown in figure 105.
In performing this maneuver, however, the pilot must remember that steep
banks demand high speeds fo prerent stal/inſ. For medium and gentle banks,
on the other hand, he will not want to use unnecessary speed, because of the

&’& zº

//
&
- 2'
§/ Q. z
z
%
… 2^

-------/*/*-
§
- - --&.- -- - - - - - --- - -
Co Sº - - - __-Gº.
vº. . .
* — –
*
sº
A &
& -2> l*& -
--~~
***
/ _2^ |
_ _-- --~~

/
t

_
-> "
2^ : -

/~~
l --~~
i
--T
r
!
-
~

-v- i i l

Figure 105.-Three airplanes at the same speed and one faster.

wear and tear on the engine. Therefore, it is best to do the medium and
gentle pylon eights at cruising speed, with the same altitude, and then do the
steep pylon eights at a speed that is safe for them, and consequently at a higher
altitude, as shown in figure 105.
The altitude required for any given speed can be found by trial, in which
also the above rules can be checked.
Many pilots are surprised that the weight of the airplane is not mentioned
fly

in these rules. But it need not be. Heavy ships usually faster than light
ones, and speed mentioned. So the weight counts indirectly through the
is

speed.

The exact theory speed does not positively have

of

of

this relation altitude

to

to

be
known for the performance flight
so

the maneuver, but many

of

has been asked for

in
it

office conferences that will be stated full here, least for pylon eights with no wind.
at
in
it
25() U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

It is based on two fundamental principles. One of these is the old, familiar, “Ride
with the ship” and . . . “feel vertical.” This maneuver is to be done with neither skid nor
slip. So weight, lift, and centrifugal force are related as in any other properly coordinated
turn at a constant altitude. This relation was explained in connection with the “feel
vertical” rule, in part two, chapter I, in the section, Medium and Gentle Turns, and it is
used again here in drawing the arrows W. L. and C, in figure 106, These arrows form
triangles, as shown there, when they are drawn in the directions of the forces and with

is,
such lengths at to represent these forces all on the same scale; that

at
the same
number of pounds
to
the inch.
these triangles has the same shape the triangle formed by three other

as
of

Each A,
the turn, and the slanted distance Therefore,

of
lines—the altitude the Radius

S.
R
by

as

as
geometry, 1,732 times long

W
of
fundamental law arrow arrow (as

is

is
if

it
0
a

Figure 106.-Forces and distances in pylon eight.

a

60° bank), then the altitude the same 1.732 times the radius R. Or algebraic
in

is

in
A
a

form, regardless some other angle—

at

something else,
of

or

whether the number

is

1.732

A_C
W
R

To find terms of the speed (this letter standing for “velocity”), we need the
in
A

law of centrifugal force. This is—

V2
C

WTF?’
where (for “gravity”) of body falling
in

the acceleration vacuum. Such boºty

is
g

picks up speed 22 more miles per hour (or 322 more feet per second)
of

the rate
in
at

already going,
or

every second, regardless made of,

of

how fast what how

or
is

is
it

it

heavy is.
it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 251

Putting these equations together—

4–C– V2.
F-W-Fº
So
A_V”
RTRø'
The R's here can be cancelled, so—
V2
ſ]

Since there is no R in this equation, the value of the altitude A given by it does not
depend on the radius R. All it depends on is the speed V and gravity g. The higher
the Speed is, the more altitude is needed, whether the Speed is higher because you are using
a heavier airplane or merely because you have opened the throttle wider. If you could fly
anywhere where gravity is notably different (on the moon, for example), you would need
a different altitude. Since you cannot, the only factor you need to consider, in choosing
-
the altitude for pylon eights, is the speed.
If algebra is unfamiliar, this cancelling of the R's may seem like jumping to the desired
try
it.

may be well place

of
answer with no reason for with numbers

to
So these

in
it

it
letters. For example, an equation just like the one with the R's is—
2_ _10°
X50
T
3
or 3

This equation true because 10X10, 100, and 3X50 150, and—
is

is
is

10°

2_100.
T

150
3

Cancelling the 3's, like the R's, the equation becomes—

2== *
100
*

50
and still true.
is
it

it it,
the equation pair

of
Now we started with had not had the 3's

in
but 4's the
in
if

same places, pair 5's or 6's or any other equal numbers,

would have been true, a
of
or
a

just as with the 3's, and the cancellation would have given the same result. So will work

it
pair those places, regardless may stand for
of

in of

with R's what

in

and when the

R
a

cancellation gives an equation for with no it, means that the altitude really
R

A
it
A

the same, regardless of what the radius may

is

be.
R

To see how this formula works, suppose V=75 miles per hour. This must be changed
feet per second, go with the feet One mile
in
to

to

and the seconds 5,280 feet and

in

is
9.
A

hour 3,600 seconds, so— -

is
1

5,280 ft. 22 ft.

p.h. -3.300 sec."
1

15

ser
in

Then—
V-75 m.p.h.-10".
= (o m.p.h. = SeC.
and—
110X 110
A= T55.5T =376 ft.

This too low violates the C. A. R. rule about 500 feet. So the first result of
is

It
!

using the formula that you must not do pylon eights 75 miles per hour.
of
at

One the
is

big difficulties with pylon eights has been that people have tried ships that
to

do them
in

simply were not fast enough, and then have slipped little and not pointed the wing quite.
a

down the pylon and generally done the whole maneuver little wrong, meanwhile trying
to

persuade themselves that was right.

to

it

The speeds needed for various altitudes, and vice versa, can be figured from the formula.
In

every case, known miles per hour, the 22/15 and the 32.2 come
in

as above.
is

in
if
V

more convenient form for the formula can be found by putting them and combining
in

So
a

them arithmetically, once for all. This gives, approximately—

****)
x

.D.h.)”
_(V
-

(A feet)
in
252 Lſ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

If V is 75 miles per hour, for example—

7 52
(A in feet) = =375
155

which is near enough to the 376 found before.

Some more values calculated from this formula, with the altitudes rounded off to the
nearest 10 feet, or with the speeds to the nearest whole number of miles per hour, are given
in the following table.

SPEEDS AND ALTITUDES FOR PYLON EIGHTS

Speed in miles per hour--------------- 90 100 110 | 120 130 140 150

soo
500 540

670

960

130
Altitude in feet-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1,310 1,500

||

!
Altitude in feet---------------------- boosoo 1,000 1,200 1,400

--
1,000

---
Speed miles per hour--------------- 87
in

95 110 122 134 145 155

||
---------

|
*
-

--
The altitude that goes with any given speed this way often called the

in

is
“pivotal altitude” for that speed. At that altitude, calm air, the line

of
in
the
wing span can

or
held exactly the pylon, but either higher cannot,
be

on

lower

it
figure 107.
in
as

shown
\

TOO HIGH º'

º -- ———
\
\\

—A
.

Pyota
— —T
—

ALTITUDE
-
\\ \

\ \

/
/ /
\ \

-\

/
\

r A---
\ \

/
\
\

>
/
º

Too low
a

/ ſ
\\
\
\

}
\ \

§ / |\
\ \

– I'l-–A–
\ \

\
\

—A
Figure 107.-Effect trying
in

pylon eights.
of

different altitudes
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 253

Reference marks for sighting parallel to the wing span are not well defined
on many airplanes, and usually have to be figured out with some care by meas
urements on the ground before starting the maneuver. For a typical case,
figure 108illustrates how the pylon (in this case a tree) should appear from
the air and the relationship of sighting points on the airplane to the different
viewpoints of the pilots in front or rear seats of a tandem biplane and of a
low-wing monoplane.
The ground objects should be selected in the same manner as for eights
around pylons, or the same pylons can be used if desired (provided they are
objects of about the same height), and all turns should be started into the wind
as before.

AS SEEN FROM A BIPLANE

AS SEEN FROM A MONOPLANE

VIEW OF PYLON FROM REAR COCKPIT SAME VIEW FROM FRONT COCKPIT
Figure 108.-Pylon as viewed from pilots' seats.

The starting point should be far enough to the side of the pylon so that
when the airplane arrives at a point on a line with it and the bank is assumed,
the pylon will appear in the center of the gap and midway between the two
outer struts of a biplane. In a monoplane, usually either the wing tip is used
or the area bounded by the V struts, the wing, and the “jury strut.” The bank
must not be started until the wing can be lowered and the pylon appear in this
position. Attempts to sneak up on the pylon by lowering the wing too soon
will throw the whole turn off and make it practically impossible to hold the
pylon correctly.
254 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

The following rules willassist the student in making the proper corrections:
Assuming that the altitude is correct, if the pylon appears to move
1.
toward the upper wing or toward the leading edge, decrease the bank slightly
to retain or regain the desired position.
2. If the pylon appears to move toward the lower wing or trailing edge,
increase the bank slightly to retain or regain the desired position.
3. The more quickly the pylon's tendency to move in any direction is
sensed or observed, the less the correction necessary to hold the desired position.
In order to accomplish the objective of this type of eight, the pylon must
be watched constantly and the airplane flown accurately as a result of kinesthe
sia or feel, with visual perception not devoted primarily to

it.
The vision must
kept the pylon, but the attitude the wing tips also may
be

be
on

of

as
observed
the pilot,
as

as
their seeming action with reference

to
well described under
“Turns.” This will indicate the attitude and action of the nose as well as the
bank. Other senses will warn of approaching slips and skids. The amount
of bank should be about 45°.
Eacecution (see fig. 104).-Select two pylons located imaginary

an
so
that
connecting Fly parallel the alti
at

to

to to
line the wind. this line

at
them 90°
is

tude previously determined making

be
suitable for the speed

in
as

used
distance from the pylons that the turn can

be
the turn and
at

such made on

it
a

properly. When approximately line with the first pylon, lower the wing
in

until the sighting point strikes the pylon, the same time beginning turn
at

a
into the wind. Fly around the pylon with the pylon constantly line with

in
the sighting point until the position for recovery has been reached. Level
the wings and, with due allowance for drift, fly the proper location
to

to
start
the turn around the second pylon.
Common fau/fs.—(1) Usual faults turns.
in

(2) Starting turn too soon

or

too late.
(3) Starting turn the wrong altitude.
at at

(4) Starting turn incorrect distance from pylons.

Coming
of

(5) out turn too late.

(6) Incorrect throttle setting and consequently incorrect speed.
(7) Moving the nose up make the airplane
or

to

down with the elevators

pylon.
on

remain the
(8) Failure correct for drift between pylons.
to

(9) Watching pylon too closely and neglecting position

of

nose.

PRECISION LANDING WITH 180° SEMICIRCULAR APPROACH

(Required Navy maneuver)

Definition.—This landing which, the beginning the approach.

of
in

at

one
is

airplane ianding flying directly down wind;

of

the one side area and

to

the
is

by

the glide path the airplane being semicircular pattern.

of

the
It
in

used
is

Navy and illustrated figure 109.

in
is

Related factors.-The chief difference between this type approach and

of

previously landings period

no

of

that used for 180-degree that since there

is

is

straight flight, the key position cannot the approach which most
be

It

used.
is

experienced pilots use naturally after they have become thoroughly familiar
with the ship which they are flying.
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 255

Care should be taken not to make the radius of the turn so large that the
airplane will be placed in a position where it cannot reach the field. It is safer

is,
to go the other way, that make the radius slightly too small.

In
this case,
airplane point

on

of
when the has reached the down wind side the spot and

is
a
slightly less, heading into the wind,

of
within about 90°,

or
decision must

a
as permit landing

as
to

to
or be

made whether the altitude such the where desired

is
disposed of.

be

In
whether there excess altitude which must the latter case,

is
gentle turn may the figure, dissipate the excess

be

as
made,

to
indicated

in
S
a

turn, completed before the glide

be
altitude. Such necessary, must

if

is
a
no

broken, and any kind must performed near the

be
of
violent maneuvers
ground.
To attain facility this maneuver, the student should, far possible,

as

be as
in

every approach. engine

of
The
to

reduce constant factor should throttled

a

on
when the ship 800 feet, headed directly down wind, and
an

altitude of
at
is

90
imaginary line drawn through the spot angle
an

an

of

in
degrees the

at
wind direction.

-
During each practice the maneuver, the wind probably will remain
of

throughout practice period, thus enabling the student

to
constant the learn

to
likely
its

make due compensation for Since the wind velocity vary

to
effect.

is
with each practice, after few periods the student should have learned

to
a

compensate for almost any reasonable wind velocity.

that the airplane flying directly down wind

an
Erecution.—Assume

at
is

the landing spot. As the ship crosses

of

of
to

altitude 800 feet and one side

18O." POSITION

º
|

CUT GUN

- - -- --
|

6OO 800
-

FEET.
|
I

ºf
+T
|

BREAK,
FOR LANDING
|

SIDE OF AIRPORT
|
|
º |

\|
|\\\\
!
l

I i |
j i |
W W

\
j

END OF7
}
{
}

AIRPORT
// /
/
///
\

2 's
No

course correction
/
ºf
\\

IS REQUIRED.
T=<!
/
\

z
\\

&-1. HALF-stuff
*2. Tº TO LOSE ALTITUDE
N.

^
*~
N. .*

Figure 109.-Landing with 180° semicircular approach.

 256
* - D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

an imaginary line drawn through the spot and at an angle of 90° to the
wind direction, throttle the engine and begin a spiral glide of such a radius
that when the proper altitude for breaking the glide has been reached, the ship
will be gliding directly into the wind and will be in a position directly down
wind from the landing spot. From this point on the landing is made in
normal manner.
Common faults.-(1) Varying the position of the start in altitude, head
ing, or bearing from the line of the wind or the landing spot, thus losing the
opportunity of benefiting by the experience of prior landings.
(2) Beginning the turn too close to the spot, thus necessitating a sharp
hairpin turn rather than a true spiral, or else a pronounced S-turn.
(3) Beginning the turn too far from the spot, requiring that the spiral be
continued clear through to the landing and allowing no period of straight
glide prior to contact with the ground, or else undershooting the mark entirely.
(4) Usual faults in landings such as breaking the glide too high, diving to
reach the mark, slipping and skidding on the turns, etc.

THE CHANDELLE
(Required Army Maneuver)

Definition.—The chandelle is “an abrupt climbing turn to approximately

a stallin which the momentum of the airplane is used to obtain a higher rate
of climb than would be possible in unaccelerated fight. The purpose of this
\maneuver is to gain altitude at the same time that the direction of flight is
changed.”” -

The foregoing is the definition given by the N. A. C. A. However, for

the purpose of this course, the maneuver is an exaggerated climbing turn in
which the airplane changes direction through 180°, with the maximum climb
and the maximum bank occurring at approximately the midpoint of the change
in direction.
The maximum bank may be about 70° with the turn as shown in figure 110,
or better about 90° with the flight path inclined steeper from A to B than from
B to This change the fight path enables the airplane
is in
('.

bank about 90°

to

without slipping, and indeed the only way

do
to

so. Whether the bank

actually 90° not, since the purpose gain altitude
or

in
to

the turn there

is

is
by

slipping
no

energy skidding.
be

of

or

must waste
The chandelle an Army training maneuver.
is

climb permissible during this maneuver

of

Related factors.--The extent

is
by

airplane begun. This

is of

determined the speed the when the maneuver

is

ship equipped engine relatively high horse

an

of

means that unless the with

by

power, excess speed must acquired shallow power dive.

to be

of

means Since
a

no two pilots likely acquire the same initial speed, the outline
of

are the
flight path airplane) vary pilot. At
of

maneuver (or the the will with each

maneuver, the airplane should flying speed just above the
be
of

at

the end the

a

stalling point, with the wings level.

The turning rate should the same throughout the maneuver but the
be

climb are changing constantly, reaching

of

of

degree bank and rate maximum

a

N. A. C. A. Bulletin, No. 474.

14
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 257

ºvº
*- -- - "- – -
c
ºur- -
-M - " -

Figure 110.-The chandelle.

when 90° of the turn have been completed. In order to check the turn and to
be sure that it comprises 180°, the maneuver.should be practiced along a straight
road or similar landmark.
The chandelle essentially is a practice maneuver and develops coordination
of controls together with the feel of the ship as it approaches a stall in a climbing
turn.
fly

Eacecution.—Select a straight stretch of road and parallel

on
to

the
it

Open throttle fully

an

of

down-wind side altitude more than 1,500 feet.

at

(except powerful ships) and nose the ship down until considerable excess
in

speed has been acquired. Assume shallow initial bank toward the wind and
a

gradually apply back pressure stick, the same time neutralizing pressure
on

at

climb, which auto

of

on ailerons and rudder. Continue increase the rate

to

matically increases the degree the ground) until

of

bank (with respect

to

is at

the 90° point the ship approximately

an

vertical bank and the speed

in
is

that proper for the maximum climb.

258 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Recovery.—(This refers to recovery from the vertical bank and climb.

Strictly speaking there is no recovery from the maneuver proper since when it
has been completed the ship is in straight and level flight.) Recovery should
be begun when the turn is about half completed, or approximately at the 90°
point. At this point, begin to decrease the bank slowly,
with ailerons and
rudder. When theturn has been about three-fourths completed, the 180°
point can be seen and the rate of roll increased or decreased as necessary to
bring the wings level after exactly 180° of turn. As the wings return to the
level position, ease the stick forward so as to complete the maneuver with the
ship in a shallow climbing attitude. At this time the ship should be flying at
a speed just above stalling speed. Lower the nose gradually by easing off the
back pressure on the stick. As the speed increases, ease the throttle back until
straight and level flight at cruising speed has been regained.
Reasons for procedure.—The maneuver is begun with a shallow bank,
increasing gradually (with respect to the ground), rather than a steep bank
at the start. The shallow bank will not affect the speed to any great extent,
whereas if the initial bank is too steep, the speed will be reduced greatly at the
start and there will be a tendency on the part of the student to compensate
for this reduction in speed by decreasing the bank as the maneuver progresses.
Obviously this spoils the entire maneuver.
Common faults.--(1) Concentration on the nose of the ship to such an
extent that the attitude of the airplane as a whole is neglected.
(2) Initial bank too steep. In this case, when back pressure is applied
the maneuver becomes merely a steep turn with the nose slightly above the
horizon.
(3) Banking too rapidly and applying pressure on stick too slowly, produc
ing the same effect as fault(2) above. -

(4) Initial bank too shallow. This causes so much speed to be lost in climb
ing that the 180° turn cannot be completed before the ship stalls.
(5) Backpressure applied to stick too early or too rapidly, producing the
same effect as fault (4).
(6) Poor planning with consequent failure in reaching the maximum bank
and climb at the halfway point.
(7) Banking past the vertical at the 90° point.
(8) Failure to maintain continuous backward pressure on the stick past
the 90° point.
(9) Failure to ease off the back pressure on stick as wings return to level.
(10) Pressure on rudder during recovery too early or too strong, thus pro
ducing slipping and stopping the turn before completing the 180°.
comple
all

(11) Failure to use the speed and power available, resulting

in

speed too far above the stalling point.

of

tion the maneuver

at
a

(12) Stalling and losing altitude during recovery climbing

of
as

result
a

too steeply.
(12) Generally poor coordination and roughness
on

controls.
 civil Pilot TRAINING MANUAL 2:54)

PRECISION LANDING WITH 360° CIRCULAR APPROACH

Definition.—This landing is one in which, when the airplane is approxi

mately over the landing spot and heading into the wind, the engine is throttled
and one complete turn (or 360°) of a loose spiral made in such a manner that the
airplane lands beyond and within 200 feet of the landing spot. The maneuver
is an extension of the 180° semicircular approach and is illustrated in figure 111.
Related factors.-Heretofore, the student has practiced 360° landings with
an approach of which the pattern was a rectangle with rounded corners. In

/
/
/
GUN
\
/ — — —| — — — — —
/ T
2-
ſ
CLEAR
ENGINE .
STARTING
|OOO -
POSITION
12OO FOOT
ALTITUDE
+ BREAK GLIDE
l _^ FOR LANDING
l SIDE OF AIRPORT |

|
l |
\ M
W
\
}\
\ ſ | \|

X\ cours: If No
— coRRECTION
//, // §ºf
//
7~~
/ N

\
N is REQUIRED 7.2 ×
N
N
2-’HALF-S
2. TO LOSE
TURN
ALTITUDE
|F NECESSARY
^
N^ - 2^
* .* -*
Y ~~ --~~
|
Figure 111.-Landing with 360° circular approach.

the approach under discussion, the radii of the turns are enlarged until there is
no period of straight glide and hence the airplane is in a continuous gliding
turn, the radius of which increases slightly as the altitude decreases. This
approach is built on the 180° semicircular approach previously discussed.
The landing spot must be kept in view at all times during the spiral glide,
the radius of turn being increased or decreased as seems necessary in order to
make the landing at the predetermined location. At no time in the maneuver
should the ship be placed in such a position that the spot cannot be reached in
a normal glide and the landing made into the wind.
26() U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

As in approach, the student should reduce every

the 180° semicircular
factor to a constant, as far as possible. The beginning of the spiral should be
at 1200 feet, directly in line with the landing spot and just enough to one

see
the spiral have been completed,

of
side to over the fuselage. When 180°

it

In
the ship should position for the 180° semicircular approach.

be
in
case

a
of

strong wind, the first 90° must

be
made with shallower bank than

if
a

a
the wind was light and the middle 180° with steeper bank, just

as
other

in
a
maneuvers involving turns the wind.

in

on
Ea'ecution.—Assume that the airplane flying directly into the wind

is
course which lies slightly the landing spot, and

an
of
to

at
one side altitude
a

approximately 1,200 feet. As the ship comes spot,

of

line with the throttle

in
the engine and begin spiral glide

of

of
such radius that when turn 180°

a
a
a

has been made the ship will line with the spot described previously.
be

as
Complete the maneuver with the 180° semicircular approach. in
Common faults-(1) Varying the position altitude, heading,

of
the start

in
the landing spot, thus losing the oppor
or

bearing from the line

of

the wind of or
by

tunity benefiting the experience prior landings.

of

(2) Completing the first 180° too close the spot, thus necessitating
to

a
sharp hairpin spiral pronounced S-turn.
or
a

(3) Completing the first 180° the turn too far from the spot, requiring
of

that the spiral continued clear through the landing and allowing
be

no
to

period straight glide prior contact with the ground; else undershooting
of

or
to

the mark entirely.

(4) Usual faults landings such breaking the glide too high, diving
on as

to
in

reach the mark, slipping and skidding the turns, etc.

THE LAZY EIGHT

(Required Army maneuver)

Definition.—The lazy eight turning maneuver during which the air

is
a

plane, viewed from another flying the same level, roughly describes
at
if

figure lying its side. As viewed from the pilot’s cockpit, the nose alter
on
is 8

nately certain point during each loop

at

below and above the horizon and

a

the eight passes through some fixed object, previously selected,

on
of

the
ground. This an Army maneuver and illustrated figure 112.
in
is

is

Related factors.-In this maneuver, the speed varies from

at

maximum
a

the lowest portion loops the top. The maximum

of

to

at

the minimum
2

considerably greater than the cruising speed the airplane and the
of

speed
is

which satisfactory maneuvering The

at

minimum the lowest possible.

is

is

turning rate approximately the same throughout.

is

little more than the steep turn;

In

its simplest form, the lazy eight may

be
its

difficulty
of

most advanced half-roll. The degree deter

in

becomes
is
it

mined by the distance from the airplane

to

the fixed object.

close study the discussion below, with frequent reference figure 112,
In of

it to
A

figure
be
as as

recommended. one view this shows the maneuver would

is

seen by another airplane flying the one per

an

observer the same level

in

at

forming the lazy eight.

In

the other, shows how the maneuver would appear

it
 CIVII, PILOT THAINING MANUAL 2(j I

_T
--~~
- ------ |
rinish
-- -

Y-- T- — — - —
º
- i
f ~ i. *-
- -
Šiš,

waginaryune.To
GROUND OBJECT \

o
§
• W.,’
A
-
º

start

"Lazy Eight".MANEuver.
As seen FROMA POINTDIRECTLYABOVE THE PLANE

--
--
e
------- YSS TT & r *~
r __ N
Y~
* - N
Sº N

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"MARYEIGHT"MANEuveras SEENfrom A PLANEFLYINGAT THESAMsºvº.

Figure 112.-The lazy eight.
262 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

to an observer flying above The position and designating letters are the

it.
the para

be
of
both views. The details the maneuver will

in

in
same discussed
-

its
graph devoted

to
execution.

its
practice maneuver are

of
the reasons for follows:

as

as
Some use

a
the airplane changing continuously throughout

of
The attitude the
1.

is
maneuver, thus requiring high degree timing and coordination.

of
a
Careful planning with anticipation the change

of

of
in
attitude
2.

advance
required.
is

fixed point the ground,

on
in

to
Since the maneuver made relation

is
3.

a
high degree required
of

of
both with respect

to
orientation the attitude

is
a

the airplane the fixed point.

in

to

to
relation the horizon and relation

to in
given the ground object and the rate

be
Since consideration must
4.

turn, ship flown, some extent, subconsciously,

be
of

as
to
and radius the must
the pilot's attention divided.
is

-
By selecting objects closer and closer

or
the airplane, by making each

to
5.

successive maneuver nearer the object, the difficulty execution gradually can

in
-
the student's ability improves.
be

as

increased
Eacecution.—Select some prominent object the ground such tree,

on

as
a
barn, water tank, other outstanding landmark. When directly
or

to
leeward
the selected point, extend imaginary line from the airplane and fly
an
of

to
it
the airplane right angles this imaginary line, figure 112. as
to

shown

in
at

as at at
at B. A
slightly When con

as
to

Advance the throttle and dive increase speed,

siderable excess speed has been acquired, pull the nose up

as
and

it
C
reaches the horizon (as viewed from the cockpit) begin climbing turn. Steepen
a

the loop
D.
as

as

the turn progresses When the peak

of
the bank shown
at

is
E,

reached, shown neutralize the ailerons and rudder. The elevators should
at

pull the nose through the fixed point the turn has been planned properly.
if

pressure uniform throughout the maneuver.

be
on

Back the stick should

Recovery from the bank, shown
be
F.

as

as

may begun
at

soon the nose

G,
has passed through the point. By the time the ship reaches the position
dive, preparatory making the turn the opposite direction.
be
in

to

should
in
it

noted that the flight path the airplane viewed from directly
be

of
It

will
as

directly below nothing more than However,

of
or

above series S-turns.

is

a
by

the turns are accompanied considerable climbs and dives. This means from
the ship moving away from the observer.
to
E

as is
C

Obviously, the airplane moves nearer and nearer the fixed point, the
to

becomes steeper and steeper, until finally

at

bank has passed the vertical

E

it

and the airplane partially inverted. the airplane approaches

If

so

to

close
is is

it,

object practically ship completely inverted,

be

the that over the must

it

or, other words, half-rolled order make the nose cut through the object.
in

in

to

Common faults.--(1) Failure gain sufficient initial speed, which causes

to

falling out the top loop excessive dive resulting unsymmetrical

an

an
of

of

or

in
a

- -
eight.
(2) Watching the airplane instead the point.
of

(3) Excessive dives.

:

(4) Improper planning that the peaks the loops, both above and below
of
so
do

the horizon, not come the proper place.

in

(5) Attempts hurry through the maneuver.

to
 CIVII, PILOT THAIN ING MANUAL 263

(6) Roughness on the controls, usually caused by attempts to counteract

the results of poor planning.
(7) Slipping and skidding.
(8) Failure to make the portions of the loops above and below the horizon -
equal.
Q.

(9) Starting recovery too soon or too late so that the airplane is not placed
in a position to repeat the maneuver.
(10) Carrying the climbing turn to the stalling point so that the airplane
cannot be flown out but must fall in order to regain speed.
pressure increases during the
let
(11) Failure to the stick move forward

as
dive following recovery.
THE WINGOVER
(Required Navy Maneuver)

by
diving turn.

In
Definition.—A wingover climbing turn followed
is
a

a
the advanced form, the climbing turn the extent that the air

to
continued

is
plane vertical bank speed just little above stalling speed. (See
in

at
is

a
by

fig. 113.) The maneuver Navy the lazy eight.

of
used the instead
is

Related factors.-There has been considerable confusion just what

as
to
wingover lazy eight

on
of
half
as

constitutes distinct from the one side

a
a
a

The chief point

on

of
and the hammerhead stall the other. distinction between
the lazy eight and the wingover the fact that the wingover, the ailerons
in
is

any other climbing turn, whereas the lazy eight,

as

and rudder are used

in

in
the ailerons are used only the beginning
of

to
the maneuver establish the
at

maneuvers, however, turns,

of

initial bank. Both are true which the

in
these
ball bank indicator remains centralized.
The distinction between the hammerhead stall and the wingover lies
chiefly the fact that the hammerhead stall not true turn but consists
of in

is

simply climbing the ship until the longitudinal axis approximately vertical,
is

then applying rudder the other just before the stall occurs. This
or
to

one side
means that the ship falls around the turn and the ball
of

the bank indicator will

move toward the low wing. The hammerhead stall
as
not recommended
is

a
training maneuver, for the rudder applied too late, whip stall will occur.
if

is

wingover training
of

The has value involves coordination all

its in

since
it

peak the airplane begins approach

to

three controls and since stall.

at

performed along
be

some landmark which will enable the

or
It

should road
a

amount of turn to be checked.

fly

Earecution.—Having selected landmark, preferably into the wind, the

a

ship straight and level along cruising speed. (In airplanes very low
of
at
it

horsepower use full throttle, or,

in
to

some cases, even

to

desirable dive
is
it

slightly.) Apply back pressure ship begins climb,

on

as

to

the stick and the

apply rudder and aileron the desired turn, increasing the
of

the direction
in

climb and bank simultaneously. The pressure con

be
on

the controls should

original
its

tinued until the ship

as

to

vertical bank
at

reached 90°
is

is
a

course and just enough above stalling speed permit adequate control. The
to

pressure continually the airplane will stall.

or

rudder must increase

When the ship has reached the position
of

vertical bank described above,

by

start the nose down mainly increased pressure the rudder pedal
on

on

the
201073°- -41 -----18
-
264 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

low side. Maintain the back pressure on the stick until the ship is within
about 45° of completing a 180° turn. At this time, ease off the backward
pressure on the stick and apply aileron and rudder as in the recovery from a
normal bank or power spiral. No further instructions on recovery are necessary
since when the maneuver has been completed the airplane is in straight
and level flight. Unless there is some definite objection, wingovers usually are
performed in a series of four, making the turns into the wind.
Common faults.--(1) Back pressure on stick applied too late, resulting in
very little change in altitude and making the maneuver practically nothing but
a steep turn.

W/AWGover
AS w/º:
wedAaroAM tºº.
SI/G//71)*ADOwe.jr.Aar/AVG
Figure 113.−The wingover as viewed from slightly above starting level.

(2) Applying ailerons and rudder too late, so that the maneuver approaches
the hammerhead stall.
(3) Too much rudder, producing a skid.
(4) Too little rudder, producing a slip.
(5) Failure to use all available power, with the result that the climb is
not as steep nor the bank as great as possible (low-powered ships).

SPIRAL APPROACH PRECISION LANDING

This maneuver calls for a precision landing from a spiral approach. The
discussion of the spiral approach precision landing in chapter III, part two,
should be reviewed. Three complete turns of a spiral are made. The last
is,

360° spiral
of

course, much looser than the first two turns.

 Chapter III.-STAGE C, ADVANCED CONFIDENCE
MANEUVERS

The purpose of instruction in the advanced maneuvers discussed in the

following pages and commonly referred to as “acrobatics” is to develop in the
student a more sensitive “feel” and a higher degree of orientation and coordina
tion. In addition, these maneuvers build self-confidence, familiarize him with
all the abnormal attitudes possible in an airplane, and teach him the proper
methods of recovery to normal flight.
Before attempting these maneuvers, particular attention should be given
to the safety belt to see that it is buckled as tightly as possible. Otherwise,
the student is likely to feel during his first experience with inverted flight that
there is at least 6 inches of space between the seat of his pants and the seat of
the airplane. Such slackness of the belt not only is extremely disconcerting
but actually may interfere with the operation of the controls.
Other things occur in inverted flight which also may cause momentary
confusion and are mentioned here simply so that the student will not be sur
prised. The feet tend to fall away from the rudder pedals, and appreciable
effort is required to hold them in place. This may cause rough operation of the
rudder unless the student is prepared for Dirt and mud and any other
it.

foreign matter which may the cockpit will fall into the pilot's
be
on

of

the floor
general list important items considered before beginning
be
of

to

face.
A

acrobatic maneuvers given below:

is

clear understanding attempted and the manner

be
of

(1) Have what

to
is
to a

in which be executed.
is
it

the aircraft, the probable results exceeding

of

of

(2) Know the limitations

them, and stay within them.
(3) Inspect the airplane and mechanically and
be

certain that
is
it

structurally sound. All filler caps should place and tight. The safety
be
in

the airplane should inspected for condition, attachment

be

to

belts the
in

fuselage, and smooth working release. All tools and loose equipment must
be
a

removed from the baggage compartments and other places the airplane. The
in

fire extinguisher should place securely.

be

to

see that held

in

checked
is
it

up

(4) The pilot's physical condition important. ill, not feeling

or
If

to
is
do

par, not engage acrobatics.

in

do

of

(5) Aviation and alcohol not mix. This even more true acrobatics
is

and alcohol.
(6) See that parachutes have been inspected and that they are good
in

order and well within their packing-date limits.

(7) Be certain that the safety belts are adjusted tightly, and that when
so
do

adjusted, they not interfere with the normal manipulation

of

the controls.
265
266 lſ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCH,

(8) Remember that the altimeter lags during radical changes of altitude.
(9) Do not engage in acrobatics in the vicinity of any other aircraft.
(10) Altitude and safety go hand in hand.
These precautions never should be neglected under any circumstances.

ADVANCED STALLS

Definition.—The definition here is simply a distinction between advanced

stalls and stalls previously discussed: the advanced stalls are the same as the
primary except that much more precision is required in their execution.
Related factors.-This maneuver is designed to teach and develop the
following:
(1) Accurate sensing of the impending actions of the ship.
(2) The ability to make automatic or reflex corrections accurately in order
to anticipate and prevent the development of undesirable tendencies of the air
plane at critical speeds.
(3) The use of the rudder rather than the ailerons to keep the wings level
while in stalled attitudes.
(4) The results and tendencies to be expected of an airplane in a full stall
if alert attention is not directed to it continuously.
(5) The ability to recognize the approach and presence of a stall even while
the nose is down and some control is being maintained.
There are two important features which, if observed rigidly, will make the
stall easier to execute properly.
(1) The nose should be raised well over 45° above the horizon in the vertical
arc. This will make the full stall faster acting and, to some extent, lessen the
tendency of the airplane to change direction or get off an even keel laterally.
This particularly is true during power stalls.
(2) It is very important that the wings be perfectly level laterally both at
the moment just prior to the stall and at the moment the stall actually occurs.
Any deviation from this may result in loss of control beyond any possibility
of regaining it without relaxation of the elevators.
The student must never allow, or intentionally perform, a “whip stall”
during the practice of these stalls. A “whip stall,” or “tail slide,” as it is some
times called, imposes loads and stresses on the tail section and the control sys
tem that they are not designed to withstand. Such a maneuver easily can
result in a structural failure.

When the proper type of stall is performed, the airplane definitely will
“sink” and the nose will drop below level but the ship will not slide back on its
tail prior to the nose falling. With the stick held all the way back, as soon as
minimum flying speed is regained, the nose will start to return to level. During
the ensuing period until the nose returns to level where the elevators are to be
relaxed, the student must exhibit extremely fine anticipation and accurate con
trol touch if the airplane is to be held level laterally.
Eacecution.—The ship should be climbed to a safe altitude—at least 2,000
feet. If a power-off stall is to be performed, the engine should be throttled and
a normal glide established. If
the stall is to be of the power type, the engine
is left at cruising speed.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 267

With the wings level horizontally, the stick is pulled back fast enough to
raise the nose until the longitudinal axis makes an angle of 45° with the hori
zon. If the airplane is gliding, the stick movement must be much faster than
if the power is on.
The wings must be held level by use of the rudder, as was explained in the
discussion on “stalls.” (See p. 158.) The stick must remain hard back, pref
erably until two oscillations have occurred.
Recorery.—Recovery should be made after the nose has dropped below the
horizon and is beginning to come back up. As the nose rises, the stick gradually
is eased forward so that as flying speed is regained the stick will be in neutral.
('ommon faults.--(1) Relaxing on elevators and spoiling complete stall.
(2) Use of ailerons to hold wings level.

Figure 114.—The falling leaf.

(3) Pulling the stick back too quickly, producing a whip stall.
(4) Pulling the stick back too slowly and not raising nose high enough.
(5) Allowing ship to dive on recovery.
(6) Allowing ship to fall off on one wing through improper use of the
rudder.
THE FALLING LEAF
(Required Navy maneuver)

Definition.—The falling leaf is a series of checked spins, or stalls, in which

the airplane is allowed to fall off first to the right and then to the left (or vice
versa) without spinning, thus presenting the appearance of a falling leaf.
(See fig. 114.)
268 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Related factors.-The various attitudes which the airplane assumes during

this maneuver depend partly on the airplane itself but chiefly on the timing
and effectiveness of the rudder. If this timing is correct and if the ship has
ample rudder control, the nose of the airplane may be held on the same heading
throughout the various steps. This may be checked by using a cloud or some
object on the horizon as a fixed point.
Eacecution.—Head into wind, Select the point on which the nose is to be
held, throttle the engine and gradually stall the ship by pulling the stick back
just fast enoughto keep the nose slightly above the horizon. Apply rudder
on the side toward which it is desired to fall first, holding the stick hard back.
As the wing drops, apply full opposite rudder. As soon as the nose comes up
and the other wing tends to drop, reverse the rudder again. The maneuver
may be continued through as many such stalls and recoveries as desired, but
not below 1,500 feet. Each time as the nose comes up, it should bear on the
point selected. The ailerons are not used.
Recovery.—Recovery is extremely simple, consisting merely of neutralizing
the rudder and easing the stick ahead until flying speed is regained.
Reasons for procedure—An airworthy airplane will not spin to the right
if full left rudder is being applied and vice versa. Accordingly, by applying
full rudder on the side opposite to the low wing, the incipient spin in one
direction is checked and a tendency to spin in the opposite direction is created.
By holding the stick hard back, no appreciable dive is permitted and the
ship is brought out from a fall to one side and prepared for one to the opposite
side in the quickest manner possible.

PRECISION SPINS

Definition.—The precision spin is a spin in which the entry and, more

particularly, the recovery are made in a specified direction.
Related factors.-While the precision spin basically is the same maneuver
as the spins previously discussed (see p. 197), the requirements of precise execu
tion and accurate and controlled recovery aid the student materially in further
development of an understanding of control action, knowledge of the charac
teristics of the airplane being flown, and orientation under difficult circum
stances. The maneuver never should be started with less than 3,000 feet of
altitude and never should be continued through more than - three complete
turns.
The entry technique will vary greatly, depending on the individual charac
teristics of the particular aircraft being used. However, the airplane must be
fully in the spin in a quarter of a turn or less. Skidding spirals, or aimless
gyrations of a half to three-quarters of a turn, have no place in the precision
spin. With some airplanes, it may be necessary to use a blast of the throttle
to start the rotation in order to meet this requirement. As previously explained,
this blast is given just as the wing falls, with the elevators hard back and the
rudder hard over.
In recovery, the spin must be stopped exactly at any predetermined num
ber of turns or fraction thereof. Usually spins are given and required by half
is,

and full turns, that one-half turn, one turn, one and one-half turns, two turns,
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 269

etc. This means that the recovery may be somewhat different from that em
ployed in the spins previously discussed. Some ships will come out of the spin
in a quarter of a turn or less as soon as the controls are neutralized. Others
require that full opposite rudder and forward pressure on the stick be used to
stop the rotation quickly. It is necessary, of course, to know the characteristics
of the particular ship being used in order to perform precision spins. Due to
the fact that in most airplanes the fin is offset to correct the torque, the response
to the rudder, in both entry and recovery, may not be exactly the same in left
spins and right spins.
In any case, careful operation of the controls is essential. If opposite rud
der is held too long, the result will be a sideways, skidding recovery. If the
stick is pushed too far ahead, or held ahead too long, the dive may go past the
vertical so that the airplane begins to approach inverted flight.
Obviously, precision in recovery requires a high degree of orientation. It
will be recalled that in the preliminary spin practice, the student was advised
to pick a point, or two points 180° apart, on the ground to make it possible for
him to know his position throughout the spin. If two points are used, one or
the other will be in view all the time. This is the method used by acrobatic
dancers to avoid dizziness when pivoting. In the case of the pilot, it not only
prevents dizziness but also enables him to keep track of the amount of rotation.
In this connection it is advisable to count the turns, as “one-half, one, one and
one-half,” and so on.
Development of the ability to retain continuous orientation is the main
reason for requiring the perfection of technique in precision spins. The only
known method of determining whether or not such continuous retention of
orientation has been developed is through having the student demonstrate

it.
Precision spins also develop higher degree technique, knowledge
of

of
aircraft
a

characteristics, coordination of controls, control touch, and automatic reaction.

They particularly develop discipline
of

the control reflex actions.

in

Frecution.—The proper altitude should attained, the throttle closed,

be

and the ship put into the spin, using the throttle, necessary, start the spin
to
if

delay. previously
be

The turns should described with

as

without counted
objects the ground. When within approximately quarter
on

of
respect
to

a
a

turn (depending upon the airplane) the desired number, recovery should
of

begun.
be

Recovery (normal).-In the recovery, stated above, precision

as

defined
is

recovery straight and level flight predetermined number

of
or as

at

turns
to

a
a

half turns. More exactly, this means that when the spin stopped smoothly
is

and reasonably quickly, the airplane must resume straight flight heading
at
a

the heading before starting the spin.

of

within 10°
by

Naturally, this takes planning. possible and fairly easy

It

made
is

spins without precision, part two, chapter

of of

the fact stated the discussion

it, is in

in

I.
is,

that the spin stable mode motion. That when the controls are held
a

correctly for the airplane will work toward

of

definite rate turn and rate

a

flight path, regardless spin

If
of

of

of

descent and shape how the started. the

spin only two turns, precisely
be

of
to

may not have settled down

to

done
is

it

the two turns; but trying the maneuver many

of

that motion before the end

in

being the same motion every time

be

will
to

times much nearer

in

at

the end
it
270 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

of two turns than it was at the beginning. A very rough beginning will cause
the airplane to “whip” in a complicated motion involving oscillations along
with the spin. In this case the motion at the end of two turns may be rather
different in different spins. With a smooth beginning, however, and no whip
ping, the motion is almost exactly the same every time. Then, if the same
technique for recovery is used every time it will bring the airplane out on the
same heading. To standardize this technique, the first step is to note what
factors are to be standardized.
These are:
(1) The heading at which recovery is started.
(2) The use of the rudder.
(3) The use of the elevators.
There is no mention of use of the ailerons in this list, because they are
held neutral throughout the maneuver.
For the heading, suppose first that the airplane will recover readily within
a quarter of a turn, as many will. Before starting the spin, of course, the pilot
will be heading for some easily identified landmark. In the test, this is pre
is,
sumably the place where the inspector because the inspector must

be
able
headings before and after the spin. Having got that heading,
to

check the
the spin the right, for example, the pilot can find another good
be
on to
if

to
is

landmark directly his left, give him exact right angle. This land
an
to

will
30

vertical, readily visible

be

be
or

so

mark should about 40° from the that it

In

spin. turn, landmark,

he

over the nose the first can watch this and

to in

the
see just where can pick

he
look for the second. Then
in

in

the second
it

it
up comes around from his right. Then, when gets directly over the
as
it

it

recovery promptly.
he

nose, starts
For the rudder, since the flight after recovery must straight,
be

he
should
promptly exactly neutral, and hold
of to

set there.
it

it

With two conveniently set, one

so

at

at
the variables 90°, the other
neutral, this leaves one variable, the elevators, with which
to

make sure the

recovery will occur
In

just 90°. practice spins, using the landmark and

in

described, can first try holding the stick clear back, and seeing
he
as

rudder
how far beyond the final mark the nose will go; then moving the stick
to

neutral
the first mark, and seeing how far short
of
at

the final mark the nose stops.

can try other places for the stick, till
it,

learns exactly where put

he

he

to

Then
stop right
on
to

the mark.
some airplanes, this may require
of

With
so

much forward movement the

dive after recovery. airplane, the
an
In
as

stick result too steep

in
to

such
a

directly behind the airplane before starting,

be

first landmark had better

so
as

90°; perhaps might 135°, though such

be
of

or
to

at

allow 180° instead

it

point harder judge than 90°. Or there may airplanes that will recover
be
to
is

less than 90° with the stick clear back, which case the landmark might
in

in

be at 60° or 45°.
In

any case, the principle the same: Have the first landmark always
is

angle and far enough from the vertical

be
at

one,
to

the same from the final

readily seen just over the nose the spin; neutralize the rudder promptly and
in
by

exactly; and find experiment practice spins just how far move the
in

to

that the recovery will just right.

be

stick forward
so
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 271

Common faults.--(1) Use of ailerons in entry or recovery. This is strictly

prohibited.
(2) Relaxation of the controls during the spin.
(3) Overcontrol during recovery.
The M. A. C. A. Recovery.—All the above directions are written for good,
airworthy airplanes, with tried and reliable spinning characteristics. They
have nothing to do with experimental ships or the work of a test pilot. For
such work, in case any student goes into it later in his career, there is what is
called “The N. A. C. A. Recovery.” This is a much more drastic procedure,
which would throw a good ship from a spin into the start of an outside loop.
Every pilot should know of

its
So it is not for use in this course. existence,
however, any handling experimental

an
so

that occasion ever demands his

if

\
\

Figure 115.-The loop.

ship, can studyfirst. For this purpose, and when the occasion arises,
he

if
it

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and get

he

to

should write
their Technical Note No. 555, “Piloting Technique for Recovery from Spins.”

THE LOOP
(Required Army and Navy maneuver)

Definition.—A normal loop maneuver executed vertical plane and

in
is
a

during which the airplane passes successively through climb, inverted flight,
a

dive, and back normal flight. (See fig. 115.)

to

Related factors.-A normal loop extremely simple acrobatic maneuver

an
is

spite the general public has always appeared more

of

or
in

to

the fact that

in it

less thrilling and spectacular. valuable building the morale and con
It
is
of

fundamental for more advanced acrobatics.

as

fidence the student and

a

has further value assisting orientation during inverted flight.

It

in

in
272 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

During the execution of the loop, the rudder is used to keep the flight
path in the true vertical plane and the ailerons are used to keep the wings level
in the normal manner. A road or an object straight ahead of the airplane
should be selected before the maneuver is begun as a guide for accurate exe
cution. The airplane is dived at the object at the beginning of the loop and
the position of the nose with respect to the object checked at the completion.
If the nose is to the left of the object as normal flight is resumed, it indicates
that either left rudder has been applied or that insufficient right rudder has
been used. It should be remembered that any compensation for torque, such
as offsetting the leading edge of the fin, is correct only for one speed—usually
cruising speed. Hence in the steep climb involved in the loop, there is a

its
tendency for the ship to change the other, usually

or
to
direction one side
to the left.
initial speed required varies with different airplanes and
of

The amount
by

determined only rough indication used by some

be

trial and error.

A
can
pilots ships medium horsepower cruising speed
on

of of

to

at
set the throttle

at
beginning ship is
the the maneuver and then dive the until the engine speed
reaches the maximum rated revolutions per minute. Pulling into the loop too
by

quickly the stick may cause the ship

on

excess back pressure

to
mush and
stall before the loop completed, whereas too little pressure may produce
is

a
loop such large diameter that the airplane will not reach the peak,
of

or
else
will reach the approximate

be
peak

to

to
without sufficient control enable

it
pulled the rest the way around. Either these errors may produce whip
of

of

a
stall, and the latter may cause inverted spin.
an

the airplane and possible excitement

of

Due the unfamiliar attitude

in
to

its early practice, very likely

be

of
to

the student his use

in
careless the
is

part beginner
on

of

tendency
to
controls. There often the the dive the
is

ship, brace himself the rudder pedals, and haul back

on

on

the stick. This

tendency should guarded against. Complete relaxation should
be

to in be

maintained
and the ship should flown through the maneuver. properly
be

Since
a

performed loop there tendency the cockpit hang

no

on
of

fall out
or
to

the
is

belt, there any way.

no

reason for the student

or
to

in

become tense concerned

is

An airplane equipped with powerful engine can flown through loop

be
In a

without preliminary dive. fact, appre

be

an
so

can maneuvered that

it
a

gained with each loop. Conversely, practically

of

ciable amount altitude

by is

any ship may looped skillful pilot with dead engine. The large
be

majority training planes used the controlled course may looped much
be
of

in

more easily, however, after preparatory dive. Hence this procedure will
be
a

the execution as described below.

in

used
Eacecution.—Establish straight and level flight normal cruising speed.
at

object ground, and put the ship into

on

Select some the ease the stick ahead,

a

medium dive toward the object without changing the throttle setting. When
the revolutions per minute has reached the approximate maximum for the
particular engine, apply backward pressure the stick, holding the flight path
on
by

the vertical plane the rudder and keeping the wings level with
of
in

means
the ailerons. As the nose rises well above the horizon and the speed begins
to

decrease, start easing the throttle ahead the airplane begins

so

as

to

that assume
inverted position has been fully opened.
an

it
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 273

When the peak of the loop is reached, lean the head backward as far as
possible and as soon as the nose of the ship passes the horizon, ease the throttle
closed.

is,
strictly speaking,

as be no
Recovery.—As in the case of the chandelle, there
recovery, since when the maneuver has been completed the airplane should

is,
normal flight. However, such recovery

be
as
there may considered
in

beginning after the throttle has been closed the downward portion

on

of
the
loop. The stick kept back

of

of
to
is avoid loss altitude and undue increase
speed. As the ship approaches the horizontal position, the stick eased

is
ahead and the throttle returned cruising position.

to
the
rudder, causing the plane

of

of
Common faults.--(1) Incorrect use the
loop
be

of
to

inclined instead vertical.

(2) Lowering one wing, usually the right, during the first portion

of
the
loop, the tendency pull toward the shoulder instead straight
of

of
as

to
result
a

back. This produces loop which the vertical plane just

as
in
not caused
is

is
a

by improper use
to of

the rudder.
(3) Failure close throttle the proper time, resulting excessive speed

in
at

in the dive.

Figure 116.-The snap roll.

THE SNAP ROLL

(Required Army and Navy maneuver)
is,

Definition.—The snap roll effect, horizontal power spin. (See

in

fig. 116.)
Related factors-Since the snap roll essentially stall maneuver,
is

a a a
be a

high-performance airplane must, cases,

to

modern slowed down

in

most
hour above stalling speed
In 30

speed only produce

an
or

in

to
15

miles order
snap average training plane, the maneuver may
of

real roll. the case the

performed cruising speed. attempted with too much speed, only
be

If
at

is
it

wide, sloppy gyration will result.

a

by

majority
In

airplanes, the snap roll may

be
of

the executed the use

Some ships require the use
of

of

elevator and rudder alone. the ailerons also.

Since using not likely impair the accomplish
to

the ailerons with the rudder

is

ment, employ them through

of

least half
to

advisable their total

at
it
is

movement.
slight climb.
be

The roll should started from Otherwise the nose

is
a

likely completion.
be

below the horizon

re
to

at
274 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Eacecution.—Pick an object on the ground, and head the airplane directly

the ship

of
for Reduce the speed

to
it.
that which the instructor advises

is
most satisfactory for the particular airplane. Put the airplane into gentle

a
climb. Apply full rudder

on
roll and

to
the side toward which desired

is
it
snap the stick back sharply, simultaneously applying aileron

on
the same
the rudder. As soon the ship begins roll open the throttle fully.
as

as

to
side
ship inverted, position the point

of
the nose with respect

to
When the the

is
previously selected should approximately three-quarters

be
checked. When
the roll has been completed, begin the recovery.
of

by
Recovery.—Recovery accomplished applying opposite rudder and

is
easing the stick forward. Opposite aileron may

be

of

in
assistance some
airplanes. opposite aileron recovery, and the ailerons have
If

not used

be in
is
starting the maneuver, will
in

at
necessary

to
been used least neutralize

it
the ailerons. Recovery complete when the ship flying straight, with the
is

is
nose pointed toward the ground object. Rotation may stopped abruptly

be
by snapping the stick forward, but with proper planning and coordination,
be

this will not necessary.

Common faults.-(1) Using controls too abruptly, and imposing severe
stresses on the structure.

is,
(2) Failure check roll and recover proper position; that recovering
to

in

too early
or

too late.
(3) Generally poor timing.
(4) Performing the maneuver mechanically, failing “fly the ship or

to
through.”
THE LOOP WITH QUARTER-ROLL RECOVERY
(Transition maneuver)

approximately three-quarters
of

of
Definition.—This maneuver consists

a
by

loop quarter roll and recovery the original

at

to

normal followed 90°

a

figure 117.
It

in

direction. illustrated
is

Related factors.-By referring figure 117, noted that the loop

be

will
to

is
it

begun along the road A–A', and that during the last quarter the loop the
of

airplane recovery place ship heading along

so

rolled that the takes with the

is

the road B-B'. The two roads intersect each other right angles. While
at

the roads are not absolutely essential, they are highly desirable develop
to

accuracy
in

the maneuver.
purpose
of

The familiarize the student with the first

to

the maneuver
is

accomplishing aileron roll. Since the ship diving

or
in

at

steps slow the

is is is
a

made, and since only one quarter completed, the

if of

time the roll the roll

is

relatively simple. the loop made with its

It

maneuver obvious that

is

is

directly roads, recovery

be
of

center over the intersection the the cannot imme

diately above the second road but must parallel and slightly
be

to

to

one
it

side. The quarter roll should practiced both the right and the left. For
be

to

purposes consistency and simplicity, the quarter roll the left will
be
of

to

discussed in the execution of the maneuver.

Ea'ecution.—Two suitable intersecting roads are selected. The airplane
flown along one and normal loop begun shortly after the intersection
is

is
a

As the airplane reaches the approximate position

of

has been passed. ver

a
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 275

tical dive after passing the top of the loop, the back pressure on the stick is
removed, and left aileron is applied together with sufficient left rudder to keep
the ship straight. As the airplane reaches the position where the wings are
parallel to the first road, pressure is removed from the aileron and rudder and

Figure 117.-Loop with quarter-roll recovery.

the ship brought out of the dive in the manner usually employed in recovering
from an ordinary loop.
Recovery.—No recovery is necessary since when the maneuver has been
completed the airplane is in straight and level flight.
Common faults.-(1) Usual faults in loop.
(2) Failing to roll out of loop at proper point.
276 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

(3) Rolling more or less than one quarter, thus recovering with a heading
more or less than 90° to the original.

THE VERTICAL REVERSE

(Required Army and Navy maneuver)

Definition.—A vertical reverse (Army term) is a timing maneuver which

consists of a vertical bank in one direction, a half-roll, and a vertical bank in
the opposite direction. In other words, for example, the airplane is half-rolled
from a right vertical bank into a left vertical bank. (See fig. 118). The
maneuver is referred to by the Navy as a cartwheel.

LEvel.
-
REveRst As sEENFROMSAME
VERTICAL

VERTICAL - As seen FromABOve

REVERSE
Figure 118.-The vertical reverse.

Related factors.--This maneuver is valuable for training since it requires

excellent control coordination, orientation during rapid movement of the air
plane, and careful and thoughtful maneuvering rather than impulsive and
erratic reactions.
If the maneuver is performed properly, flight will be resumed without any
break in the rhythm of turning. The control movements should be smooth and
the relaxation on the controls properly timed. Otherwise a spin may result.
It is important that the initial steep turn, from which the reverse is made,
be executed properly. Otherwise errors are carried over into the successive
 CIVIL PILOT THAINING MANUAL 277

its
stages of maneuver and perfection thereby impaired.

A
the common
tendency anticipate the reverse before the initial turn properly.

to
started

is

is
There are two types which uses simply half snap

of

of
reversements, one

a
roll tochange from one bank the other. The other type

to
more controlled

is
and requires more careful control operation. Since for training purposes this
second type more valuable, the execution given for rather than the first.
is

to is

it
As incorrect performance may lead spin, the maneuver should

be
a
practiced

of

or
at

altitudes 3,000 feet more.

Ea'ecution.—Put the ship into turn with

of
bank more than 45°. When

a
established, apply pressure the rudder pedal

on

on
the turn has been well firm
the high side the airplane. the ship begins respond
of

As soon

as

to
the

to
rudder, pull straight back the stick, following with aileron
on

on
the same side
the rudder pedal which being used. The nose the airplane will rise

of
as

is
abruptly and swing over toward the side which rudder and aileron are being

on
applied, the wing that side dropping the same time. As the airplane
on

at
all controls, timing this

on
approaches the desired degree bank, relax efforts
of

relaxation so that when the bank reached the controls will be back the

in
is

position they occupied before the roll was begun.

While general considered bad policy
to
discuss the actual movement
in

is
it

any maneuver,
of

this case

is to
the controls seems desirable mention the
in

in

it

top rectangle performed;

of

as
fact that the the stick moves the maneuver
in
a

other words, straight back: one side; straight forward; and back
to

to
in

center.
Naturally the relative amounts the backward and sideward movements vary
of

particular airplane. However, the path described by the handle

of
with the
no
the stick usually square with rounded corners. There recovery from
is

is
a

the complete maneuver other than resuming straight and level flight from the
which the airplane flying after the completion
of
in

final turn the maneuver

is

proper.
Common faults.--(1) Applying back pressure the elevators after change
on

extremely likely
of

direction. This spin.

to

result
in
is

(2) Checking roll too early too late, causing banks opposite directions
or

in

unequal steepness.
be
of
to

(3) Leading with elevator, causing nose come up excessively and produc
to

ing stall.
a

THE CUBAN EIGHT

(Transition maneuver)

approximately three-quarters
of

of

Definition.—The Cuban consists

a
8

normal loop, half-roll (which brings the ship right side up and steep dive),
in
a

followed by approximately three-quarters another normal loop and another

of

half-roll, which may followed by recovery from the dive straight and level
be

to
by

flight repetition fig.

of
or

the entire maneuver. (See 119.)

a

by

Related factors.-The purpose develop

of

to

this maneuver degrees the

is

technique employed By beginning practice

of

the Immelmann. the Cuban

in

8
its

with the half-roll executed when the ship downward path, after the
on

well
is

peak the loop has been passed, the half-roll simplified because
of

of

the excess
is

speed. As the student progresses, the roll may

be

in

made earlier and earlier

278 T. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

the loop until finally it is performed at the top of the loop, thus turning the
maneuver into a true Immelmann.
Practice should be conducted along a road or a straight landmark to assist
in orientation. The half-rolls should be made alternately to the left and to the
right. For consistency, the execution will be described with the first half-roll
made to the left. Obviously, in making the half-roll to the right, the control
operation is reversed.
Eacecution.—Select a road or other similar landmark and begin a normal
loop along closing the normal loop.

of

as
Leave throttle open instead
it.

in
it
When slightly less than three-quarters the loop has been completed, ease the

of
stick ahead past the neutral position, simultaneously applying full left aileron
and enough right rudder prevent turning. As the ship rolls through 45°,
to
the right rudder should decrease until, when the wings are per
on

pressure

NJ’
2 --~
N.
-/

2`s -
\ #

…”
SS

/
\s 2×-T `s ` —--
ge–A––=——- 2–~~
2-
~
~~
2^
N

Finish
-

—-
)

./ ,

--
(

..

4./)

T —
—
T

1—l L–1=1–– 1–1–

I

I
l

I
l

CUBANEIGHT
Figure 119.-The Cuban
8.

pendicular the ground, pressure being applied the left rudder pedal
to

to

to
is

hold the nose up. The stick kept well ahead prevent turning. From the
to
is

position the vertical bank until the wings are level, pressure
on
of

the left rudder

pedal maintained, through the first 45° hold the nose up and through the
to
is

on

prevent yaw.
to

the left
to

to

last 45° Pressure maintained the stick

is

obtain the maximum aileron effect and the stick kept ahead, during the
is

prevent turning and during the remaining 45°

in

first
to

to

45° keep the nose

the proper position. As the wings reach the level position, pressure removed
is

from both rudder and ailerons and sufficient forward pressure keep the ship
to

in the desired amount of dive maintained on the stick.

is

When adequate speed has been acquired the dive, another loop begun.
in

is

ship half-rolled from except that the roll

as

and the before the

in

made
is
it

opposite direction with the action the rudder and ailerons exactly the reverse
of

that just described.

of

of

Use the elevators the same.

is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 279

Recovery.—Recovery is accomplished following a half-roll in either di

rection simply by closing the throttle, easing back on the stick and returning
the throttle to cruising position when straight and level flight is accomplished.
Common faults.--(1) Poor orientation, so that maneuver is not completed
in proper direction.
(2) Failing to hold stick far enough ahead during the roll, resulting either
in turning from the course or in falling out of the maneuver.
(3) Improper use of rudder, particularly while inverted.
(4) Failing to make the loops of the 8 symmetrical.

THE SPLIT S OR HALF-ROLL

(Required Army and Navy maneuver)

Definition.—This maneuver consists of half-roll, in which the airplane is

a
put into the inverted position, followed by the second half of a loop, which
returns the ship to normal fight at a lower altitude. (See fig. 120.)

Figure 120.-The split S or half-rolſ.

Related factors.-There are three types of this maneuver: (1) The half
snap-roll and the half-loop in which there is no pause in the inverted position
and hence during which there is no hanging on the safety belt; (2) the half-snap
roll, stopping the roll in the inverted position for a few seconds, and then
performing the second half of the loop; and (3) the half-slow-roll followed by
the second half of the loop.
At the completion of each of the three, the airplane has changed direction
180° and is at a lower altitude. Since there is a variation in the use of the
controls, the execution of each type of the maneuver will be discussed sepa
rately. In practice, the roll should be made both to the right and to the left.
For the purpose of simplifying the discussion the roll to the left will be
considered in all three cases.
201073°– —41–– 19
280 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Eacecution—Type (1).-(Navy maneuver.) Assume that the ship is flying

straight and level at cruising speed. Pull the stick back sharply and at the
same time apply full left rudder. The nose of the ship will rise and the left
wing will drop quickly. Just before the completely inverted position is
reached, neutralize the rudder, but keep the stick back. The roll will stop.
Close the throttle when the airplane is inverted fully and perform the second
half of a loop. As the ship resumes the position of straight and level flight,
ease the stick ahead to neutral, and open the throttle to the cruising position.
Recovery.—No further recovery is necessary, since, when the instructions
given above have been carried out, the ship is in straight and level flight.
Note.—In some aircraft, it is desirable when checking the roll in the inverted position,
to use opposite rudder instead of merely neutralizing the rudder. This point must be
determined by experience with the particular airplane being used.

To aid in orientation, it is desirable to fly the airplane along a road or

headed toward some distant object. Otherwise, the beginner is likely to be
somewhat confused during the first practice of the maneuver.
Common faults.--(1) Failing to use rudder properly, thus checking the
roll too early or too late.
(2) Failing to close throttle quickly enough, resulting in excess speed
during recovery.
(3) Failing to keep stick well back through the completion of the half
loop, resulting in too steep a dive.
(4) Failing to maintain orientation, thus completing the maneuver heading
in the wrong direction.
Eacecution—Type (?)-(Transition maneuver.) Assume that the ship is
flying level at cruising speed along a road or toward a distant object. The
safety belt should be well tightened. Pull the stick back and apply full left
rudder as in type 1. When the wings are slightly past the vertical position,
ease the stick ahead and neutralize the rudder or apply opposite rudder as
necessary to check the rotation. When the ship is inverted fully and heading
in the original direction, with the rudder in neutral, close the throttle. As
the nose begins to fall, ease the stick back, and perform the second half of a
loop. As the ship resumes the straight and level position, ease the stick ahead
to neutral and open the throttle to the cruising position.
Recovery.—As in the case of type 1, no recovery is necessary since the ship
is in straight and level flight when the maneuver has been completed.
Common faults.-(1) Failing to use rudder properly, thus checking the
roll too early or too late.
(2) Failing to push stick ahead at proper time, thus making the maneuver
the same as Type 1.
(3) Failing to close throttle quickly enough, resulting in excess speed
during recovery.
(4) Failing to keep stick well back through the completion of the half
loop, resulting in too steep a dive.
(5) Failing to maintain orientation, thus completing the maneuver head
ing in the wrong direction.
–
be tight. the nose
stick toward the left and
CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL

Eacecution—Type (3).-(Army maneuver.)

level along a road with throttle fully opened.
Bring slightly
pressure
Assume that the ship is flying

above the horizon.

The safety belt should
Apply pressure on the
on the left rudder pedal as in the begin
----r-

- 281 -

ning of a steep turn but accentuate the aileron action in order to obtain the
maximum rotation with a minimum turning tendency. As the bank approaches
an angle of 45°, ease the stick forward at a rate such as to prevent turning.
At the same time ease off on the rudder. As the bank approaches the vertical
it will be necessary to apply right rudder to keep the nose from dropping. The
ailerons should continue to be used to produce the maximum rotation.
As the airplane reaches the fully inverted position, there should be no
pressure on the rudder and ailerons, but there should be a forward pressure on
the stick. Ease the stick back, and as the nose drops below the horizon, close
the throttle and complete the maneuver in a manner identical with the comple
tion of a loop. As the ship returns to level flight, ease the stick ahead and open
the throttle to the cruising position.
Half-rolls should be performed to both the left and the right. It is prob
able that those to the left will be easier to execute due to the effect of torque.
Common faults.--(1) Failing to hold sufficient forward pressure on stick.
This will permit the ship to turn during the first 90° of the roll, and will allow
the nose to drop through the next 90°.
(2) Failing to use rudder with the ailerons during the first 45° of bank
and opposite rudder during the next 45°.
(3) Poor timing.
(4) Loss of orientation, either from watching the note to intently, or con
centrating too closely on one particular phase of the maneuver.

THE IMMELMANN
(Required Army and Navy maneuver)

Definition.—The Immelmann or Immelmann turn is a maneuver in which

by
its

the airplane changes direction 180° and the same time gains altitude
at
by

half-loop normal flight

on

the top
of

of

followed half-roll the

to

means
a
a

loop. (See fig. 121.)

Related factors.-The Immelmann was developed military maneuver.
as
a

The initial speed required greater than that for loop

to

at

due the fact that

is

the top the loop there must enough speed available perform the second
be
of

be to

most ships the maneuver should

of

half
In

slow roll. begun with speed

a

a
20

percent above top speed level flight.

of

about
in

manuever similar performed by executing half

to

the Immelmann
A

is

snap-roll the top the loop, pulling the stick back sharply, and applying full
of
at

roll. medium-powered
In
in

to

rudder the direction which desired

in

is
it

ships,
of

loss altitude will result from this maneuver.

a

procedure which may perform half

is be

an

Another
to

followed outside
is
as, by

snap roll top loop. applying rudder and push

of

This
at

the the executed

ing the stick forward and the opposite side just slightly before, the peak
or
to

the loop
of

reached.
is
282 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

The method preferred, however, is to execute the second half of a slow or

aileron roll at the top of the loop. It is this method which is discussed below.

it,
Ea'ecution.—Select a suitable object on the horizon, head the ship for
and dive slightly with the engine wide open. Ease the stick back, keeping the
airplane straight with the rudder and level with the ailerons, and start loop.

a
Tilt the head well back possible.

of so
as

as

as
to
observe the landmark soon
Shortly before the peak the loop has been reached, still

or
while the nose

is
well above the horizon, ease the stick forward past neutral

so
as
to
hold the nose
up. Assume the roll the left. Apply full left aileron,

at
be
to

to
made the
is
same time applying enough pressure the right rudder pedal

on

to
keep the nose

Figure 121.-The Immelmann.

straight. When the ship has rolled through angle approximately 45°,
an

of

pressure right pedal apply pressure

to

ease the from the rudder and the left

pedal, the stick still being well ahead. This pressure the left rudder pedal
on

maintained until the ship has rolled approximately straight and level
be

to

must
flight. At this point, gradually remove the pressure from the rudder pedal and
ease the stick back, maintaining side pressure the left. As the ship resumes
to

level position, remove aileron pressure and bring the neutral position.
to

the stick
no

As previous maneuvers, there specific procedure recovery since

in

in
is

completion the maneuver restores the airplane normal flight.

of

to

Common faults.-(1) Not enough speed beginning the maneuver, pre

in

venting completion
of

the roll.
(2) Poor orientation, not completed with 180° change
so

that maneuver
is

of direction.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 283

(3) Failure to hold stick far enough ahead on top of loop, resulting in fall
ing out of the maneuver.
(4) Improper use of rudder.

THE SLOW ROLL

(Required Army and Navy maneuver)

Definition.—The slow roll is a maneuver in which the ship is rolled approxi

by
mately about longitudinal axis, through 360°, chiefly
its

of
the use the
ailerons, the other controls serving mainly

to
maintain the direction which

in
the nose pointed. The maneuver illustrated figure 122.

in

º
is

is
Related factors.-This maneuver valuable chiefly training maneuver

as
is

a
familiarize the pilot with inverted flight, the use
as

of
to

and such tends the

controls under such conditions, coordination, timing, and orientation.
Before attempting the execution the slow roll, the student should make

of
In
careful study figures 122 and 123. the latter figure, the circle represents
of
a

angles necessarily are approximate and the pro

of

the 360° rotation. The

following the
be

of
to

as
cedure should not allowed become mechanical result

a
figure too closely.

--4
tº
4
+
4
Figure 122.-The slow or aileron
+
roll.

point line with the nose and from level flight with
in

Eacecution.—Select
a

throttle fully advanced ease the airplane into shallow climb. Assume that
a

the left. Apply pressure

be

on

the roll
to

to

made the stick toward the

is

on

left and pressure the left rudder pedal beginning

of
as

steep turn.
in

the
a
to

Accentuate the aileron action order obtain the maximum rotation with
in

minimum tendency change direction. The aileron pressure applied

be
to

to
is

throughout the entire maneuver, and removed only ship completes

as

the the
roll and resumes straight and level flight. As the bank approaches
an

angle
45°, ease the stick forward prevent turning
of

as
at

to

at

rate such the same

a

time easing off the pressure the left rudder pedal and gradually applying
on

pressure on the right rudder pedal. This pressure the right rudder pedal
on

continued until the airplane past fully inverted position. Hold

is

has rolled the

the nose up by forward pressure on the stick from the position
to of

vertical
a

well past the fully inverted position. As the airplane begins approach
to

bank
right vertical bank, ease the pressure from the right rudder pedal and apply
a

gradually increasing pressure the left rudder pedal, still holding the stick
on

forward. Continue left rudder and aileron pressures until straight and level
flight resumed, but from the position approximately 45° before the wings
of
is

begin easing the stick back until the ship resumes

as

are level neutral

in
is
it

normal flight.
No discussion recovery necessary since recovery has been accom
as
to

is

plished when the maneuver completed.

is
–
284 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Reasons for specified use of controls.-(See fig. 123.) Assume that the air
plane is viewed from the rear and is being rolled to the left. Throughout the
maneuver, pressure on the stick to the left is maintained so as to produce
rotation about the longitudinal axis. During the first 45° of rotation, figure
123A, forward pressure gradually is applied to the stick to prevent the ship from
turning. Left rudder is used to check the yaw.
I THROTTLEWIDEOPEN
! ALERONsNEUTRAL
t RUDDERNEUTRAL
| SLIGHT
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stick
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LEFTAILERON
RIGHT RUDDER
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stick WELLAHEAD

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wn __
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-^*,&*%,& |-
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—#– LEFTAILERON
LEFTRUDDER
STICKMoveOAHEAD
Figure 123.−Use of controls in slow roll.

During the next 45°, figure 123B, or while the airplane rolls to a 90° bank,
the stick is slightly ahead to prevent turning, but right rudder is being applied
to hold the nose up.
During the next 45°, figure 1230, the stick is well ahead to hold the nose up.
Right rudder still is being applied, partly to prevent yaw and partly to hold the
nose up.
During the next 45°, figure 123D, which brings the airplane to the com
pletely inverted position, the nose is held up by the stick and enough right
rudder applied to check yaw to the right. It should be remembered that since
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 285

the ship is inverted it now tends to yaw to the pilot's left since the left aileron,
though up with respect to the pilot, is down with respect to the earth; there
fore, right rudder must be applied to offset the yaw.
For the next 45°, figure 123E', from the fully inverted position, right rudder
is being applied to correct yaw. The stick is ahead to hold the nose up and
to prevent turning. During this portion of the roll, the rudder pressure must
be shifted from the right to the left since, as the ship comes to an angle of 45°
past the inverted position, the nose will tend to drop and must be held up by
applying left rudder.
Through the next 45°, figure 123F, or until the airplane reaches the position
of right vertical bank, left rudder must be applied gradually to hold the nose
up, and the stick must still be well ahead. This forward position of the stick
is for the purpose of holding up the nose in the first part of this 45° range and
prevents the airplane from turning during the latter part. -

Through the next 45°, figure 1236, from the vertical bank to a 45° normal
bank, the stick is held ahead to prevent turning and left rudder is applied to
hold the nose up.
From the 45° bank to level flight, figure 123H, left rudder is applied to
prevent yaw, and is eased to neutral as the ship resumes straight and level
flight. At the beginning of this 45° range, the stick is ahead to prevent turn
ing, but is eased back to neutral as the ship returns to the level position.
The aileron pressure likewise is eased off as straight and level flight is resumed.
It will be noted that when the elevators are used to hold the nose up, the
rudder prevents turning; and while the rudder holds the nose up, the elevators
prevent turning.
Common faults.--(1) Failure to select a definite point for use in orien
tation.
(2) Leaning away from the bank at the beginning of the maneuver.
(3) Relaxing pressure on ailerons too early.
(4) Easing off forward pressure when completely inverted.
(5) Using rudder in attempt to force rotation.
(6) General misuse of rudder, causing slipping or skidding.
Chapter IV.-STAGE D, REVIEW,CROSS-COUNTRY, AND
FLIGHT TEST

This stage of of check and solo flying. It

the Secondary course consists
includes both check and solo in cross country work and on the Secondary flight
test.
POWER APPROACHES AND POWER LANDINGS

These maneuvers were covered in stage B of the Elementary course. The

student should refer back to the discussions in chapter III, part two of this
manual (pages 209 and 210) bearing in mind the different handling characteris
tics of the heavier equipment used in the Secondary course, as discussed in chap
ter I, part three (pages 244 to 246). Practice will consist of both check and
solo flying.
DRAGGING THE LANDING AREA

This maneuver was taught in stage D of the Elementary course. The

student should refer back to chapter IV, part two (pages 214 and 215), again
bearing in mind the different handling characteristics of the heavier type of
ship. Practice in this maneuver will be confined to check flying.

CROSS COUNTRY

This subject was covered in stage D of the Elementary course. The student
should review thoroughly all of chapter IV in part two of this manual (pages
211 to 242) except the section on “dragging areas”, which has already been
reviewed in this stage. He should again bear in mind the difference in the
handling characteristics of the heavier equipment used in the Secondary course.
Both check and solo time will be devoted to cross-country flying in this
-
stage.
NIGHT FLYING
Note.-Although night flying is not a part of the controlled Secondary course, being
given later in the Cross-country course, it is discussed here for the general information
of other users of this manual.

Night flying instruction is an important part of the training of a competent

pilot, but should not be attempted until the student has had considerable ex
perience in day flying and is capable of consistently making satisfactory land
ings in strange fields under all conditions of weather and terrain, and likewise
is able to make good power approaches and power-stall landings.
Since many of the airports on which training will be given are not equipped
for night operation and since even where such equipment exists it varies widely,
the following discussion naturally is general rather than specific. Incidentally,
it may be mentioned that when the field is unlighted, an excellent aid to
night landings consists simply of a series of railroad type or electric lanterns.
286
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 287

If a number of these, perhaps 4 or 5, are located along each side of the runway
and then lighted by a mechanic when the ship is to be brought in (as indicated
by gunning the motor or some other signal), little difficulty will be experienced
in making a good landing. Naturally these lights should be far enough from
the edge of the runway to eliminate any possibility of the ship running over
them during the landing. -

Night flights in single-engine aircraft should not be made unless all of the
occupants are provided with parachutes. It also is essential that a flashlight
be kept within easy reach for use in case of failure of the instrument or cabin
lights. Naturally the requirements of the Civil Air Regulations with respect
to flares, etc., must be adhered to closely.
Under no circumstances should students attempt night flying over sparsely
populated sections of the country unless at least the stars are visible and are
sure to remain so. Flying at night when there is an overcast and there are no
lights on the ground is perhaps the most difficult type of blind flying and re
quires thorough training in instrument work. Accordingly, the student never
should leave the vicinity of the airport unless he is absolutely sure that the
weather will remain clear. On the other hand, if there is a bright moon, night
flying is almost as easy as day flying.
A pilot flying at night must possess a more complete realization of his
abilities and limitations and observe more caution than during day operations.
The horizon, the ground, and all physical aids for day flying are indistinct and
obscure. The choice of fields in an emergency is strictly limited, and unless
flares are used, the suitability of any field selected is more or less a matter of
luck. Even with the use of flares, there is no wide range in the selection of a
landing area and the illumination is of a sufficiently different character to cause
errors in judgment of surfaces and terrain by an inexperienced pilot.
Before attempting any night flights, the student should be thoroughly
familiar with the lighting system of the airplane and its emergency equipment.
He should learn how to use the instrument lights in such a manner that they
cause no glare in the cockpit. This is particularly true in the case of cabin
airplanes where reflections are caused by the windshields and windows. Most
instrument installations are equipped with lights which are controlled by a
rheostat and which thus may be reduced in intensity as much as desired. If
a
rheostat is provided, the instrument lights should be cut down until the readings
of the instruments are just barely visible. Ifthere is no rheostat, the instru
ment lights should be turned on only when it is desired to read the instruments.
As soon as the reading is made, the lights should be turned off as quickly as
possible, since a glare from the instrument board will interfere seriously with
outside vision and if too bright, may even make it impossible to distinguish
ground objects.
Position lights are extremely important, especially if other aircraft are
likely to be encountered. These lights should be tested before the take-off, the
battery connections inspected, and the battery itself checked to see that it is
fully charged.
The sudent should be sure that he is familiar with all of the available aids
to night navigation such as beacons, lighted wind socks, lighted wind T’s,
obstruction lights, boundary lights, and floodlights.
288

Most students,
U. S. DEPARTMENT

when
OF COMMERCE

taking off, either consciously

=
or subconsciously
aline the airplane with some distant object. At night this may be difficult
or impossible and other means must be found to judge the straightness of the
take-off. In taking off from unlighted fields, the path with the fewest obstruc
tions should be chosen. Emphasis already has been laid on beginning the take
off at the extreme down-wind edge of the field. This is even more important
in night flying in order that altitude may be gained to clear any possible unseen
obstructions.
If floodlights are used and the take-off must be made toward them, the
student should be careful not to look at the light as this is sure to cause tem
porary blindness. In any case, this blindness will occur for an instant or two
when the ship leaves the light beam and hence it is highly important that the
take-off be conducted in such a manner that there is no possibility of striking
obstructions around the airport.
Distances at night are deceptive, due to the lack of illumination and the
inability of the pilot to judge them by the usual method of comparing the size
of different objects. This also applies to the estimation of altitude and speed.
Consequently, more dependence must be placed on instruments, particularly
the altimeter and the air-speed indicator.
The student will find that he has a tendency to make his approach and
landing at night with considerable excess speed. This tendency should be
guarded against, since the usual errors which result from excess speed will
be accentuated during night landings and there is always the danger of unseen
obstructions ahead. Furthermore, if the field is overshot, which is often the
result of landing too fast, there is much more danger in gunning off and going
around again than in the daytime.
It probably is the best plan to make night landings with a power approach.
The power approach and power stall landing have been previously discussed.
These discussions should be reviewed and this type of landing practiced during
the daytime immediately prior to night landing practice. The power landing
is desirable particularly in making a landing on a strange field, since it reduces
the ensuing roll to a minimum. It also enables the pilot to compensate more
quickly and completely for errors of judgment in leveling off, caused by poor
visibility or unfamiliar lighting.
Many pilots prefer to land without the use of floodlights, using the height
of boundary lights to judge the approach and leveling-off operations. Flood
lights, unless properly adjusted, often cause a glare that partially blinds the
pilot, and frequently create an optical illusion in which the ground is apparently
at the height of the top of the floodlight beam. Students often attempt to
land on top of the floodlight beam under the impression that they are practi
cally on the ground. This is particuarly true if there is a slight haze, smoke,
or dust over the airport. As in the case of the take-off (but even more important
in landing) the pilot never should look toward the source of light. This is
true even though the operator of the light follows the airplane accurately
with a shadow. The temporary blindness caused by looking at the light may
prove disastrous in landing. If landing lights are used, only the area covered
by them should be watched. If landing lights are not used, it will be found
 CIVIL PILOT THAIN ING MANUAL 289

entirely possible to land by looking to the side instead of ahead when the
floodlight is in front of the airplane.
The student should fix firmly in his mind the nature of the terrain adjacent
to the airport and the location of obstructions which are nearby but not close
enough to require that they be lighted. It never should be forgotten that it
may be necessary to make an emergency landing shortly after take-off. Such
a landing should be made in the direction in which the take-off was made if
if is possible or practicable to do so. If it becomes necessary to make such a
landing, a careful watch should be kept for obstructions since they may be
extremely difficult to see until the ship is practically on them.
The first solo night flights should be made when no other night flying
operations are being carried on. During later flights, when other ships may
be in the air, the pilot should be even more alert than usual for the presence of
other aircraft, and should confine his operations to the areas and maneuvers
designated by the instructor. Obviously, no acrobatic maneuvers should be
performed at night.
A little thought should indicate how one's position relative to another air
plane may be determined. However, as an aid to clarifying this matter, the
following rules are given:

-
Ilight S Observed
Position of observer - with respect to the other
aircraft

Head-on.
To the left and rear.
Green and White------------- –––––––––– To the right and rear.
White only—------------------ – ---------- I)irectly behind.
Red only-------- ––––– On the left and slightly ahead.
Green only ------------------ -
- -- -- - -- On the right and slightly ahead.

Night flying under proper conditions will be found one of the most pleasant
experiences connected with aviation. With improper equipment or in bad
weather, it is one of the most dangerous.

FLIGHT TEST

The final phase of stage D, which is the fourth and last stage of the
Secondary flight course, is devoted to instruction and practice in the maneuvers
comprising the Secondary flight test.
In the flight test the student will be required to demonstrate his ability
to execute properly the various maneuvers of the Secondary course.
The student will first be given check time on the flight test, will then
bractice solo the various maneuvers comprising the test, and finally, will be
required by his instructor to go through the complete test. In this flight test
the student will be required to demonstrate the same degree of accuracy and
precision in execution as prescribed in the Civil Air Regulations for the
commercial certificate flight test.
Successful completion of the Secondary course is a prerequisite for partici
pation in the Cross-country course of the Civilian Pilot Training Program.
 Part Four
SEAPLANE FLYING

Chapter I.-GENERAL

The definition of a seaplane is “an airplane designed to rise from and

alight upon the surface of the water.”” In popular language, however, the
seaplane ordinarily is understood to be a conventional landplane equipped with
floats instead of wheels, as opposed to the flying boats in which the hull serves
the double purpose of providing buoyancy in the water and space for the pilot,

MOORINGCLEAT DECK BULKHEADS fº,

! 21 >=
TRANSOM RUDOER
-->«LIFTED
‘. .

DEck CLAMP.
BULKHEAD

SKIN

SISTER KEELSON DEAD

RUBBING STRIP RISE

Figure 124.—Nomenclature of parts of float.

crew, and passengers. The float seaplane is by far the more common type,
particularly in ships of relatively low horsepower. It may be equipped with
either single or twin floats, although practically all commercial seaplanes are of
the twin-float variety. Accordingly, this is the type which will be discussed in
the following pages. There is little essential difference between the handling
of the float seaplane and the flying boat; therefore, the instructions given may
be considered as applying to either. -

In the air the seaplane handles practically the same as the landplane. It
is not quite as snappy in acrobatic maneuvers, does not require quite as much

* N. A. C. A. Report No. 474.

291
292 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

use of the ailerons to hold it in a sideslip, and is likely to be somewhat less

directionally stable. Otherwise, no difference will be noted and any maneuver
that can be performed with a landplane also can be performed with a seaplane.
Accordingly, no special instructions will be given for the operation of the ship
in the air. The same applies also to a large extent to familiarization with the
airplane, discussed in chapter I, part two. The main difference between the

is,
seaplane and the landplane

of

of

of
course, the installation floats instead
Figure 124 shows the principal parts

of
wheels. float.

a
On the other hand, the handling the ship the water and during the

on
of
take-off very different from taxiing and taking off landplane. Likewise
is

a
left out overnight calls for some special
of

the care the seaplane when

is
it
treatment. The rules for starting the engine are the same those given for

as
the landplane except that
in
those seaplanes not equipped with starter, the

a
propeller must swung from the rear instead the front. This commonly
be

of

is
right grip

on
done while standing starboard float, being taken
on

the or firm

a
convenient strut. The instructor will demonstrate the proper procedure.
a

horsepower almost invariably are

65
Seaplanes with engines
of

more than
equipped with starters since swinging the propeller, while the ship the

in
is
water, practically impossible larger engines.
of
in

the case
is
 Chapter II.-TAXIING

A beginner should not attempt to taxi a seaplane which is not equipped

with water rudders. If these rudders have the proper amount of movement, a
seaplane can be turned in calm weather or in a light breeze in a radius less than
the span of the wing. Water rudders are more effective at slow speeds because
they then are working in comparatively undisturbed water. At high speed,
the stern of the float churns up the water and the rudders are less efficient;
furthermore, the speed through the water tends to make them swing up or
retract.
There are three positions or attitudes of the seaplane while taxiing, which,
for lack of established terminology will be known as the “idling” position, the

CENTER OF
buoyancy

W |

Figure 125.-The idling position in taxiing.

“nose-up” position, and the “planing” position. In the first two the control
all

should be held continuously the way back, which contrary procedure

to
is

taxiing landplane.
of

followed when Detailed instruction for the use the

a

planing position will given later.

be

the third
or

controls
in

the idling position, shown

In

figure 125, the speed the ship usually

of
in

is
its

approximately the same

an
or

is as

below miles hour and attitude when

is
8
7

the water. The student should spend

as

as
at

much time neces

in

rest
it
is

Sary taxiing this position and familiarizing himself with the action
of

the
in

Such practice should conducted when the wind velocity

is be

rudder. below
is
10

miles per hour, and the water reasonably calm.

At this point, the dangers involved making
be

to

attention should called

in

it,

high strong Any against

or is or or
at

turns speed wind. seaplane, not held

in

if
a

pointing into the wind. Further

to its

will “weathercock”
so

turn that nose

is

more, constantly endeavoring this position

at

assume slow speed, when

it

being taxied across Consequently,

as

as

down wind. soon the controls are

293
294 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

neutralized, the ship will swing abruptly into the wind. Centrifugal force
tends to make the ship turn over toward the outside of the turn, and the wind
striking the side of the ship assists this tendency. If
an abrupt turn is made
while taxiing down wind, the combination of the two forces mentioned above
may be sufficient to turn the ship over. Obviously the further the ship heels,
the greater the effect of the wind, since more of the wing on the windward side

WIND UNDER WING

WIND ON SIDE
CENTRIFUGAL

Figure 126.-Forces on a seaplane turning while taxiing.

is exposed and less of that on the leeward side. These forces are illustrated
in figure 126.
When making a turn into the wind, all that is necessary is to put the rudder
in neutral, unless taxiing directly down wind. In this case, if it is desired to
turn in a given direction, a slight amount of rudder should be applied on that
side. As soon as the ship begins to swing, the rudder should be neutralized
CENTER OF
I BuoyANCY

ELEVATORS UP

Figure 127.-The “nose-up” position in taxiing.

and if the wind is strong, it is desirable to apply some opposite rudder. The
amount of opposite rudder applied depends on the speed with which the ship
tries to make the turn. As soon as the turn is begun the engine should be
throttled.
After the student has acquired familiarity with the ship in the idling posi
tion, he should proceed to the second or “nose-up” attitude, illustrated in figure
127. The ship is put into this position by holding the elevator controls hard back
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 295

and opening the throttle until the revolutions per minute reach about half the
maximum for the particular airplane. The nose will come up whether the stick
is held back or not, but the action may be hastened slightly by pulling the
elevators up. The raising of the nose is brought about by the force of the
water on the forward bottom of the float. This position is desirable when
taxiing in rough water, since it raises the propeller clear of the spray. At the
same time the ship travels with considerably more speed than in the idling
position.
By referring to figure 127, it will be noted that there is considerably more
side area forward of the center of buoyancy, or point of support, than aft.
Hence, when taxiing cross wind in this position, many airplanes will show a
marked tendency to turn down wind instead of into the wind. For this reason
it is sometimes necessary to put the ship into this attitude when attempting
to turn away from a wind of comparatively high velocity. Under such condi

-
tions, it is possible to use the throttle almost as a rudder since opening the
throttle increases the speed of the airplane causing the nose to rise higher and
- - ELEVATORS SLIGHTLY UP

RUDDERS UP

Figure 128.-Taxiing “on the step.”

the tendency to turn down wind to become more pronounced, whereas closing
the throttle decreases the speed, causes the nose to settle, and allows the ship
to turn into the wind.
The third, or planing, position is shown in figure 128. This position, some
times referred to as “running on the step” or simply “on the step,” is attained
after passing through the nose-up position. The minimum speed at which the
average ship will plane is between 20 and 30 miles an hour. The ship is placed
in this attitude by holding the controls hard back and opening the throttle all
the way. The action of the water in reaching the nose-up position already has
been explained. As the speed increases, the force of the water on the rear or
after portion of the float bottom becomes greater until the rear of the ship is
raised, and it begins to plane. While planing, the airplane is supported on
the water rather than in the water. The action is identical to that of an aqua
plane, which hardly will hold up the weight of the rider when at rest, but
raises him well clear of the water when moving at high speed.
As the ship shows a tendency to rock over on the step, the controls should
be moved forward to neutral or, in some installations, slightly forward of
neutral. After the planing position has been reached, a very slight back pres
201073°.- .41-- - -20
296 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

sure should be held. The speed increases rapidly after planing has begun and
the throttle must be partly closed, otherwise the ship will take off. Usually
about 65 to 70 percent of the maximum revolutions per minute will keep the
ship on the step without taking it into the air. If the ship shows a tendency to
porpoise, or rock fore and aft, the rocking usually may be checked by increas
ing the backward pressure on the controls. If the beginner attempts to push
the stick ahead as the bow comes up and pull it back as it goes down, the
porpoising probably will be increased since, because of the time required for
the controls to become effective, the pilot usually is just one move behind the
ship. The water rudders should be lifted while planing, since they have little
effect and are abused badly if left down.
It is possible to make turns while planing, but they should be very gentle,
with a minimum radius of several hundred feet, until thorough familiarity
with the airplane has been attained. The ship is traveling at 30 miles an hour
or more when in this position, and the centrifugal force in a sharp turn is high .

and easily may be sufficient to cause the ship to capsize. In the case of the
flying boat, or single-float seaplane, there is less danger of capsizing under
these conditions because as soon as the ship heels over an appreciable amount,
the wing-tip float strikes the water and, through the planing effect of its bottom,
forces the wing back up.
Occasionally, due to conditions of wind and water, it is unsafe to attempt
to make a turn at any speed. For example, if the wind velocity is considerable—
say over 40 miles per hour—and the waves are high, as the ship turns broad
side to the wind, the up-wind float may be lifted by the crest of a wave while
the other float is in the trough, thus tilting the ship so that the wind gets under
the wing at the same time that it is blowing against the side. The condition
then is similar to that shown in figure 126 except for the centrifugal force, which
is acting in a direction opposite to the force of the wind. Unfortunately,
however, the magnitude of the centrifugal force depends upon the speed with
which the turn is made, and since it is impossible to turn down wind very
quickly under the conditions outlined, the correcting or balancing effect is
negligible. On the other hand, if the turn is half made and the pilot changes
his mind and decides not to complete the maneuver, then all the forces shown
in figure 126 are acting. Hence, if the ship shows a pronounced tendency to
heel over when starting the turn, the engine should be throttled before the
course has been changed more than 45°, and full rudder left on so as to check
the weathercocking. The only other recourse is to open the throttle wide and
attempt to go on around fast enough that the centrifugal force developed is
sufficient to counteract the effect of the wind. Choice of procedure depends
on the type of ship, the condition of the water, and, most of all, on the expe
rience of the pilot. The best thing, if there is any doubt, is not to turn at all
but place the ship where desired by sailing, as explained in the next chapter.
 Chapter III.-SAILING

Many arise when it is desired to move the ship into a position

occasions

its
location, yet, because

If of
behind or to one side of

at or
weather conditions
limited space, not practicable attempt any breeze

to
turn. there
is

is
it

a
all, the ship may inexperienced might seem
be

space

to
sailed into which the

is a
impossibly cramped. absolutely

no
turn with
If

to
there no wind and room
part

or
the engine, paddle (which should every seaplane's equipment),

be

of
a

even the hands, may point the ship the desired direction, after
be

to

in
used
engine may
be

which the started.

With the engine dead and light wind, seaplane will move the direc

in
a

In
pointed, due strong wind,

of
tion the tail
to

the keel effects the floats.

is

a
probably will move backward and toward the side

to
which the nose

is
it

pointed. either case, full rudder must used and the ailerons will prove be
In

great assistance. Also, lowering the flaps and opening the cabin doors will
of

the wind. The setting

of
increase the air resistance and thus add
is be in to

the effect
light strong
in of

of

the controls the direction motion and winds illustrated

in

is
-
figure The water rudders should
129. lifted while sailing.
Most flying boats, when the engine not running, will sail backward and
pointed regardless the strength
in of

to of
to

toward the side which the nose the

is

wind, the hull does not provide proportion

as

as

much keel effect the

the ship
do
of

as

size floats.
The foregoing paragraphs not mention sailing directly backward. All
do

necessary simply release all controls and let

to

that this desired nature

is

is

is
if

take its course.

reasonably strong breeze blowing, the airplane may
be
If

in
moved
is
a

by

any direction desired proper use be

of

the engine.
to

Assume that
is
it

the left. By setting the controls figure 129 and running

as
to

shown
in

moved
the engine speed just sufficient prevent drifting backward, the ship will
to
at
a

move directly sideways the engine

to of
If
to

the left. the speed increased

is

slightly, the ship will move diagonally forward and the left: whereas, the
if

engine speed reduced, will move diagonally

to

backward and the left.

is

it

To move the right, the controls are reversed and the same procedure fol
to

idled very slowly

In

light breeze the engine must

be

keep from
to

lowed.
a

pulling the ship ahead. The revolutions per minute may

be

decreased further
of by

alternately turning the switch and off. Sailing indispensable part

be on

an
is

seaplane handling and should practiced until the student thoroughly

is

the ship flying, since each type air

he
of

of

familiar with the characteristics

is

plane has its own minor peculiarities.

or

The previous discussion applies large bodies

of

in as
or to

water such lakes

Where there are strong tides rapidly flowing current, river,
as

bays.
a

gaging the relative effect

be

of

care should the wind and the current.

in

observed
297
298 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Often the force of the current will more than offset the force of the wind, so that
if the current and the wind are in opposite directions, the seaplane will point
into the wind and move with the current (which is also into the wind) instead

AILERON UP -

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92
—l
N->
Figure 129.-Effect of wind and engine when sailing.

of sailing backwards against Before taxiing into a restricted

the current.
space, the effect of the current should be considered carefully. Otherwise the
seaplane may be carried into obstructions, with consequent damage to the
wings, tail surfaces, or other delicate parts of the ship.
 Chapter IV.-APPROACH AND DEPARTURE

Prior to approaching any type of base, it should be looked over thoroughly

by the pilot before he gets in close enough to be hampered by obstructions.
The direction of the wind and tide or current, if any, should be studied and
the probable effect determined. Bear in mind that if left to its own devices,
the ship always will point into the wind, and that it always can be turned into
the wind without difficulty. Hence it is perfectly safe to pass close to an
object if the airplane is on the windward side, since if it appears that the clear
ance is going to be insufficient a turn away from the obstruction (or into the
wind) may be made easily. On the other hand, ample room should be allowed
when passing to leeward, for if the wind is strong and the ship swings, it will
swing right into the obstacle.
For the purposes of the following discussion, a ramp is considered as a
sloping platform, extending well under the surface of the water. . If the ramp
is of wood, the seaplane can be slid up or down it on the keels of the float,
provided the surface of the ramp out of the water is wet. A pier is a structure
built out into the water but without the upper surface extending under

it.

A
raft floating platform, ordinarily known “float.” The word “float”
as
is

in a
a

designate this device avoid any possible

in
to

to
not used this book order
is

the seaplane itself.

of

confusion with the floats

The technique approach varies with each possible, the
If
of

of

these.
up

approach any
be
of
to

at

the three should made wind slow speed, since

pilot complete
it of

under this condition the has the most control the seaplane.
usually possible approach raft ordinarily
to in
It

this manner since

to
is

is
a

shore, usually connected by

at

moored some distance from the which

is
it

walk. Even the wind blowing directly toward the shore, often
if

is

is
it
a

possible the raft, then turn into the

of
to

to

taxi down wind the shoreward side

wind for the final approach, which will along the side
be

of

the raft. The same

the pier, since three sides are available for approach. Unfortunately,
of

true
is

part approach ramp only one direction, and

be
of

to

the last
in

the can made

a

strong wind this may present problems. approaching pier,

In

raft
or
in

as a
a

the engine should throttled and the ship taxied slowly

be

so

to

allow the
engine
to

cool off before contact made.

is
If

blowing directly toward the shore, the approach ramp

to

the wind
is

may made down wind with enough speed

be

maintain control. This speed

to

up

continued until the ship actually strikes the ramp and slides
be

it.

should
Many inexperienced pilots make the mistake cutting the engine shortly
of

reaching ramp hitting too hard. Actually this

of

before the for fear more

is
it

likely procedure just described, the ship either

as
to

cause damage than the

will turn and blown backwards into the ramp, necessitating taxiing out
be

and making another try, will drop abruptly from the nose-up position
or
it

299
300 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

and strike the ramp harder than when cushioned by the bow-wave which
precedes the floats in high-speed taxiing.
Thedifficult approach is that required when the wind is blowing
most
parallel to the shore, and is of such velocity that control of the ship is extremely
hard to maintain. If the approach is made into the wind, it may be impossible
to turn the ship cross-wind and toward the ramp without excessive speed.
The best procedure in most cases is to taxi directly down wind until near the
ramp, then close the throttle when in such a position that as the ship weather
cocks it will land on the ramp in the proper position for sliding up The

it.
engine should immediately opened again until the ship pulled completely
be

is
very high, this maneuver should not

is be
If
of

clear the water. the wind

is
attempted without the presence helper the ramp, since the ramp

on
of

if
be a
wet and slippery, the plane may blown sideways across and off the lee

it
--
IN
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TAXYING THE

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Figure 130.-‘‘Making” ramp with cross wind.

a

ward side. This approach illustrated figure 130. Only experience will
in
is

enable the pilot tell just when throttle the engine, consequently the
to

to

attempted until the student has acquired high pro

be

maneuver should not

ficiency handling the ship. extremely strong wind, the safest
an
of

In
in

the
procedure taxi up wind the ramp and near enough for helper
to

to

to

attach
is

The plane then may left floating, or, by means

be

of
to

line the floats. the

a

ropes, maneuvered into position from which tractor can haul up the
it
a

ramp.
If

put the ship

on

of

necessary
to

the beach, the nature the shore

it
is

rocky, there
be

If

should ascertained before contact made. serious

is

is

of is
it

danger the floats, particularly appre

of

of

damage
to

the bottom
if

waves
ciable magnitude are rolling in. Sandy beaches afford safe landing place,
a

likely paint, film, protective

or
to

but even these are wear off the anodic other

by

coatings. possible, approach sailing backward

be
If

to

beach should made

a
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 301

with the water rudders up.

Otherwise, when it is desired to leave the shore,
someone will have to go wading in order to turn the ship around. Further
more the after-bottom of the floats does not dig into the beach as deeply as
the forward bottom. Hence a backward approach causes much less abuse to
the ship.
Particular note should be taken of the condition of the tide when operating
in salt water. More than one pilot has parked his ship on the beach, gone
ashore, and come back sometime later to find it a hundred feet from the water.
Others have returned to find that it was necessary to wade through water
several feet deep to get aboard.
Under no circumstances should the ship be left where there is a surf or
even waves a foot high, as it alternately will be picked up and dropped, with
possible risk of serious damage.
The procedure in departure differs with the type of facilities available.
If the ship is on a wooden ramp, all that is necessary is to wet the ramp, point
it,

the ship down the ramp

If
and open the throttle. steep, the controls

is
pushed and closed quickly
be

so
as
opened

to
should ahead and the throttle
give blast the tail just Otherwise,
to on
of

air
as

the floats slide into the water.

a

by

the bows begin supported the water, they will rise, and the sterns
be
as

the floats will strike the ramp violently. up

be
of

The water rudders should

while sliding off the ramp.
Leaving pier raft presents problem. helper available,
no

If
or

is
it
is
a

a
have him swing the ship pointing toward open water
so
it to

desirable that
is
is it

that position until the engine

no
assist
If
in

and hold started. there

is
ship against
of

moored with the bows

it at

ance hand and the the floats the

is

pier, drift back far enough

be

turn
to

to
must cast off and allowed make

a
without striking the pier before the engine
be
started. should borne
It

in
is

mind, however, that the engine may fail start. Consequently due consider
to

given the possibility drifting backward into obstructions.

be

of
to

ation should
 Chapter W.-TAKE-OFFS

NORMAL TAKE-OFFS

The first practice in take-offs should light breeze–

be made when there is a
enough to make small waves but not enough to produce whitecaps. The
ship should be taxied into position, the water rudders lifted, and a thorough
scrutiny given the intended path of take-off to make sure not only that it is
clear, but that it will remain clear. Operators of motorboats and Sailing craft
often are both ignorant and careless with respect to seaplanes and are likely
to move directly in front of the ship while the take-off is being made.
The landplane always takes off from the same general type of surface and
ordinarily in an area restricted for

on
its

use. The seaplane, the other hand,

its

public property, speak, always

on

so
to

makes take-off and confronted

is
with the possibility encountering floating objects which are almost submerged
of

swimmers and various types Fur

of
as

as
to

and hard see, well water craft.

thermore the surface from which takes the air seldom twice the same,
it

of is
the landplane.
in

hence much more caution necessary than the case

is

When taxiing into the take-off position, advisable move along the to
is
it

intended path any floating objects

of

of
so
as
to

take-off check the presence

or obstructions.
When the ship has been turned into the wind, the controls are held hard
back and the throttle opened fully. Instructions already have been given for
putting the ship into the planing position,
of on

be

will
or

the step.
It

noted that
the beginning the take-off, the position exactly opposite
of
to at

the elevators
is

the landplane. After the ship slight back pressure

on
be of

that the step,

is

should exerted on the controls. Too much back pressure will force the
the floats into the water, creating resistance and appreciably retarding
of

stern
a

the take-off or, heavily loaded ship, preventing entirely.

of

On
in

the case
it
a

the other hand, the controls are not pulled back enough, the forward portion
if

drag. Many landplane

of

the bottom will remain the water, also creating

in

pilots make the mistake attempting drag the ship out the water, not
of of

of
to

realizing that the stern the floats will pushed into the water
at
be

much
a

lower angle than required put the tail skid the landplane the ground.
on
of
to
is

If

little experience will determine the best angle take-off for each ship.
of
A

air

this angle, will take the smoothly and with adequate flying speed.
at

held
it

TAKE-OFFS IN ROUGH WATER

An expert can take off surprisingly rough water without damage

to

the
in

airplane, but the beginner should stay ashore the waves are more than
if

feet from trough chop quite rough for small

of
to

crest. Even this amount

is

302
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 303

plane. However, if the proper procedure is followed, the abuse received by

the floats—and the rest of the airplane—will be lessened greatly.
The throttle should be opened as the nose is rising on a wave. This
prevents digging the bows of the float into the water and helps keep spray out
of the propeller. Throughout the take-off, the controls should be kept some
what further back than when in smooth water so as to hold the bow well up.
After planing has begun, the ship will begin to bounce from crest to crest of the
waves, and each time it strikes, the nose will tend to go up. nothing is done If
to correct this, each successive wave will be struck with a more severe impact.
As the nose goes up, the controls should be pushed ahead in order to prevent a
stall, then pulled back again just before striking the next wave. It is im
portant to pull back at the proper instant, otherwise the bows may be pushed
under the water and the ship “trip its toe” and turn over. Accurate timing and
quick reactions are essential. Fortunately, a take-off under such conditions
usually is fairly quick, for if there is enough wind to make the water rough,
there usually is enough to get the ship into the air quickly.
One of the worst conditions with respect to roughness occurs when there
is a strong current running against the wind. For example if the velocity of
the current is 10 miles per hour, and the velocity of the wind 15, the relative
velocity between the wind and the water is 25 miles an hour. Hence, the
waves will be as high as those produced in still water by a wind of 25 miles per
hour, but there will be only a 15-mile wind to help the take-off. Equally dis
agreeable is the condition which arises where there is a strong tide rip which
produces marked choppiness even with no wind at all.
Just how rough the water may be without prohibiting the take-off com
pletely depends on the size of the airplane, the wing loading, the power loading,
and, more important than these, the ability of the pilot. As a very approximate
general rule, however, if the height of the waves from trough to crest is more
than 20 percent of the length of the floats, take-offs should not be attempted
except by the most expert and experienced seaplane pilots.

TAKE-OFFS WITH HEAVY LOADS IN CALM WATER

A take-off in glassy water with no wind and with a low-powered seaplane

its

loaded to maximum authorized weight often presents difficult, though not

a

dangerous, problem. When take-off attempted under such conditions,

is
a

go

the ship may assume the nose-up position but refuse the step. Any
on
to

by
if or

airplane can heavily, through water exceeding

be

so

loaded the floats

in
no

the authorized load, that one can get into the air, but take-off
is
it

a
by

possible, may accomplished

the procedure given below.
be
it

go
as

high will with the controls hard back,

as

When the nose has risen

it
by

abruptly moving the control column well forward.

be

should pushed down

it

The nose will drop the ship has attained enough speed the verge
be
on

of
a to
if

going step, will

on

the but the controls are held ahead for few seconds,
if

by

caught pulling the control column

be

come back up. This rebound should

its

hard back instantly, and maximum elevation,

be as

as

soon the nose has reached

After several repetitions
be

the entire routine should repeated. will noted

it

that the nose goes higher each time and that the speed increasing.
If

the
is
 304 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

control column then is pushed well ahead and held there, the ship will slowly
flatten out on the step and the controls may be carefully eased back to neutral.
It is impossible in a written exposition to give the proper timing for “rocking”
the ship onto the step in this manner, and to become expert requires considerable
practice.
Even after getting on the step, the trouble may not be over entirely, as a
few seaplanes and boats can be put on the step with more load than they will
take off, unless another trick is used. If, after a reasonable run, the ship
shows no further increase in speed and does not take off in the normal manner
under a slight back pressure on the controls, the stick or wheel should be
pulled back abruptly and the plane practically yanked out of the water. Ex
tremely delicate handling is necessary for the next few seconds, as the maneu
ver constitutes a stall take-off, and if the ship either is leveled out too soon or
pulled up too much, it will drop back into the water.
• Whenever the water is glassy, the chances of getting off without too much
difficulty are improved if there are any small boats moving around, so that the
take-off can be made across their wake. Sometimes when all else fails it may
be possible to disturb the water enough by taxiing in a large circle and taking
off across one's own wake.
Ifthe ship has powerful ailerons and the floats are close together, the
take-off may be hastened after the ship is on the step by lifting one float out
of the water. Since this cuts the water drag in half, its effect is obvious. It
is somewhat easier to lift the right float due to propeller torque. Needless to
say, great care must be used not to lift it too far, as dipping the wing in the
water at a speed approximating that of take-off unquestionably will have
serious consequences.

CROSS WIND AND DOWN WIND TAKE-OFFS

Ifthe wind is not too strong, a cross-wind take-off is entirely practicable.

The procedure is practically the same as that followed with landplanes.
Aileron is applied on the windward side and rudder on the opposite side. As
soon as the ship is in the air, a gentle turn should be made into the wind if
possible.
Down-wind take-offs also are entirely possible and are to be preferred if
-

the wind is light and a take-off into it necessitates the clearing of obstructions
or flying over land before adequate altitude has been attained. In taking off
down wind, the controls should be held somewhat further back than when
taking off into the wind. Otherwise the procedure is identical. It should be
remembered that much more room is needed for a down-wind take-off. In a
small body of water completely surrounded by land, an excellent plan may
be to begin the take-off down wind and complete it into the wind. This is
done by putting the ship on the step while moving down wind, making a step
turn, or a turn while planing, thus bringing the ship into the take-off position
near the down-wind shore.
 Chapter VI.-LANDINGS

It is inlanding that the seaplane pilot is most likely to get into trouble. As
has been pointed out, an airport always presents the same surface, whereas the
surface of the water is changing continually; also the airport is restricted to the
use of aircraft and usually is free from obstructions, whereas boats and floating
obstacles may present serious hazards to the careless seaplane pilot. For these
reasons, it is desirable to circle the area where the landing is to be made and
examine it thoroughly for obstructions such as buoys or floating debris, and to
note the position and direction of motion of any boats which may be in the
vicinity.
DETERMINING WIND DIRECTION
Regular seaplane bases usually are equipped with a windsock, but it often
is desirable to make landings without this aid. There are a number of methods
of determining the wind direction. If there are no strong tides or currents,
boats lying at anchor point into the wind. Sea gulls and other water fowl
usually land facing the wind. Smoke and flags show the wind direction, and
the set of the sails on sailboats provide a fair approximation.
If
by

on
its

the wind has appreciable velocity, path shown streaks the

is
In

water. strong wind, these streaks become distinct white lines. cannot

It
a

blowing.
be

If
determined from these alone from which direction the wind is is
whitecaps top however, difficulty. no
on

of
to or

there are foam the waves, there

by
The foam appears move into the wind. This illusion caused the fact
is
all

the indications just

of

that the waves move from under the foam. While

of
mentioned may not present the same time, there usually are enough
be

at

the pilot
no

of

the wind direction.

as
to

to

them doubt the mind

in

leave

LANDING IN NORMAL WATER

perfect landing can landplane only one position—with
in

in
be
A

made
a

on

the wheels and tail skid touching the ground seaplane,

at

the same time.

A

the other hand, may landed through positions from ap

be

of

wide variation
a

proximately level full stall. The best position, when the water reasonably
to

is
an

smooth, angle
of
at

such that the step and the stern the float touch the
is

the same time. However, smooth landing may

be

in
at

water made almost

a

any position long moving back

of
as

as

at

the stick the instant contact.

A
is

full stall landing entirely safe but pretty the step

or
as

as

to as

not smooth
is

is

position. likely disconcerting the land

be

Also little first

to

at

stern
is
it

plane pilot, since the ship rocks forward almost the level position
as

as
to

soon
the landing has been made. This
of
to

due the fact that the stern the floats

is

strikes the water first, creating pronounced drag which tips the plane forward
a

and slows down abruptly.

it

305
306 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Regardless of the attitude of the ship when contact is made with the water,
it will go through the same series of positions as in the take-off, but in reverse
order. In other words, it will plane for a short distance, then take the nose-up
position, and finally the idling position. If
the landing is made at some distance
from the point at which contact with the shore is to be established, the throttle
should be opened as soon as planing begins and the ship taxied in on the step.
Taxiing on the step is much easier on the engine than taxiing in the nose-up
position since in the latter the revolutions per minute are about the same as
when planing but the ship is moving much more slowly. Hence there is a
likelihood of overheating the engine. In any case, the last few minutes of
taxiing should be done at idling speed so as to cool the engine sufficiently to
prevent “after-firing” when the switch is cut.

LANDING IN ROUGH WATER

Ifthe waves are high, either as a result of wind or from churning of the
water by boats, landing always should be in the full-stall position, with the stick
hard back and the flaps down. It also is desirable in many cases to use the
engine so as to bring the tail even further down and reduce the speed as much
as possible. When making landings in rough water it usually will be found that
the ship will be slowed down appreciably when it strikes the first wave, but not
enough to keep it from bouncing to the next one. The shock of this second
contact can be lessened greatly, in fact almost eliminated, by judicious use of
the engine during the bounce. Under no circumstances should an inexperienced
pilot attempt to make a landing in waves which are more than 2 feet from
trough to crest.
In some sections of the is encountered a phe
ocean, there occasionally
nomenon known as a ground swell. Ground swells are not caused by wind but
by currents or disturbances under the surface and sometimes miles away from
the swells themselves. The crests of ground swells are wide and usually several
hundred feet apart. They are difficult to see if there is much wind since they
are then obscured by the surface chop. In calm water they are detected readily.
Unless there is a very strong wind, where ground swells are in evidence, the
landing should be made along the top of the swell regardless of the wind
direction.
LANDING IN GLASSY WATER

Glassy water probably is the most dangerous condition an inexperienced

pilot can encounter. On the other hand, by following the proper procedure,
landing in such water not only is entirely safe but may be so smooth that even
the pilot himself cannot determine the exact instant when the ship touches the
surface.
To begin, the student may as well make up his mind that he never will
be able to determine his exact distance above the surface in an absolutely flat
by
if,

calm, particularly
If

accompanied
as

often the case, haze. the

it
is

is

landing
or

made close and parallelthe shore,

be

or
to

can near boat other

a

floating object, matters will simplified somewhat. Even then, the instructions
be

given the next paragraph should

be
in

followed.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 307

The only way to land in glassy water is by use of the power stall. At an
altitude of 50 feet or more, the glide should be checked by leveling out and
slightly opening the throttle. From this point down, the nose should be raised
gradually, applying more power as necessary, until a steady speed of about 15
percent more than stalling speed is maintained, with just enough power to allow
the ship to settle slowly. The object is to touch the water gently in a semistall
landing with the step and the stern making contact at the same time. If the
ship is felt to settle too rapidly, more power should be applied, keeping the nose
in the same slightly raised position. Conversely, if the plane is not settling,
the throttle should be slightly closed. If these instructions are carried out, the
landing is foolproof and perfectly smooth. The same procedure may be fol
lowed when landing at night, the only precaution being to make sure that there
is ample room ahead and that there are no obstructions.

CROSS WIND AND DOWN WIND LANDINGS

The procedure in landing cross wind on the water is the same as that on
land and consists of holding the wings level with the ailerons and skidding to
windward by use of rudder on the lee or down wind side. It is desirable to
come in with a little extra speed, both because there is more time after the ship
is leveled out to judge the drift, and also because a higher speed at the time of
contact lessens the amount of drift proportionately. Rudder, on the down
wind side, should be applied just before contact with the water is made so that
the plane will not have time actually to begin a normal turn. It probably will
be necessary to hold a little opposite aileron to prevent the ship from banking
with the turn. The water rudders should be dropped as soon as possible after
landing and, if the wind is of appreciable strength, more rudder applied on the
down wind side to prevent the ship from swinging into the wind. The possible
consequences of an abrupt turn into the wind at high speed already have been
discussed. Cross wind landings should not be attempted in high waves because
of the possibility of one float landing in a trough and the other on a crest, thus
allowing the wind to get under the wings, with possibility of capsizing the
airplane.
Down wind landings are made in the same manner as those into the wind.
Plenty of room should be allowed and the full-stall landing used. Here also the
rudders should be dropped immediately after landing is made and great care
observed not to allow the ship to weathercock until the speed has been materially
reduced.
- EMERGENCY LANDINGS

While seaplanes are not permitted to be flown beyond gliding distance from
the water under normal operating conditions, there are occasions, such as in
taking off from small bodies of water, where it would be impossible to reach the
water in case of engine failure. There is no need to fear a forced landing with a
seaplane any more than with a landplane. In fact, in the case of rough ground
or high grass, the floats of a seaplane will tend to prevent nosing over and, if a
solid obstruction must be struck, will absorb the brunt of the shock. Seaplanes
often have been landed on smooth ground without the slightest damage to the
308 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

airplane or its occupants and they have even been taken off from grassy airports.
Ifit becomes necessary to make a landing on land, the contact with the
ground should be made with the keel of the floats as nearly parallel to the
surface as possible, and the controls pulled back immediately after landing.
Ifa forced landing is made at sea, particularly when the wind is offshore,
the predicament may be serious. No time should be lost in getting out a sea
anchor, which should be part of the equipment of any seaplane flying over
large bodies of water. If no sea anchor is available, a fair substitute may be
rigged from an engine cover, a collapsible bucket, a coat, or even a floor mat. A
bridle of four lines, one from each corner of the anchor, should be used to connect
it to the rope which runs to the airplane. Spreaders, made from anything
available, should be used to keep the anchor extended. Its purpose is to keep
the nose of the ship into the wind and retard its drift as much as possible until
help can arrive.
 Chapter VII.-CROSS-COUNTRY SEAPLANE FLYING

The general rules pertaining to cross-country work, particularly concern

ing methods of navigation, are the same for seaplane or landplane. However,
certain features of seaplane work, such as mooring and securing, call for special
treatment.
In most sections of the country it usually is possible, by flying at a fair
altitude, to keep within gliding distance of some body of water. However, it
should be borne in mind that it always is not possible to determine the nature

is,
of the water from high altitude; that rocks, logs, other obstructions may

be
or
sufficiently numerous landing impossible. might

or
to

make safe difficult

It
a
on

body
be

of

or
in
to

better land level field than water which too small

is
a

a
which has such obstructions as those mentioned.

MOORING AND SECURING

necessary, when traveling cross country with seaplane, spend

to
often
It

is

a
no

the night where there established seaplane base. This means that the
is

ship must
be

on

either left
or
in

the water the beach. Unless there evident

be is
probability very high wind, mooring rather than beach should
of

chosen.
a
a

possible, yacht mooring should always pos

be
If

used since there

is
a

a
sibility, due the type the depth the water, that
an
of

of
or
to

bottom anchor
may drag and allow the ship mooring available,
be

no
If

blown ashore.
to

is

pos
be
of

the conditions the bottom should determined from local residents

if
by

sible. Otherwise, check may dropping the anchor, pulling

be

made
it
a

up again, and endeavoring

of
to

determine the nature the bottom from what

may remain usually will hold quite well.
is on

Mud
or

the anchor. sand

A
In

rocky bottom undependable. any case the slope

of

the anchor line should

The longer the line, the better the holding power
be

of
or

the
in

more.
5
1

anchor.
rigged from the bow mooring cleats on each float and
be

bridle should
A

mooring The stick

or

or

the anchor line attached the bridle. wheel should

to

pushed all the way ahead and lashed securely

be

so

that can move neither

it

fore-and-aft nor sideways. The rudder pedals should

be

lashed neutral.
in

The reason for fastening the wind strikes the elevators,

as

the stick ahead that

is

the tendency push the nose the airplane down. This lessens the angle
of
to
is

the wind;
it of

attack and causes the ship

to

to

at

offer less resistance the same time

prevent the airplane from leaving the water strong gusts. The
to

tends
in

fact that the wind may change during the night should not overlooked, and
be

mooring enough any that the ship

be

far
or

is so

the anchor should from obstacles

may swing completely around circle, the radius
of

equal
to

which the
in
it

length the mooring line. Before leaving the ship for the night, the pilot
of

309
310 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

should be sure that the floats do not leak. The reason for this is obvious. A
seaplane moored as described above should ride out any wind with a velocity
of 10miles less than the landing speed of the airplane.
Sometimes it is possible to moor between two piers. The same procedure
with respect to the controls would be followed as when the ship is tied to a
mooring or anchor. A bridle then may be attached to the bow cleats and
another to the stern cleats, a line from the bow bridle leading to one pier and
another from the stern to the other pier. The ship should be faced into the
wind and enough slack left in the lines to allow for changes in tide. Another
arrangement is to run lines from the wing struts to each pier, provided there
are tie-down rings at the struts or, in the absence of these, that the ends of the
struts are sufficiently rigid to warrant such an attachment. There is little to
choose between the two methods.
If, for any reason, it is necessary to leave the ship on the beach overnight,
it should be tied in the manner described for landplanes, using stakes driven
into the ground. In case of severe winds and as an emergency procedure, the
floats may be filled with water. This will hold the ship in almost any kind
of a blow, but necessitates a laborious job of pumping out the next morning.
When using the beach, consideration also must be given to the tide as the buoy
ancy of the float is usually sufficient to pull tie-down stakes out of the ground.
Furthermore, if the ship is half in and half out of the water, the waves may
bounce it around on the beach and damage the floats as well as the rest of the
Structure.
 Part Five
GENERAL INFORMATION

Chapter
-
I-LOAD FACTOR INFORMATION FOR PILOTS

Studies made by the Civil Aeronautics Authority during 1939 of the civil
airworthiness requirements and of accident records indicated a growing tend.
ency to use small commercial airplanes for violent acrobatics and “stunt”
maneuvers for which they were not originally designed. Although certain
changes in the airworthiness requirements may be necessary to offset this tend
ency (such as the establishment of an “acrobatic” category), it was felt that
much could be done by informing pilots of the strength limits of their airplanes.
The Authority therefore prepared an airworthiness report (No. 10) with
the object of presenting a simple explanation of the basis on which airplane
strength is determined and to show how flight maneuvers should be limited to
avoid structural damage.
Since the report should be of interest and value to pilots all

of
small com
mercial aircraft, particularly student pilots, reprinted this manual. The
in
it
is

the report follows:

of

text

“HOW STRONG SHOULD AN AIRPLANE BE2

“This question confronts every airplane designer and

of

one the most

is
all

its

engineering problems. Because importance from safety

of

byof

difficult
a

standpoint, the question actually answered the Government which sets

is

up minimum strength standards for all commercial airplanes. The Civil Aero
nautics Authority, through its Aircraft Airworthiness Section, insures that
every certificated airplane (usually meaning one with NC license number)
an

meets the minimum strength requirements. Some commercial airplanes eaceed

the required strength, but general the requirements are followed quite closely.
in

Every pilot should knowing something about the manner

be

in

interested
is in
an

which the strength airplane

be
of

of

determined and what can expected the

flight.
in

structure
“Since the Civil Aeronautics Authority interested the promotion and
in
is

development aviation, safety regulation, the airworthiness

of

in
as

as

well
requirements must carefully worked out
be

in
so
as

an as

as

result well
to

efficient
an

safe airplanes. This extremely difficult technical problem

as

efficient
is

airplane must light, while safe airplane must strong. Extra strength
be

be
a

means extra weight, which means reduced payloads. An airplane, unlike

a

311

201073°- -41-- -21

-
312 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

bridge or building, cannot afford to have any excess structural weight beyond
that which is essential for safety.
“In writing the airworthiness requirements which determine the airplane's
strength, the Civil Aeronautics Authority must therefore make every effort to
determine, in advance, the worst loads likely to be put on the airplane during
its lifetime. Here we run into a difficult problem, because the worst possible
loads are much too high to use for efficient design. Any pilot can make a very
hard landing or an extremely abrupt pull-up from a dive, resulting in loads that

fly
might be called abnormal. For that matter, he might even the airplane
ignored entirely

be
brick wall. These abnormal loads must

to
into we are

if
a

off
build airplanes that will take quickly, land slowly, and carry good pay

a
load. But we still have to

to
decide where draw the line between normal and
And, having decided, we must try see that pilots are aware

is in to
abnormal loads.
the fact that abnormal loads are not provided for the design
of

of
most com
mercial airplanes. The purpose this pamphlet of help pilots

to
therefore
understand where the line drawn between these so-called normal and abnormal
is

loads, and up with actual flight maneuvers possible.

as

as
to

connect this much

“HOW ARE DESIGN LOADS DETERMINED2

“Any pilot knows that extremely hard landing may break the landing
an

gear. generally appreciated, however, that hard landing may

so
It

not
is

a
produce hidden damage the landing gear carry
or
in

members which serve

in

to
flight loads. Hidden damage from hard landings may result subsequent

in
the
some part carrying flight loads, even though the airplane
of

failure flown

In is
gently. (This has been repeatedly borne out by accident reports.) view
regarded imperative that the airplane landing gear and all
be
of

this should
as
it

connecting and carry through structure, particularly wing truss structure

by

directly affected landing loads, should subjected rigid inspection after

be

to
a

any abnormally hard landing.

regard landing loads we can now devote
of

“With these words

to

caution
in

the loads produced flight. These are mainly applied

to

our entire attention

in

the wing, the wing that supports the weight the airplane against the
of
as
to

is
it

pull flight
on
In

gravity. all the air pressures acting

of

of

level the net result

the wing upward load just about equal
an

the entire weight the airplane

of
to
is
(it

or

exactly equal there were not air loads acting fuselage

be

on

would tail
if

surfaces). -

engineers adopted simple stating the value

of

“Aeronautical have method

a

the air load acting the wing. Instead giving you this value pounds,
on
of

of

in

they use the term load factor. The load factor simply the ratio between the
is

the wing and the weight the airplane. Thus when the wing
on

of

total air load

we

producing ‘lift' equal twice the weight the airplane, say that the
of
to
is

2. a

load factor Load factors are also used talking about landing conditions,
in
is

the landing gear, instead

on

the wing.
of

which case we deal with the load

In in

hard landing the total load acting upward the wheels may
in be
on

as

much
a

three times the weight the airplane. The landing load factor
of
as

this case
be

We will see later what the actual values of load factors mean
to

would
3.

is,

the pilot, that how they ‘feel.”

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 313

“When an airplane is in flight there

is,
support from the land

no
of
course,
ing gear we must deal entirely with the wing talking about load factors.

as so

in
As soon the airplane has left the ground, the weight the entire airplane

of
by
supported air pressure acting the wings. (Actually this pressure
be

on
must

by
the ground the air we could truthfully say that the

so
to
transmitted
is

weight the airplane really never leaves the ground.) level flight the
of

In
total ‘upward' air load the wings just equals the weight the airplane.

on

of
The load factor for level flight. dive, however,

In
therefore one, vertical
is

a
no

the wings longer have lift the airplane, very

or
so
the load factor 2ero,

to

is
nearly so. We will see later what sort conditions cause load factors greater

of
than one.
“Now designer tells you that his airplane designed load factors,

to
if

is

6
a

means that the wings are designed times the weight

of he

to
load equal

to
take

6
a
the airplane. Usually this means that the wing will break

of
at
load factor

a
the ultimate load factor. This does not mean,
6,

which case we say that

in

is
6

however, that put the airplane flight.

on
to

safe this load structure

in

A
is
it

load factors will usually begin take permanent set dis

or
to
that breaks
at
6

tortion, show other signs considerably lower load factor.

of
or

at
distress

a
The load factor which permanent set begins

to
take place called the
in at

is
yield load factor, the airworthiness requirements. This usually about two

is
thirds of the ultimate load factor. In the above case where the ultimate load
the yield load factor would therefore
be

be
6,
to

factor was assumed

4.
“All commercial airplanes below 2,000 pounds gross weight are required

to
designed ultimate flight load factors (Some airplanes
be

of

this

in
to

least
at

6.

range run high pounds may

be
more.) Above
or
as

as

2,000 the load factor

7

reduced somewhat, but there are practically United States commercial air
no

planes below 4,000 pounds that are designed for ultimate load factors less than
We can therefore use safe starting point discussing load factors
as

in
6.

for small airplanes.

“We have seen already that will give yield
an

of

ultimate load factor

6

To perfectly against any yielding the struc

be
of

of

load factor about safe

4.

ture we should probably allow some more margin depreciation,

of
to

take care
poor workmanship, repairs, etc. On this basis the maximum recommended
operating load factor would usually
be

of

somewhat less than value

A
4.

low enough
be

be

cover almost all cases and will therefore

as
to

would used
a

basis for discussing the operating conditions.

“PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF LOAD FACTOR

A

“From strength standpoint we have seen that load factor simply means
a

another, the latter load being the gross weight

of

of

the ratio the

to

one load
airplane. operating represents flight
of

Thus the recommended load factor

3

the wing three times the weight the air

on

of

condition which the load

in

is

plane. We can now consider how such condition might

be

obtained actual
in
a

flight, and what the pilot.

to

means
it

required hold the airplane up

of

“We know that load factor

in
to

one
is
a

level flight. therefore represents

an
of

or

load factor unbalanced

of A

ezcess
3

load factor What does this do the airplane ard the pilot? As
to
to
2.
314 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

far as the airplane is concerned itacts like any other body subjected to an
“unbalanced’ force—it accelerates in the direction of the force. This means
that it picks up speed in an upward direction. But since the airplane is already
traveling in a horizontal direction, the flight path appears to curve upward.
In general, then, the effect of a load factor is to cause a curved flight path.
“This is more easily seen by working in the other direction and consider
ing what the pilot does when he makes a pull-up. While flying level, he pulls
back on the stick, causing the tail to go down and the angle of the wing to
increase. This increased angle of attack of the wing produces an additional lift,
which causes the airplane to accelerate upward and follow a curved flight path.
“At this point, it might be well to mention that a load factor can also be
thought of as the ratio between a given load and the pull of gravity. Since
the latter is actually measured by the weight of an object (in this case the air
plane), we can see that there is no discrepancy in the two definitions. In fact,

'g'
it is common to speak of a load factor of 3 as 3 ‘g', where the pull

to
refers
gravity. Strictly speaking, ‘g’ refers gravity
of

of
to
the acceleration and
talking about load factors. The acceleration the air
be

of
should not
in

used

e.,
plane, we have seen, depends the net load factor; that part
on

of
as

the

i.
total load factor not being used hold the airplane up.
to

“Another way thinking about load factors

of

as
to
consider them measures is
centrifugal force. We know that load factor greater than one will cause the
of

airplane curved flight path upward direction. We could just

an
in
to

assume
a

representing the centrifugal force re

of

well think
as

as

the excess load factor

quired keep the airplanethis curved path. heavy object
If
in
to

to
we tie

a
a
string and swing arc, the string will have pull harder than
an

did when
of is to
in
it

it
In

the object was aeronautics, the object by the airplane

at

rest. represented
by

and the pull the string replaced the lift the wing. Exactly the same
of

is

physical laws and formulas apply

in

each case.

“CONNECTION BETWEEN LOAD FACTOR AND FLIGHT

MANEUVERS
“Now we can see that whenever the pilot causes the airplane
If to

travel
in
a

path wings. his pull-up

he

an

on

curved imposes ‘excess' load factor the

begins from level flight,
he

starts with one load factor and adds

is to

that the extra

load factors required cause the curved flight path. But diving verti
he
to

if

cally before the pull-up, the load factor approximately

he

starts with
as

zero,
is

wing longer lifting airplane. Similarly, perfectly

be
no

the will the circular

a

loop done constant speed would require constant centrifugal force

of at

to

hold
a

the radius curvature. Assume that this centrifugal force represented by

is

Then the pilot would have apply

of

of

at

load factor load factor the

to
2.

or 3
a

beginning loop (airplane horizontal), going straight up

of

the when down

2

is,

on either side, and one when the top (airplane inverted). This variation
at

course, due the ever-present pull gravity which acts away from the
of

of
to

the bottom, tangent the sides, and toward

of

at

to

at

center the circle the circle

the center when the airplane the top. (See figure 131.)
at
is
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 315

“LOAD FACTORS IN STEEP TURNS

“A banked turn is no exception to the above rule. If
we ‘look down on top'
of this maneuver we can see that the airplane is going in a circle and that there
must be a ‘horizontal’ force acting toward the center of this circle (representing
the hypothetical string'). Looking straight at the airplane (fig. 132) we can
see that this force is produced by the wing, which has been banked for this
purpose. In a perfect bank the wing will have just the right slant to produce
the required centrifugal force and also the vertical force required to overcome
the pull of gravity, as shown in figure 132. In this figure it is assumed that a
load factor of 2 is required to hold the radius of the turn. The wing load factor
must then be great enough to offset both the 2 (centrifugal) and the one (grav
ity). This works out to an actual load factor of 2.24 in this case, which
represents an angle of bank of about 63°.
“The load factors required to hold a given angle of bank without slipping
or “squashing’ are given in the following table:

“TABLE I.—LOAD FACTORS IN STEEP TURNS

“Table I
reveals an interesting fact, which is that it requires an angle of
bank of about 70° to produce the load factor of 3 previously referred to as a

→
safe value for any small airplane. This
º...” Example
*::::::: degree of bank is usually considered “ver
-o- l tical’ bank and should be regarded as the
lo -or 1.01
upper limit for small commercial airplanes.
...~ 1.06 r -
20
30 … 1.16
Note that the load factor increases very
40 24. 1.81 rapidly as an angle of 70° is exceeded.
50 * A. 1.56 “The values given in table I are based on
the assumption that all the lift is derived
60 * A. **
70 m 2.92
Á from the wings. It is possible to make a
60 m | 6.75
true vertical bank without exceeding safe
so. " }
Infinity load-factor values if enough lift can be
obtained from the fuselage and propeller
pull to balance pull of gravity. This is usually impossible with a small
the
low-powered airplane. Pilots should therefore attempt to hold the angle of
bank to less than 70° in steep turns, in order to avoid any possibility of exceeding
a safe load factor.
“LOAD FACTORS IN PULL-UPS

“An abrupt pull-up at high speed is by far the most likely maneuver to
cause structural trouble. At any speed much greater than about twice the
stalling speed, the pilot has it within his power to pull the wings off of almost
any airplane. No matter how strong the designer makes the airplane, there
will always be some speed above which the pilot can break the wings in an
abrupt pull-up. The only exceptions to this would be when the airplane was so
strong that the pilot “passed out' first (as in some military types) or when the
designer deliberately incorporated some special means of limiting the pull-up.
The latter method has not been used to any extent and there is probably no
commercial airplane in this country that could safely permit the pilot to pull
up to load factors at which he would “go black.’
 /! tº
316 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

"
T
-- º
(A) LOAD
*: º NL
TO GRAVITY
(B) LOAD FACTORS.
OVERCOME
REQUIRED
CENTRIFUGAL
TO
FORCE

tº-2

"(C) LOAD
PRODUCED
CASE A )
FACTORS
BY
.THAT
WING
MUST
(CASE
"
B
BE
MINUS

Figure 131.-Load factors in “perfect” loop at constant speed.

n="Wºt 2* = 2.24

2 (CENTRIFUGAL)
>

I (GRAVITY)

Figure 132.-Load factors in speed turn.

 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 317

“Practically all cases of structural failures in flight are caused by too abrupt
pull-ups at high speeds. It is therefore important to know two things: (1) At
what speed do abrupt pull-ups become dangerous and (2) how hard a pull-up
can be made with safety at speeds above this value. The answer to the first
question is relatively simple. As a rough approximation we can say that the
maximum safe speed for abrupt pull-ups is about twice the normal stalling speed
(‘normal' meaning at design gross weight). To be perfectly safe it would
probably be advisable to confine violent maneuvers to speeds even lower than
this.
“The limiting speed for abrupt maneuvers might, for convenience, be called
the MANEUVERING speed. The reason why such a speed exists is that the
wing will stall if the pilot tries to produce a high load factor at a relatively
low speed. The stalling speed usually referred to is the stalling speed at a load
is,

factor of one, that level flight. But higher load factors the stalling speed

at
also higher. The increase proportional the square root

of
to
the load factor.
is
is

Thus four, stalling

to
we raise the load factor from one speed increased
if

the

is
by the square root four, which course means that the normal stalling speed
if of

of

doubled. Thus we are flying twice the normal stalling speed we can
of at
is

theoretically pull-up higher.

no
4,

4,
If
to

to
load factor but we tried exceed
a

wing would stall. This happens pilot

to
the what tries make steep
the
if
is

a
turn with insufficient speed: The wing will stall before the necessary load factor
mini
In

developed. possible
be

to

to
can fact use table determine the
is
it

mum speed required for given angle bank, simply I by

taking the square root
of
a

the load factors given See table II.

of

that table.
in

“TABLE II—MINIMUM SPEED FOR BANKED TURNS

Actual stalling
on

Angle Percent increase speed based

wings
of

normal stalling 50 miles per

in

to horizontal
speed hour normal
stalling speed

Degrees Miles per hour

50
0
0

10 51
0 0 4 0 4 0 0 5

20 52
7. 3.

30 54
40 14. 57
50 25. 62
60 41. 71
70 71. 85
80 240. 120
90 Infinity Infinity
|
|

“In table indicate how the actual stalling

II

to

column has been added

a

normal stalling speed

an

50

vary airplane having miles per

of

speed will for

be a

85

properly
at

hour. Note that 70° bank cannot made speed below

a
a

miles per hour.

318 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

“These examples are given to show how the load factor is directly connected
with flight maneuvers of various kinds. Going back to the pull-up, we can see
that there will be no danger as long as the speed is held below the so-called
MANEUVERING speed. Since this speed is actually the stalling speed corre
sponding to the maximum safe load factor, we can easily calculate it by taking
the square root of that load factor. Thus for a load factor of 3, the MANEU
VERING speed would be the square root 3, or 1.73 times the normal stalling
of
speed. If the latter were 40 miles per hour, the maneuvering speed would be
40× 1.73 or about 69 miles per hour. As a rough guide we can therefore say
that maneuvers involving sharp pull-ups (such as the snap roll) should be per
formed at speeds below about 70 miles per hour, for the average small airplane.
At higher speeds the pilot must depend on his physical sensations to tell him
what load factor he is getting. We can now discuss what load factors mean to
the pilot in terms of physical sensation.

“MEASURING LOAD FACTORS

can be measured by an instrument or estimated from their
“Load factors
effect on the body. The instrument used is an accelerometer, which indicates
load factor directly. This instrument sometimes has a maximum-reading
needle, which will tell the pilot what maximum load factor he produced in a
maneuver. Accelerometers are not in common use on small commercial air
planes, but they are valuable as a means of familiarizing pilots with load factors
of various magnitude. If
an accelerometer is used to a considerable extent
during the training period, the pilot will tend to develop an instinctive feeling
for load factors. In fact, the accelerometer can even be used as an aid in
flight training, if the pilot understands the true significance of load factors.
Racing pilots, for instance, have found the instrument
- useful in maintaining a
constant radius of turn around a pylon.
“If no accelerometer is available, the pilot must rely on his own good
judgment and physical sensations, when making pull-ups at speeds greater
than the MANEUVERING SPEED. It should be noted that the ‘feel?
of load factor will depend very much on the time of application.
a Pilots can
withstand load factors as high as 9 or 10 if they are only briefly applied. But
if the load factor is sustained for several seconds it is difficult to stand more
than 4 or 5. At any rate, pilots of small commercial airplanes evidently can
not expect to pull up to the maximum load factor they can stand, if they
want the wings to stay on. Unless a special airplane is used (such as a military
or acrobatic type) the pilot will have to try to stay below a load factor of about
3, or 4 at the most, when making pull-ups.
“It may be of interest to realize that a load factor of 3 can be obtained in
any type of swing or pendulum device, simply by starting from a horizontal
position. In this case the factor of 3 acts only at the very bottom of the
swing. If the start is made from the “top” (as in the gadgets often found at
amusement parks) a load factor of 5 is developed at the bottom of the circle.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 319

“FLIGHT MANEUVERS

“Practically any flight maneuver can be accomplished by a skillful pilot

without exceeding a load factor of 3. The only rule necessary to remember
is to make pull-ups gradually. If a sharp pull-up is desired, as in a snap roll,
the speed should first be reduced to not more than approximately 70 miles per
hour depending on the airplane in question. A snap roll from high speed or a
steep dive is almost sure to cause excessive load factors, as the maneuver neces
sitates stalling the wing, which in turn requires a high load factor at high
speeds. -

“Normal loops are not dangerous if properly performed. Here again the
rule to make pull-ups gradually will avoid undue loads on the structure. Low
powered airplanes are likely to be subjected to higher load factors in loops,
due to the necessity of diving to a high speed and then performing the maneu
ver rapidly. Likewise, the student pilot often has a tendency to pull out
of the loop too rapidly after its completion. It should be noted here that no
commercial airplane is designed for inverted loops. This maneuver should
therefore never be eacecuted in commercial aircraft. (It would require design
load factors of the same order as those used for pursuit airplanes if we were to
provide for this maneuver and still maintain an adequate factor of safety.)
“Tail slides often result from incompleted loops or whip stalls and can
cause considerable damage to the structure. Airplanes are not designed to be
flown backwards and damage of ribs or rear lift bracing is almost sure to result
from a tail slide of 100 feet or more. Proper instruction should eliminate the
possibility of a bad tail slide, as the airplane can easily be righted before gaining
any appreciable speed.
“Spins are not dangerous structurally, but proper precautions should be
taken against abrupt pull-ups in recovering from a spin, as the speed is likely
to be above the safe ‘maneuvering” speed.
“Dives should not be made to excessive speeds, as this increases the danger
of making too severe a pull-out. At very high diving speeds there is also
more danger of flutter. The ‘NEVER EXCEED' speed on the placard of
every certificated airplane represents the absolute upper limit for which the
airplane has been analyzed and tested. Although the airplane may be good
for higher speeds, its airworthiness at such speeds has not been established
and is therefore highly questionable. Exceeding the maximum placard speed
is therefore to be considered as a violation of the principles of safe operation.
At any speed in this region, in fact, the pilot will have to be extremely careful,
as it is an easy matter to produce a dangerous load factor by a slight movement
of the elevator control.
“GUSTS

“All certificated airplanesare designed to take the loads imposed by gusts

of considerable intensity. Gust load factors increase with increasing air speed
and the value used in design usually corresponds to the high speed in level
flight. In extremely rough air the safest procedure is to reduce the speed to
the “maneuvering speed, as it is then impossible for gusts to produce dangerous
 320 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

load factors. Several accidents have occurred due to diving to high speeds
in rough air. As a general rule, the rougher the weather, the slower the airplane
should be flown.
- “WEIGHT

“Any airplane designed for a certain load factor at gross weight can safely
withstand higher load factors at reduced weight. All of the foregoing rules
are based on the assumption that the airplane is loaded to the maximum gross
weight. If
overloaded, the allowable load factors will be reduced accordingly
and the pilot is likely to damage the structure in maneuvers that would normally
be quite safe.
“On the other hand, if
the weight can be reduced 25 percent, for example,
the allowable load factors are correspondingly increased. The maximum
recommended value of 3 would then become 4 (although the ‘maneuvering speed”
would remain about the same). Two rules can be derived from this fact:
“(1) Never overload the airplane.
“(2) Always fly as light as possible when performing acrobatics.
“The second rule may explain why many light airplanes seem to be capable
of withstanding very severe maneuvers. When lightly loaded, the pilot can
“get away” with a lot of stunts that would be decidedly dangerous with a
full load. Therefore, don’t load your friends in your airplane, with a full gas
load, some baggage in the compartment, and parachutes all around, and pro
its

ceed to put the airplane through you do, the parachutes will
If
paces.
probably
be

necessary
!

“SUMMARY

“(a) Become familiar with load factors.

“(b) Don't make abrupt pull-ups high speeds.
at
70

“(a) Keep the speed below miles per hour for snap rolls and abrupt
pull-ups.
“(d) Don’t let the airplane make “tail slides.”
“(e) Slow down rough air.
in

“(f) Fly light when doing acrobatics.

“(g) Don’t make banks over 70°.
“(h) Never attempt inverted loops.”
The Civil Aeronautics Administration will glad answer any questions
be

to

United States commercial airplanes.

of

that concern the airworthiness

 Chapter II.-ENGINE IDLING AND CARBURETOR HEAT

During 1940 the Civil Aeronautics Administration received over 130 reports
of engine stoppage while idling in flight, involving all types of aircraft equipped
with 4-cylinder horizontal-opposed engines or from 40 to 80 horsepower. In
most of these reports the pilots stated that it was possible to restart the engine
in flight. Forced landings therefore resulted and personal injuries occurred
in some of the cases. Undoubtedly the reports received do not represent all
of the instances of this type of trouble. It is also known that there have been
other cases of engines stopping which have not been reported since the engines
turned freely enough to start themselves again in flight.
The Administration is taking steps with the manufacturers concerned to
obtain design improvements in new aircraft engines and their installations
which will tend to eliminate these difficulties. Some of these changes un
doubtedly can be applied to the power-plant installations of aircraft already
in use.
It is well known that the amount an engine cools off or loads up in flight
depends a good deal upon pilot-operating technique. The pilots have indi
cated in some of the reports received that the engine was neglected for long
periods of time. It is therefore logical to expect that the recent increase in
flying activity has caused a corresponding increase in experience of this kind.
However, it has been found that idling difficulty occurs more frequently under
operating conditions which can be controlled and improved.
Certain measures have been found helpful by the Civil Aeronautics Ad
ministration in correcting unsatisfactory idling conditions. These measures
are based upon an extensive investigation of the reports received, and include
the recommendations of the aircraft, engine, and carburetor manufacturers in
volved. The Aircraft Airworthiness Section has prepared a release contain
ing suggestions for the operation of aircraft under idling conditions. The text
of the release follows:

“Slow Idling Is Dangerous

“An idling adjustment resulting in an even slow speed on the ground is

not a sufficient precaution to prevent difficulty in flight. Carburetor operation
is affected by cold air, humidity, rain, angle of flights, bumps, and maneuvers.
It is therefore necessary that the idling speed be sufficiently fast to allow for
these variations. Ground idling speeds for engines of this type should not
be set to less than 550 revolutions per minute. Engines with ratings in excess
of 2,700 revolutions per minute should be set proportionately higher. The car
buretor heat should be “off” when setting idling speeds in summer and “on” when
setting them in winter. The engine should be thoroughly warm with the
321
322 |U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

cockpit mixture control, if installed, in the full rich position. Excessive idling
speeds should be avoided since the gliding angle is flattened to a point where
spot landings become difficult.

“Check Idling Speeds Frequently

“The idling speed usually tends to reduce due to wear in the throttle set
screw adjustment and operating time of the engine.
“In setting the idling speed of an engine of this type, set the throttle stop
screw for the desired speed and move the idling mixture adjustment until even
operation and the fastest speed is obtained. Next, slightly enrich the idling
mixture adjustment and reset the throttle stop screw for the desired speed.
Then move the throttle open and closed several times to determine that no
change in the idling speed results.

“Gun Your Engine During Glides

“An engine appreciates attention during a glide. Wherever possible,

except during final approaches to landings and when practicing landings, it
is advisable to operate at part throttle, instead of at closed throttle, in order
to keep an engine warm and clear. Very little power is produced by part
throttle positions since it takes at least one half of the rated revolutions per
minute to produce one-eighth of the rated power. To keep an engine ready
for use the throttle should be kept closed only for short intervals during flight.
For example, after each maneuver such as a stall or spin the engine should
be thoroughly warmed up and cleared out. In a prolonged glide the throttle
should be gradually opened a sufficient amount to clear the engine at least every
250 feet of altitude lost or about every 20 seconds. In gliding for a landing
it is also advisable to clear the engine when crossing the boundary of the field
so as to make sure that it will be available for use at the time of landing. To
clear an engine it is necessary only to open the throttle to between the one
third and one-half open position. It need only be left there for a short period
to clear the spark plugs and develop heat in the intake system.
“A rapid opening of the throttle should be avoided with these engines
since the carburetors are not equipped with an accelerating pump. The rapid
opening of the throttle produces a momentary lean mixture which may cause
engine stoppage if the engine is cool. Pilots should make it a habit to ease the
throttle forward until the engine picks up speed before pushing it wide open.

“Your Carburetor Likes Heat

“Make it a rule to turn on your carburetor heat before closing your throttle.
An engine needs heat during any extended idling operation during glides. The
carburetor heater-control should therefore be moved to the ‘full-on’ position
prior to closing the throttle for a landing or prior to a closed throttle maneuver
in flight in any outside air temperature. To avoid icing and idling difficulties
use full heat all of the time when the ground temperature is 50° F. or below.
If desired it is satisfactory to disconnect or secure the heat control and operate
the airplane with the heat in the ‘full-on' position if there is no likelihood of
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 323

the airplane's encountering higher temperatures during the winter months.

This applies particularly to tandem airplanes where the heat control is not
readily accessible from the rear seat. Full heat should also be used when high
humidity or rain is present in outside air temperatures of 70° or less. Indi
cations of high humidity are visible moisture, fog, cloud, or damp air. Loss in
nevolutions per minute is usually the first indication of icing. loss of revo If
lutions per minute is experienced from this cause, apply full heat immediately.
Part open positions of the heater control are of little value in installations on
aircraft of 40 to 80 horsepower since it is impossible to judge whether an ade
quate amount of heat is turned on. In most cases little heat is added to the
intake system until the valve is almost in the full hot position.
“There is a hazard involved in the use of intake heat, however, which should
not be disregarded. In view of the adverse effect upon the performance of
the airplane, heat should be used with caution during take-offs in outside
temperatures above 50° F. To get ample performance from your airplane for
take-off it may be necessary to take off in dry air with the heat control ‘full
cold' when the ground temperature is less than 50°. This applies particularly
to the 40- and 50-horsepower installations. When adequate take-off space is
available full heat can be used, when it is needed, in air temperature up to 70°.
Full heat should not be used for take-off in temperatures above 70° F. unless
the operating procedure for the particular model airplane requires

it.
“Keep Your Carburetor Idling System Clear

“A number reports have been received concerning erratic idling caused

of

the idling jet

or
by the air bleed the carburetor being clogged with dirt
on in
to

bugs. This trouble noticeable the ground since the engine will either fail
is

idle unevenly. To correct this condition the idling passages should

or
be to

idle
increase the idling speed
no
In

the engine
of
to

to
cleaned. case safe
it
is

compensate for this difficulty. Steps have been taken with the carburetor
permanent solution this difficulty. The Marvel
to

to

manufacturers obtain
to a

adaptable idling
an
of

It

carburetor the use air bleed screen. believed

is

is

that less frequent inspections the idling system will required when such
be
of

installed. Since trouble with the air-bleed clogging depends upon

is

screen
landing important that owners
of

of

the nature the surfaces used, aircraft

it
is

equipped with Marvel carburetors who need this protection obtain the screen
Carburetor Division, Flint, Mich., their authorized
or

from the Marvel-Schebler

service stations.
“Other Sources of Idling Trouble

“Any fuel air leak into the carburetor induction system will cause
or

or

idling difficulties. To prevent this, engine primers should

or be
be

shut off and

leak-tight. At all times flight the primer should
be
in

in

locked the “off”

the “in” position. The intake pipes and intake pipe connections should
be

care
fully examined tight
no

clamps leakage
of
to

determine that the are and sources

are present. Carburetor-flange attachment bolts should kept tight
be

to

avoid
this point
its

leakage between the carburetor and mounting flange.

at

Gaskets
324 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

should be renewed each time the carburetor is detached. The gasket when
installed should not extend beyond the edge of the carburetor barrel.
“An air leak through the throttle shaft bushings can cause erratic idling.
This results from wear conditions and is normally corrected at the time of the
engine overhaul. Check your throttle shaft bushings for wear. If any appre
ciable looseness or shake is felt the bushings should be replaced.

“It Takes Only a Small Quantity of Water To Stop an Idling Engine

“Water present in fuel which has not affected the normal operation of an
engine may still stop the engine when the throttle is closed. Be water con
scious. Check your fuel system strainer daily for the presence of water and
watch the source of the fuel put in your tanks.
“Put your cockpit mixture control in the full rich position before closing
the throttle. Engines of the type under consideration do not require any use
of the cockpit mixture control under 5,000-foot altitude. The control, if your
airplane is so equipped, should therefore be left full rich except when flying
above this altitude. Make it a habit to check the position of the mixture con
trol and push it to the full rich position before you close the throttle in flight.
“Thoroughly warm up your engine before take-off. A cold engine may
operate at take-off power but is liable to stop when the throttle is closed.

“A Stuck or Leaking Carburetor Float May Cause Idling Failures

“Any indication of engine roughness inthe idling range or a leaking car
buretor may mean that your carburetor float is not functioning properly.

“Exhaust Manifold Leaks Affect Idling

“Uneven idling may be produced by loose connections in the exhaust system.

“Fuels and Oils Affect Idling

“Poor idling operation often results from the use of fuels or oils not recom
mended by the engine manufacturer. Use only aviation gasoline. No aircraft
engines are at present approved for use with automobile gasoline.

“Ignition

“Idling difficulties are aggravated by ignition trouble. Bad or dirty spark

plugs, burned or sticking ignition points, and old ignition wire cause difficulty.
Only use spark plug models and gap settings recommended for each engine
model by the engine manufacturer. When ignition trouble is suspected, the
magneto should also be checked for spark intensity.

“Winter Operation

“In preparing an airplane of the 40- to 80-horsepower type for winter

operation, better idling characteristics and higher oil temperatures are obtain
able if the front opening in the cowling for crankcase cooling is temporarily
closed during cold weather operation. In most cases the manufacturer has
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 325

available suitable plates for this purpose. It is also permissible to cover the
opening with doped fabric. The opening should be uncovered when opera
tion in warm air temperatures is contemplated. In extremely cold weather it
may be necessary to lag the intake manifolds and oil tank.

“Summary
“IDLING SPEED SETTING
(1) Set not less than 550 revolutions per minute. (Avoid settings as high
as 700 revolutions per minute.)
(2) Check idling speed frequently for any change.
“GUNNING ENGINE
(1) Avoid prolonged closed throttle operation.
(2) Gun engine every 250 feet altitude or every 20 seconds (in glides).
(3) Open throttle gradually.
“USE OF CARBURETOR HEAT
(1) Use full heat for 50° F. or below.
(2) Use full heat for 70°F. or below if high humidity or rain present.
(3) Heat affects performance, so use it cautiously.
(4) Heat not required above 70°F. except with certain airplanes.
“CARBURETOR IDLING SYSTEM
1. Erratic idling may mean clogged idling system.
2. Clean idling passages if engine fails to idle or idles unevenly.
“IGNITION SYSTEM
1. Irregular idling may be caused by a faulty ignition system.
2. Check ignition points for burning or sticking.
3. Use only recommended spark plugs with proper gap settings.
“IMPROPER IDLING IN FLIGHT CAN BE CAUSED BY
1. Engine cooling off.
. Slow idling.
. Loading-up in glide.
. Burned or sticking ignition points.
. Lack of heat in the carburetor intake system.
. High humidity or rain.
. Air bleed closed in idling jet.
. Fuel or air leak in carburetor induction system.
. Water or sediment in fuel.
10. Mixture control not full-rich.
11. Improper warm-up.
12. Stuck float or leaking carburetor.
13. Exhaust manifold leaks.
14. Improper fuels or oils.
15. Improper spark plugs and gap settings and leaking ignition harness.
16. Lack of winter protection measures such as closing cowling openings.
“Warning.—An engine which is idling improperly from any of the above
in throttle-flight maneuvers or when the throttle is
causes is liable to stop
-
opened too suddenly.”
 Chapter III.-AXIOMS FOR THE PILOT

Actual records show that many nonairline accidents which have occurred
in the past could have been avoided if the pilot involved had recognized and
followed a few old rules so fundamental that they have been accepted by the
flying profession as axioms.
The student should learn and remember these rules:
“KEEP THAT NOSE DOWN.”—This probably is the oldest and most
all

safety warnings. Today full meaning

of
familiar of

as

as
when was

it
is

it
first uttered, for pilots still stall and spin in. They still fly nose high. Adher
this rule would prevent many otherwise avoidable accidents.
to

ence
POWER-OFF TURNS, LOWER THE NOSE BELOW
“DURING
THE ANGLE NECESSARY IN NORMAL GLIDE.”—This specific
A

is
a
“KEEP THAT NOSE DOWN’’ warning, and following will prevent stall

it
-
accidents.
“FLAT TURNS INVITE STALLS AND SPINS.”—The ailerons are
incorporated airplane design for definite reason. Use them.
A in

“KEEP GOOD MARGIN ABOVE STALLING SPEED WHEN

FLYING IN GUSTY AIR.”—This, particularly important
of

course,
is
a

warning when flying

at

low altitudes.
“DO NOT BE FOOLED BY THE INCREASE IN GROUND SPEED
RESULTING FROM DOWN-WIND TURN.”—Always maintain sufficient
A

speed, and this means AIR SPEED.

“MAINTAIN SAFE MARGIN OF ALTITUDE WHEN FLYING
A

OVER MOUNTAINOUS REGION, PARTICULARLY IN LOW-POW

A

ERED AIRCRAFT.”—There always danger

of

down-drafts from which

is

recovery cannot the ship the ground.

be

to

time
in

if

made close
is

“ACROBATICS STARTED NEAR THE GROUND MAY BE COM

PLETED FEET UNDER THE GROUND.”—The Civil Air Regulations
6

In

say stay above 1,500 feet. safety.

to

altitude there
is

“WHEN THE ENGINE QUITS ON THE TAKE-OFF, LAND

STRAIGHT AHEAD.”—Failure follow this rule has resulted many
to

in

fatalities.
“CHECK YOUR GAS BEFORE EACH TAKE-OFF AND ANTICI
PATE AN AMPLE MARGIN OF SAFETY.”—The ship designed
to
is

operate safely when the engine delivering certain minimum power.

A
is

misbehaving engine cannot deliver this required power consistently, and,

furthermore, there always the danger failing completely.
of
it
is

“LOCAL TRAFFIC REGULATIONS ARE DESIGNED TO SAFE

GUARD FLYING.”—Give the pilots other planes break by following
of

that they will know what you are going

so

the rules do.

to

326
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 327

“INSTRUMENT FILYING DURING ADVERSE WEATHER CON

DITIONS SHOULD BE ATTEMPTED ONLY BY THOSE ADE
QUATELY TRAINED IN THIS TYPE OF FLYING.”—Instrument flying
is a science.It has been developed to a high state of perfection. Don't try
to be a pioneer. Fortunately, you can be taught instrument flying by a com
petent instructor without undergoing the hazards incident to pioneering.
“SAFETY BELTS ON AIRCRAFT ARE INSTALLED FOR USE.”—
Remember, even a slight ground accident may cause injuries if your belt is
unfastened.
“BE CERTAIN–%I THINK I CAN MAKE IT' BELONGS IN THE
LIST OF FAMOUS LAST WORDS.”—In flying you cannot afford to make
mistakes.
“DON'T TRY TO FILY BEFORE YOU HAVE HAD INSTRUC
TION.”—This may seem an absurdly obvious bit of advice, yet among the
records of serious accidents are many that resulted from the fact that the indi
viduals concerned did not believe they needed instruction but simply went
ahead and tried to fly.
“CHECK MOVEMENT OF ALL CONTROLS BEFORE TAKING
OFF.”—Many fatal accidents have occurred as a result of controls being locked
or operating in the wrong direction.
ALWAYS REMEMBER—THE GOOD PILOT IS THE SAFE PILOT.

201073°–41—22
 Chapter IV.-FIRE IN THE AIR

While in modern aircraft this is an emergency which seldom occurs,

nevertheless its possibility must be considered, and some thought given to the
procedure to be followed in case it happens.
In general, there are only three sources of fire while the aircraft is in flight:
Trouble of some sort in the engine compartment, a short in the electrical

is,
system, and careless Smoking.

of
The last course, inexcusable.
If

engine compartment, the first step

to
the fire occurs the shut off
in

is
gasoline, use up the fuel which remains
is on
to in
the but leave the switch order

to
pull the release valve the pressure

of
the carburetor. The next step
in

fire extinguisher, the ship equipped. this puts the fire out, the

If
so
if

is

again, and the flight continued.

on
throttle may
be

closed, the fuel turned

If, however, there put the fire
be no

pressure fire extinguisher, fails

or

to
if
it
is

out, the ship should put into nose-high side slip the side which will

to
a

If
keep the flames away from the occupants and the fuel tanks. this
to

tend
procedure ineffective, the only recourse left parachute.
to
use the
is

is
If

the battery compartment, poor con

of
as
the fire occurs result
in

a
or

substituting fuse (something which should

of

of

nection piece wire for

a

done under any circumstances), the master switch should pulled.

be

be
not
If

battery compartment firewall, pressure fire extin

of

the forward the the

is

be or

guisher may the compartment near the cockpit,

be

If

used. located under

If is

the hand extinguisher may extinguished by

be

effective. the fire cannot

these methods, the procedure outlined for the first case must

be
of

either
followed.
smoking, probably will
be
If

of
as

the fire occurs result the rear

in
it
a

portion
In

the fuselage. this case, the hand fire extinguisher may

be
of

used
If,
by

successfully. however, the fire cannot extinguished the hand extin

be

guisher, obviously landing should quickly possible.

be

as

as

made
a

thought will show that fire from any

of

little the three sources mentioned

A

almost invariably Accordingly, may

be
to

due someone's carelessness.

is

it
let

said that the best way the air happen

in
to

to

combat fire not the

in
is

it

first place.
328
 A PP E N DIX

GLOSSARY OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS

The following definitions are from N. A. C. A. (National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics), Report No. 474, entitled NoMENCLATURE FOR AERONAUTICS.

Aeronautics.-The science and art of flight. Attitude.-The position of an aircraft as

Aileron.-A hingedor movable portion of determined by the inclination of its axes
an airplane wing, the primary function of to Some frame of reference. If not other
which is to impress a rolling motion on the wise specified, this frame of reference is
airplane. It usually is part of the trail fixed to the earth.
ing edge of a wing. Attitude of flight.-Inclination of the 3
Airfoil.-Any surface, such as an airplane principal airplane axes to the relative
wing, aileron, or rudder, designed to wind.
obtain reaction from the air through which Axes of an aircraft.-Three fixed lines of
it moves. reference, usually centroidal and mutually
Airplane.-A mechanically driven fixed perpendicular. The horizontal axis in
wing aircraft, heavier than air, which is the plane of symmetry, usually parallel to
supported by the dynamic reaction of the the axis of the propeller, is called the
air against its wings: longitudinal axis: the axis perpendicular
Pusher airplane.-An airplane with the to this in the plane of symmetryis called
propeller or propellers aft of the main the normal axis; and the third axis per
supporting surfaces. pendicular to the other two is called the
Tractor airplane.-An airplane With lateral axis.
propeller or propellers forward of the Balance.—A condition of steady flight in
main supporting surfaces. which the resultant force and moment on
Airport.—A tract of land or Water which is the airplane are zero.
adapted for the landing and take-off of Bank.-(a) The position of an airplane
aircraft and which provides facilities for when its lateral axis is inclined to the hori
their shelter, supply, and repair; a place zontal. A right bank is the position with
used regularly for receiving or discharging the lateral axis inclined downward to the
passengers or cargo by air. right, (b) To incline an airplane laterally;
Air speed.—The speed of an aircraft rela i. e., to rotate it about its longitudinal
tive to the air. axis.
Airway.-An air route along which aids to Beacon.—A light, group of lights, or other
air navigation, such as landing fields, signaling device, indicating a location or
beacon lights, radio direction-finding facili direction.
ties, intermediate fields, etc., are main Biplane.—An airplane with 2 main support
tained. ing surfaces placed one above the other.
Airworthiness.-The quality of an aircraft Canopy, parachute.—The main supporting
denoting its fitness and safety for opera surface of a parachute.
tion in the air under normal flying condi Ceiling (absolute).-The maximum height
tions. above sea level at whicha given airplane
Altimeter.—An instrument that measures would be able to maintain horizontal
the elevation of an aircraft above a given flight under standard air conditions.
datum plane. Center section.—The central panel of a
Altitude (absolute).-The height of an air wing. In the case of a continuous wing
craft above the earth. or any wing having no central panel, the
329
330 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Center section—Continued. safety—Continued.

of
Factor
limits of the center section are arbitrarily probable safety, which

of
minimum factor
defined by the location of points of attach the ratio of the ultimate load to the

is
ment to the cabane Struts or fuselage. probable maximum applied load.
Cockpit.—An open space in an airplane for Fin.—A fixed adjustable airfoil, attached

or
the accommodation of pilots or passen an aircraft approximately parallel

to

to
gers. When enclosed completely, such a the plane symmetry, afford direc

of

to
Space usually is called a cabin.
tional stability; for example, tail fin, skid
Compass: fin, etc.
Card (or card magnetic compass).-A Flight path.-The flight path

of
the center
magnetic compass in which the mag
of gravity of an aircraft with reference

to
nets are attached to a pivoted card on
the earth, or with reference frame

to
a
Which the directions are marked.
fixed relative to the air.
Earth-inductor (or induction) com
Float.—A completely enclosed watertight
pass.-A compass the indications of
structure attached an aircraft give

to

to
which depend on the current gener
buoyancy and Stability when in contact

it
ated in a coil revolving in the earth's
With Water.
magnetic field.
Fuselage.—The body, approximately

of
Control column.-A lever having a rotata
streamline form, which the wings and

to
ble wheel at its upper end for
mounted
an airplane are attached.

of
operating the longitudinal and lateral tail unit
control surfaces of an airplane. This type normal angle

of
Glide.—To descend at

a
Of control is called “wheel control.” attack with little or no thrust.
Controllability.—The quality of an aircraft Ground loop.–An uncontrollable violent
an airplane while taxiing, during
of
that determines the ease of operating its turn

or
controls and/or the effectiveness of dis the landing or take-off run.
placement of the controls in producing Horsepower an engine, rated.—The aver
of

change in its attitude in flight. age horsepower developed by given

a
Controls.--A general term applied to the type engine at the rated speed when
of

means provided to enable the pilot to operating at full throttle, or at specified

a
control the speed, direction of flight, altitude or manifold pressure.
attitude, power, etc., of an aircraft. Landing.—The act terminating flight
is of

in
Control stick.-The vertical lever by means which the aircraft descend, lose
to
made
of which the longitudinal and lateral con flying speed, establish contact with the
trol surfaces of an airplane are operated. ground, and finally come rest:
to

The elevator is operated by a fore-and-aft Normal (or 3-point) landing.—A land

movement of the stick; the ailerons, by a ing which path tangential
in

to
the
a

Side-to-Side movement. landing surface and the loss flying

in

Control surface.—A movable airfoil de Speed are attained at approximately

Signed to be rotatedor otherwise moved the instant of contact.
by the pilot in order to change the attitude Pancake landing.—A landing which
in

Of the aircraft. the leveling-off process carried out

is

Dive.—A steep descent, with or without Several feet above the ground, as
a

power, in which the air speed is greater result of which the airplane settles
than the maximum speed in horizontal rapidly on steep flight path
in
a
a
...

flight. normal attitude.

•

Downwash.-The air deflected perpendicu Landing area, effective.-The portion

of

the
lar to the direction of motion of an airfoil. landing area, with approaches clear
Drag.—The component within the allowable safe climbing and
of

the total air force

body parallel the relative wind. gliding angle, available for the take-off
to

on
a

Elevator.—A movable auxiliary airfoil, the and landing

of

aircraft.
impress pitching Landing gear.-The understructure which
of

function which
to
is

moment on the aircraft. usually supports the weight of an aircraft when

It

is

hinged the stabilizer. in COntact With the land Or Water and

of to

Factor safety (stress analysis).-The which usually contains mechanism for

a

ratio of the ultimate load any applied reducing the shock of landing. Also
to

This term usually refers called “undercarriage.”

to

load. the
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 331

Landplane.—An airplane designed to rise Load factor—Continued.

from and alight on the land. what load is being compared with the
Leading edge.—The foremost edge of an- basic load. If the context does not So
airfoil or propeller blade. indicate, the load factor usually is the
Level-off.--To make the flight path of an ratio of the design load to the weight of
airplane horizontal after a climb, glide, or the airplane.
dive. Longeron.—A principal longitudinal mem
Lift (dynamic).-The component of the ber of the framing of an airplane fuselage
total aerodynamic force on a body per or nacelle, usually continuous across a
pendicular to the relative wind.
number of points of support.
Load:
Maneuver.— (a) To operate an aircraft in
Basic load (stress analysis). The load manner, so as to cause it to
a skillful
on a structural member or part in perform evolutions out of the ordinary.
any condition of static equilibrium of
(b) To perform tactical or acrobatic
an airplane. When a specific basic evolutions with aircraft.
load is meant, the particular condition
Maneuverability.—That quality in an air
of equilibrium must be indicated in
the context.
Craft Which determines the rate at Which
Designed analysis).-A its altitude and direction of flight can be
load (stress
changed.
Specified load below which a structural
member or part should not fail. It Monoplane.-An airplane with but one
is the probable maximum applied load main supporting surface, sometimes di
multiplied by the factor of safety. vided into 2 parts by the fuselage:
Also, in many cases, an appropriate High-wing monoplane.-A monoplane
basic load multiplied by a design load
in which the wing is located at, or
-
factor. near, the top of the fuselage.
Full load.-Weight empty plus useful Low-wing monoplane.-A monoplane in
load; also called gross weight. which the wing is located at, or near,
Normal load (stress analysis).-The the bottom of the fuselage.
load on that part of a wing assumed Midwing monoplane.-A monoplane in
by tip losses or
to be unaffected which the wing is located approxi
similar corrections. In any given mately midway between the top and
case, it
may be a basic, design, grOSS,
bottom of the fuselage.
net, or ultimate load, depending on
- Parasol monoplane.—A monoplane in
the COntext.
which the wing is above the fuselage.
Pay load.--That part of the useful load
from which revenue is derived, viz, Nacelle.—An enclosed shelter for personnel
passengers and freight. or for a power plant. A nacelle usually is
fuselage,
Ultimate load (stress analysis).-The Shorter than a and does not
carry the tail unit.
load that causes destructive failure in
a member during a strength test, or Nose-down.—To depress the nose of an air
the load that, according to computa plane in flight.
tions, should cause destructive failure Noseheavy.-The of an airplane
condition
in the member. in which the nose tends to sink when
Useful load.-The crew and passengers, the longitudinal control is
released in any
oil and fuel, ballast other than emer given attitude of normal flight (cf. tail
gency, ordnance, and portable equip heavy).
ment. Nose-over.—A colloquial expression refer
Load factor (stress analysis).-The ratio of ring to the accidental turning over of an
two loads (the second being a basic load) airplane on its nose when landing.
that have the same relative distribution. Overshoot.—To fly beyond a designated
The first load may be the load applied mark or area, such as a landing field, while
during some special maneuver, the maxi attempting to land on the mark or within
mum probable load on the airplane or the area.
part, the design load, or the ultimate Pitch.-An angular displacement about an
load. Whenever a load factor is men axis parallel to the lateral axis of an air
tioned, the context should indicate clearly Craft.
332 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Pitching.—Angular motion about the lateral Runway.—An artificial landing strip per
axis. mitting the landing and take-off of air
Pitch of a propeller (effective).-The dis planes under all weather conditions.
tance an aircraft advances along its flight Seaplane.—An airplane designed to rise
path for one revolution of the propeller. from and alight on the water.
Pitot tube.—A cylindrical tube With an Open Sideslipping.—Motion of an aircraft rela
end pointed upstream, used in measuring tive to the air, in which the lateral axis
impact pressure.
is inclined and the airplane has a velocity
Pitot-venturi tube.—A combination of a component along the lateral axis. When
pitot and a venturi tube.
it occurs in connection with a turn, it is
Plane (or hydroplane).--To move through
the opposite of skidding.
the water at Such a Speed that the Support
Skidding.—Sliding sidewise away from the
derivedis due to hydrodynamic and aero
dynamic rather hydrostatic center of curvature when turning. It is
than to
forces. caused by banking insufficiently, and is

Plowing.—Taxiing the Opposite of SideSlipping.

a seaplane at low speed
Slipstream.—The current of air driven
before rising on the step.
Porpoising.—An undulatory movement of astern by a propeller.
a seaplane consisting of a combination Speed:
of a vertical oscillation and an oscilla Air speed.—See AIR SPEED.
tion about its transverse axis, which Ground speed.—The horizontal com
occurs at certain stages of planing. ponent of the velocity of an aircraft
Propeller.—Any device for propelling a craft relative to the ground.
through a fluid, such as water or air; Landing speed.—The minimum speed
especially a device having blades which, of an airplane at the instant of con
when mounted on a power-driven shaft, tact with the landing area in a normal
produce a thrust by their action on the landing.
fluid. Minimum flying speed.—The lowest
Pull-out.—The maneuver of transition from steady speed that can be maintained,
a dive to horizontal flight. with any throttle setting whatsoever,
Pull-up.-A maneuver, in the vertical plane, by an airplane in level flight at an
in which the airplane is forced into a altitude above the ground greater
short climb, usually from approximately than the span of the wings.
level flight (cf. zoom). Stalling speed.—The speed of an air
Rate-of-climb indicator.-An instrument plane in Steady flight at its maximum
that indicates the rate Of ascent Or descent coefficient of lift.
of an aircraft. Spin.-A maneuver in which an airplane
Roll.— (a) An angular displacement about descends along a helical path of large pitch
an axis parallel to the longitudinal axis and small radius while flying at a mean
of an aircraft. (b) A maneuver in which angle of attack greater than the angle of
a complete revolution about the longi attack at maximum lift.
tudinal axis is made, the horizontal Normal spin.-A spin which is con
direction of flight being approximately tinued by reason of the voluntary
maintained. position of the control surfaces, re
Rolling.—Angular motion about the longi covery from which can be effected
tudinal axis. within 2 turns by neutralizing or re
Rudder.—A hinged or movable auxiliary versing all the controls. Sometimes
airfoil on an aircraft, the function of called “controlled spin.”
which is to impress a yawing moment on Spiral.-A maneuver in which an airplane
the aircraft. descends in a helix of small pitch and large
Rudder bar.-The foot bar by means of radius, the angle of attack being within
which the control cables leading to the the normal range of flight angles.
rudder are operated. Stability.—That property of a body which
Rudder pedals.-The foot pedals by means causes it, when its equilibrium is dis
of which the controls leading to the rudder turbed, to develop forces or moments
are operated. tending to restore the original condition.
 CIVIL PILOT TRAINING MANUAL 333

Stability—Continued. Tachometer.—An instrument that measures

Directional stability.—Stability with revolutions per minute (r.

in

p.
m.) the
reference to disturbances about the

at
rate which the crankshaft

of
an engine
normal axis of an aircraft; i. e., dis turns.
turbances which tend to cause yawing. airplane.-The rear part
Tail, air

of
an
Dynamic stability.—That property of plane, usually consisting

of
group

of
a
an aircraft which causes it, when its Stabilizing planes, fins,

or
which are

to
state of steady flight is disturbed, to attached certain controlling surfaces such
damp the oscillations set up by the as elevators and rudders; also called
restoring forces and moments and “empennage.”

-
gradually return to its original state.
Tailheavy.—The condition an airplane

of

in
Inherent stability.—Stability of an air which the tail tends sink when the

to
craft due solely to the disposition and
longitudinal control any

in
is
arrangement of its fixed parts; i. released

e.,
given attitude normal flight (cf. nose

of
that property which causes

it,
When heavy).
disturbed, return its normal
to

to

Tail skid.-A skid for supporting the tail

of
attitude of flight without the use of
the controls or the interposition of an airplane on the ground.
any mechanical Tail slide.-Rearward motion, relative

to
device.
Lateral stability.—Stability the air, flight.

of
with refer an aircraft

in
disturbances about the longi
to

ence Tail surface.—A stabilizing control sur

or
tudinal axis; e., disturbances in face in the tail of an aircraft.
i.

volving rolling sideslipping. The

or

Take-off.-The beginning flight

of

a in
act
term “lateral stability” sometimes
is

which an airplane accelerated from

of is
used to include both directional and
normal flight.
of

In
that

to
State rest

a
lateral Stability, since these cannot be
more restricted sense, the final breaking
entirely separated flight.
in

Of contact with the land or water.

Longitudinal stability.—Stability with
Take-off distance.—The distance

in
which
disturbances the plane
to

in

reference
an airplane finally will break contact with
of symmetry; e., disturbances in
i.

water, starting from zero

or

volving pitching and variation of the the land

Speed. Take-off distance considered in
is
longitudinal and normal velocities.
or
at

calm specified wind velocity.

Static stability.—That property
a

a
of

an
aircraft which causes it, when its Taxi.--To operate an airplane under its
state of steady flight disturbed, own power, either on land or on water,
to
is

except as necessarily involved

in

develop forces and moments tending take-off or

landing.
its Original condition.
to

restore
Stabilizer (airplane).-Any airfoil whose Turn-and-bank indicator.—An instrument
primary function combining
in

increase the sta one case turn indicator

to
is

bility usually refers and lateral inclinometer.

of

an aircraft.
It

to

the fixed horizontal tail Surface of an air Turn indicator.—An instrument for indicat
plane, as distinguished from the fixed ver ing the existence and approximate mag
tical surface. angular velocity about the nor
of

nitude
Stall.—The condition of an airfoil or air mal axis of an aircraft.
plane operating Undercarriage.—See LANDING GEAR.
at
in

which an angle
is
it

of attack greater than the angle Venturi tube (or venturi).-A short tube
of

attack
of

of maximum lift. varying cross section. The flow through

Step.-A break
in

the form of the bottom the venturi causes pressure drop

in

the
a

of float hull, designed

to or

diminish
to

smallest section, the amount the drop

of
a

resistance, lessen the suction effects, being function of the velocity of flow.
a

and to improve control over longitudinal Visibility.—The greatest distance at which

attitude. conspicuous objects can be seen and
Strut.-A compression member of truss identified.
a

frame. Wash.-The disturbance the air pro

in

Tab.-An auxiliary airfoil duced by the passage

to

attached of an airfoil. Also

a

control surface for the purpose reducing

of

called the “wake” the general case for

in

-
the control force or trimming the aircraft. any solid body.
334 D. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Wheel, tail—A wheel used to support the Wing tip.–The outer end of an airplane
tail of an airplane when on the ground. wing.
It may be steerable or nonsteerable, fixed Yaw.—An angular displacement about an
or swiveling.
axis parallel to the normal axis of an
Wing.—A general term applied to the air
aircraft.
foil, or one of the airfoils, designed to
develop a major part of the lift of a
Yawing.—Angular motion about the normal
heavier-than-air craft. axis.
Wingheavy, right or left.-The condition of Zoom.—To climb for a short time at an
an airplane whose right or left wing tends angle greater than the normal climbing
to sink when the lateral control is released angle, the airplane being carried upward
in any given attitude of normal flight. at the expense of kinetic energy.

O
t; ºr * :