Cagayan de Oro Center

2nd level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen

Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1

APPLIED TRACK SUBJECT

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Prepared by:
Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT
 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT I: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

Lesson 1: Nature of Inquiry
Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. Explain the Inquiry-based Learning
B. Determine the Elements and Process of Inquiry
C. Distinguish the underlying theories of inquiry using a Venn
diagram.
CONCEPT NOTES

• Ask the students to construct any questions based on their daily

life activity;
• Then, the teacher will choose any questions from the box and let
the students answer the questions.

WHAT IS INQUIRY?
• Inquiry is defined as "a seeking for truth, information, knowledge or seeking
information by questioning”. It requires you to collect data, meaning facts, and
information about the object of your inquiry, and examine data carefully.
• Inquiry is an active learning process.
• Inquiry is a problem-solving technique.
• Inquiry elevates your thinking power.
THE INQUIRY PROCESS

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

• The inquiry process is driven by one’s own curiosity, wonder, interest, or passion to
understand an observation or to solve a problem. The process begins when the
learner notices something that intrigues, surprises, or stimulates a question—
something that is new, or something that may not make sense in relationship to the
learner's previous experience or current understanding.

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GOVERNING PRINCIPLES OR FOUNDATION OF INQUIRY
Inquiry-based learning is an approach to teaching and learning that places students’
questions, ideas and observations at the center of the learning experience. There are certain
principles that govern inquiry-based learning and can be summarized as follows:

• Changing knowledge;
• Creativity;
• Subjectivity;
• Socio-cultural factors;
• Sensory experiences; and
• Higher-order thinking
BENEFITS OF INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
In conclusion, you can say that Inquiry-Based Learning gives you the following advantages:

1. Elevates interpretative thinking through graphic skills

2. Improves student learning abilities
3. Widens learners’ Vocabulary
4. Facilitates problem-solving acts
5. Increases social awareness and cultural knowledge
6. Encourages cooperative learning
7. Provides mastery of procedural knowledge
8. Encourages higher-order thinking strategies
9. Hastens conceptual understanding

Activity
GROUP WORK!

Instructions: Pick one topic and create atleast two (2) questions based on the given issues.
Afterwards, each group will pick a group number and will have the chance to ask questions

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

to the chosen group. Write your questions in a ¼ piece of paper.

EXIT SLIP

• The students should complete their

exit slips, describing what they
learned in the lesson and should give
their responses to a prompt that you
pose to the class related to the day’s
lesson or information learned
• Collect their Exit Slips.
• And prior to the next session, review all
of the students’ Exit Slips to determine
how the next class session may need to
be structured differently to meet the
needs of all learners in your classroom.

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT I: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

Lesson 2: Nature of Research
Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. Determine the characteristics of Research;
B. Distinguish the types of research;
C. Examine different research studies.

CONCEPT NOTES

1. What do I know about research?

2. Why is research important even in our daily lives?

DEFINTION RESEARCH

• Research follows a step-by-step process of investigation that uses a standardized approach

in answering questions or solving problems (Polit & Beck, 2004)
• Research entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas,
methods or improvements
• Research is a tested approach of thinking and employing validated instruments and steps
in order to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem that is otherwise impossible to
address under ordinary means.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. The research should be systematic
2. The research should be objective
3. The research should be feasible
4. The research should be empirical
5. The research should be clear

ROLES OF THE RESEARCHER

According to Nieswiadomy (2005), the researcher serves different roles in a study. These as follows:

1. As principal investigator
2. As member of a research plan
3. As identifier of researchable problems
4. As evaluator of research findings
5. As user of research findings
6. As patient or client advocate during study
7. As subject/respondent/participan

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IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
1. Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field or discipline.
2. Research is undertaken for the continuous development and further productivity in any field.
3. Research helps develop tools for assessing effectiveness of any practice and operation as
psychological tests, intelligence quotient tests, and psychological assessments, among
others.
4. Research provides solutions to problems concerning almost all issues encountered in the
different areas of work.
5. Research impacts decision-making.
6. Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational aspects of any
discipline.
7. Research aims to advance the personal and professional qualifications of a practitioner

GOALS FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Some of the goals for research are as follows:
1. To produce evidence-based practice
2. To establish credibility in the profession
3. To observe accountability for the profession
4. To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation

Activity

GROUP WORK!
INSTRUCTIONS: Create a concept map about the importance of research in your education
as a student. Write your answer in a ¼ size of Manila paper.

Afterwards, each group will choose two (2) participants to discuss their answer and they are
given 3 minutes to present their concepts.

ASSIGNMENT
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Ask the students to select one (1) published research aligned to their specialization.
Ask them to analyze the research by answering the following questions:
1. What is the research all about?
2. What are the processes used in the research study?
3. Did the researcher consider the ethics in conducting research? Why did you say so?

5
ST
 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT 2: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANT IN DAILY LIFE

Lesson 3: Different Types of Research
Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. Identify the various types of research;
B. Identify the characteristics of Qualitative Research
C. Differentiate qualitative and quantitative types of research.
CONCEPT NOTES

Instructions: Form groups of 5 members. Fill out the following “Word Shapes”
by referring to the clues and guessing the type of research. (refer to the given
slides/activity sheet)

TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Based on Application of Research Method

• Pure Research – deals with concepts, principles, or abstract things. Pure research
(also known as “basic” or “fundamental” research) is exploratory in nature and is
conducted without any practical end-use in mind. It is driven by gut instinct, interest,
curiosity or intuition, and simply aims to advance knowledge and to identify/explain
relationships between variables.
• Applied Research – deals with the societal problems or issues, finding ways to
make positive changes in society. It is a methodology used to solve a specific,
practical problem of an individual or group. The study and research is used in
business, medicine and education in order to find solutions that may cure diseases,
solve scientific problems or develop technology.

2. Based on Purpose of the Research

SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

• Descriptive Research. This type of research aims at defining or giving a verbal

portrayal or picture of a person, thing, event, group, situation, etc. It focuses on
throwing more light on current issues through a process of data collection.
Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample population. In
descriptive research, only one variable (anything that has quantity or quality that
varies) is required to conduct a study. The three main purposes of descriptive
research are describing, explaining and validating the findings.

• Correlation Research. It shows relationships or connectedness of two factors,

circumstances, or agents called variables that affect the research. It is only
concerned in indicating the existence of a relationship, not the causes and ways of
the development of such relationship.

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 • Explanatory Research. This type of research elaborates or explains not just the
reasons behind the relationship of two factors, but also the ways by which such
relationship exists.

• Exploratory Research. Its purpose is to find out how reasonable or possible it is to

conduct a research study on a certain topic. Here, you will discover ideas on topics
that could trigger your interest in conducting research studies.

• Action Research. This type of research studies an ongoing practice of a school,

organization, community or institution for the purpose of obtaining results that will
bring improvements in the system.

3. Based on types of Data Needed

• Qualitative Research – requires non-numerical data, which means that the research
uses words rather than numbers to express the results, the inquiry, or investigation
about people’s thoughts, beliefs, feelings, views, and lifestyles regarding the object of
the study.
• Quantitative Research – it involves measurement of data. Thus, it presents
research findings referring to the number of frequencies of something in numerical
forms (i.e., using percentages, fractions, number).

APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

1. Scientific or Positive Approach. In which you discover and measure information as well as
observe and control variables in an impersonal manner. It allows to control of variables.
Therefore, the data gathering techniques appropriate for this approach are structured
interviews, questionnaires and observational checklists. Data given in this technique are
expressed through numbers, which means that this method is suitable for quantitative
research.
2. Naturalistic Approach. It uses words to express data. These are non-numerical data that
express truths about the way people perceive or understand the world.
3. Triangulation Approach. In this case, you are free to gather and analyze data using

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

multiple methods, allowing you to combine or mix up research approaches, research types,
data gathering and data analysis techniques.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Qualitative Research is defined as the “naturalistic method of inquiry of research

which deals with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly. (Polit and
Beck, 2008)
• Qualitative Research focuses on gaining insights and understanding about an
individual’s perception and interpretation of events. This type of research collects
data through methods such as interviews and participative observation.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• Quantitative Research involves measurement of data. Thus, it presents research
findings referring to the number of frequency of something in numerical forms (i.e.,
using percentages, fractions, number).

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 COMPARISON BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Involves processes, feelings, and motives
Aims to characterize trends and patterns (the why’s and the how’s) and produces in-
depth and holistic data
Usually starts with neither a theory nor Usuallyconcernedwithgenerating
hypothesis about the relationship between hypothesis from data rather than testing a
two or more variables hypothesis
Uses structured research instruments like Uses either unstructured or semi-structured
questionnaires and schedules instruments
Uses large sample sizes that are Uses small sample sizes chosen purposely
representative of the population
Has high output replicability Has high validity
Used to gain greater understanding of Used to gain greater understanding of
group similarities individual differences in terms of feelings,
motives and experiences
Uses structured processes Uses more flexible processes
Methods include census, survey, Methods include field research, case study,
experiments and secondary analysis and secondary analysis

Category Quantitative Qualitative

Question Domains Who, what, when, where How, what, why
common Sample Size 150 to 200+ 10 to 15

Contact Time 10 to 20 minutes 45 to 240 minutes each

Validity Must be true of most of the data Must be true of each case or

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

or nomothetic (law- oriented) ideographic (case-oriented)

Defines relationships and Describes relationships and

Variables establishes meaning structures

establish general case
and contexts

Outliers Unique positions lost to the Valuable descriptive cases with

weight of the average unique access to average cases

Surveys, numerical counts, Interviews, literature content

Examples statistical analyses, reviews, real world observations,
mathematical modeling case studies, ethnographies

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Human understanding and interpretation
2. Active, powerful and forceful
3. Multiple research approaches and methods
4. Specificity to generalizations
5. Contextualization
6. Diversified data in real-life situations
7. Abounds with words and visuals
8. Internal Analysis

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Case Study. the researcher explores a single entity or phenomenon ("the case")
bounded by time and activity (e.g., a program, event, process, institution, or social group)
and collects detailed information through a variety of data collection procedures over a
sustained period of time.

Example: How do cancer survivors look at life?

The researcher is able to give an overview of the problem by interviewing a cancer

survivor about his or her experiences

2. Ethnographical Study. the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting
over a specific period of time; a cultural group can be any group of individuals who share
a common social experience, location, or other social characteristic of interest.
Example: What is the demographic profile and migratory adaptions of squatter families
in Barangay Cutcut, Angeles City (dela Cruz, 1994)?

In studying the problem, the researcher immerses with subjects and becomes involved
with the activities that exemplify the cultural practices of the respondents.

3. Phenomenological Study. It examines human experiences are examined through the

detailed description of the people studies being studied -- the goal is to understand the

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

"lived experience" of the individuals being studied; involves studying a small group of
people intensively over a long period of time.

Example: What are the common experiences encountered by a person with a spouse
who is undergoing rehabilitation?

With the given problem, the researcher has to discover the inner feelings, emotional
hardships, and mental disturbances that the respondent is experiencing.

4. Narrative Analysis. The main sources of data for this type of research are the life
accounts of individuals based on their personal experiences.
The common types of narrative analysis are as follows:
a. Psychological – This involves analyzing the story in terms of internal thoughts and
motivations. It also analyzes the written text or spoken words for its component parts
or patterns.
b. Biographical – this takes the individual’s society and factors like gender and class
into account.
c. Discourse Analysis – this study the approach in which language is used in texts and
contexts.

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5. Historical Analysis. It is the examination of primary documents to make you understand
the connection of the past events to the present time. The results of your content
analysis will help you specify phenomenological changes in unchanged aspects of
society through the years.

Example: What were the roles of women in the Katipunan?

The researcher can consult authentic and original resource materials relevant to the
problem to determine the accuracy of information provided in the research paper.

6. Grounded Theory. It looks to provide an explanation or theory behind the events. You
use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a theory based on the data.
Through your observation on your subjects, you will happen to find a theory that applies
to your current study.

Activity

INSTRUCTIONS: Read and analyze the following research topics and identify what type of
qualitative research is appropriate for each. Then, justify your answer by providing a brief
explanation.

1. A researcher investigated the medical properties of the rare Amazonian tree and
discovered that its components can be made into a drug that can cure dengue.
Answer:

2. A researcher is looking into ways to create intervention on violent or hostile behavior

among young children.
Answer:

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

3. A researcher analyzes music composition by researching on its utilization of theory
and intuition, technologies in creating music, and critical approach in its design
process.
Answer:

4. A researcher immerses with the Badjao street dwellers to learn how they were able
to migrate from Mindanao.
Answer:

5. A researcher seeks to discover the events that transpired behind the assassination of
Antonio Luna in Cavite in 1899 and discuss the implication of these events to history.
Answer:

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT 2: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANT IN DAILY LIFE

Lesson 4: Ethics in Research
Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, the students must be able to:
A. Discuss the importance of ethics in research;
B. Explain the ethical codes in the conduct of research, and the
rights of research participants;
C. Discuss the importance of ethics in research; and
D. Define plagiarism and identify techniques to avoid it.

CONCEPT NOTES

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

The following are some key ethical principles or standards that should underlie any research
endeavor: (Trochim, 2001;Best & Kahn, 1998, APA. 1992)
1. The Principle of Voluntary Participation.
This principle requires that people should not be coerced into participating in research.

2. The Principle of Informed Consent.

This principle requires that prospective research participants must be fully informed about
the procedures and risks involved in research and must give their consent to participate.

3. The Principle of No Risk of Harm.

Participants of the research study should not be put in a situation where they might be at risk
of harm (whether physical or psychological) as a result of their participation.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

4. The Principle of Privacy.
This principle requires the protection of the privacy of research participants. There are two
sub-principles under this:

a. The Principle of Confidentiality

Participants of the research study should be assured that identifying information is
not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.
b. The Principle of Anonymity.
This principle requires that participants will remain anonymous throughout the study
even to the researchers themselves.

5. The Principle of Equality of Service.

Another ethical standard that researchers have to deal with it is the person’s right to service.
This often happens in experimental studies where a no-treatment control group is assigned.
When the treatment or program has beneficial effects, subjects assigned to the control group
may feel that the rights to equal access to services are being curtailed.

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6. The Principle of No Deception.
According to the American Psychological Association (1992), participants should not be
deceived about the purpose or nature of the research unless justified by the study’s
prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and that equally effective alternative
procedures that do not use deception are not feasible.

7. The Principle of Knowledge of Outcome

Research participants have the right to receive an explanation of the results of the
investigation. Explanation may be done orally, in writing, or by informing them of any
publication in which the research report is published.

ETHICAL STANDARDS

The American Educational Research Association (1992) has published ethical standards
that include sections on research, intellectual ownership, students, and student researchers. The
following are the ten ethical standards on research:
1. Informed consent 6. Sensitivity to cultural, religious, gender, and
other differences among participants.
2. Honesty between researchers and 7. Careful consideration and minimization of
participants and institutional techniques that might have negative social
representatives. consequences.
3. Sensitivity to institutional policies. 8. Researchers’ need to be sensitive to the
integrity of ongoing local institutional activities.
9. Communication of research findings clearly
4. Participants’ right to withdraw. to appropriate research populations and other
stakeholders.
5. Researchers’ not exploiting
research populations, subordinates 10. Participants’ right to anonymity.
or students

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCHER

Calmorin & Calmorin (1996) enumerated 10 characteristics or qualities of a good researcher. These
are in acrostics:
R Research-oriented
E Efficient
S Scientific
E Effective
A Active
R Resourceful
C Creative
H Honest
E Economical
R Religious
ACADEMIC HONESTY
According to the International Centre for Academic Integrity, academic honesty is “a
commitment, even in the face of adversity, to five fundamental values: honesty, trust, fairness,
respect, and responsibility. From these values flow principles of behavior that enable academic
communities to translate ideals into action” (ICAI, 1999) So, academic honesty is a kind of ‘code of

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 conduct’ that members of the academic community are expected to follow and which makes it possible
for the academic community to achieve its aims and goals. Academic honesty is related to the
concept of intellectual property, which is a concept that you need to be aware of when you are
engaged in research.

WHY IS ACADEMIC HONESTY IMPORTANT? (Consider this situation below)

You have been accused of a minor crime and have to go to court for a trial. Luckily, you have
a lawyer to represent you, so you are hopeful that you won’t be fined or sent to prison. On the day of
the trial, you find out that your lawyer got his professional qualifications by cheating on the exams.
What do you do? The situation above highlights the importance of academic honesty in higher
education. When a university provides a degree to a doctor, lawyer, engineer, or other future
professional, members of society should be able to trust that those professionals really have
mastered the necessary knowledge and skills to enable them to take care of their patients,
competently act for their clients, build safe structures, and so on.

WHAT ACADEMIC HONESTY IS NOT

If you fail to meet the expected standards of academic honesty, then your behaviour is a form of
‘academic dishonesty’. The following behaviours are examples of academic dishonesty:
• PLAGIARISM, e.g., the failure to properly acknowledge the use of another person’s work, or
submitting for assessment material that is not the student’s own work;
• MISREPRESENTATION of a piece of group work as solely the student’s own individual work;
• COLLUSION, i.e., allowing another person to gain advantage by copying one’s work;
• UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS to an examination/test paper;
• Possession/use of UNAUTHORIZED MATERIAL in assessment;
• UNAUTHORIZED COMMUNICATION during assessment;
• Use of FABRICATED DATA claimed to be obtained by experimental work, or data copied or
obtained by unfair means;
• IMPERSONATING ANOTHER STUDENT at a test or an examination or allowing oneself to
be impersonated.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Activity

INSTRUCTIONS: Put an “X” on the space before the statement that describes a case of
plagiarism.
_______1. Alexandra puts her name on a quotation of Shakespeare.
_______2. After reading a selection, Pristine correctly wrote the contents of the
selection and cited the author.
_______3. The author is Ramoso, Gabriel but the reference of Aaron is Ramoso,
Gabriel.
_______4. In Athena’s assignment, she carefully expressed the ideas of the author
and wrote the author’s name.
_______5. Because of lack of time, Pauline omitted some of the important details

ASSSIGNMENT

INSTRUCTIONS: Research atleast 3 examples of research studies based on your research titles.
Put your answer on a short size bondpaper.

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT II: IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

Lesson 5: SUBJECT MATTER OF THE INQUIRY OR RESEARCH

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, the students must be able to:
A. formulate clearly statement of research problem;
B. Determine a good research topic;
C. Identify a research topic.

CONCEPT NOTES

SUBJECT MATTER OF THE INQUIRY OR RESEARCH

A topic is researchable if the knowledge and information about it are supported by evidence that is
observable, factual, and logical. Here are some pointers you have to keep in mind in selecting
research topic.
Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic

1) Interest in the subject matter

2) Availability of information
3) Timeliness and relevance of the topic
4) Limitations on the subject matter
5) Personal Resources

RESEARCH TOPICS TO BE AVOIDED

1. Controversial Topics. Based on the writer’s opinion, which may tend to be biased
or prejudicial

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

2. Highly technical subjects. It requires an advanced study, technical knowledge or
vast experience, which may tend to be difficult task
3. Hard-to-investigate subjects. If there is no available reading materials and not up-
to-date.
4. Too broad subjects. Not stated precisely and the writer doesn’t present details quickly
5. Too narrow subjects. Not enough results and very limited information
6. Vague subjects. Unclear use topic and can doubly interpret information.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS

The following can help you generate ideas about a good research topic:
1. Mass Media Communication – press (newspaper, ads, TV, radio, films etc.)
2. Books, Internet, peer-reviewed journals, government publications
3. Professional periodicals like College English Language Teaching Forum, English
Forum, The Economist, Academia, Business Circle, Law Review, etc.
4. General periodicals such as Readers’ Digest.Women’s Magazine, Programa
Magazine, Time Magazine, World Mission Magazine, etc.
5. Previous Reading Assignments in your other subjects
6. Work experience – On the job training, fieldwork, etc.

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 Activity

INSTRUCTIONS: Ask the students to answer all questions and provide the required
information of Research form 1 (Annotated Bibliography) & 2 (Research Topic Identification).

EXIT SLIP GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT
• The students should complete their
exit slips, describing what they
learned in the lesson and should give
their responses to a prompt that you
pose to the class related to the day’s
lesson or information learned
• Collect their Exit Slips.
• And prior to the next session, review all
of the students’ Exit Slips to determine
how the next class session may need to
be structured differently to meet the
needs of all learners in your classroom.

15
 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT II: IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

Lesson 6: Research Problem and Research Question

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, the students must be able to:
A. describe the different sources of research problems;
B. discuss the considerations in the selection of
research problems;
C. identify possible research problems.

CONCEPT NOTES

INSTRUCTIONS: Form groups of five members and select one of the clusters below. Analyze the
research titles in your selected cluster. Identify the common elements of the titles in your cluster and
write them in the space provided. Share your findings with the rest of the class.
Cluster A

1. Effectiveness of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming in Enhancing the Self-Esteem of

Adopted Children (Tiamzon, 2003)
2. The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for
a Human Intervention
Program (Cristobal, 2003)

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

3. Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratory of Selected Private
Schools (Estrella, 2009)
4. Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Total
Quality Management
Competencies of Principals: Their Relationship to School Effectiveness (Barrameda,
2000)
5. Likeability of Teachers: Essential Qualities for Senior High School Instructors

Cluster B

1. Reading Difficulties and Comprehension Levels of Freshmen

2. Human Relation Practices of Supervisors vis-à-vis Motivational Factors in Subic Bay
Volunteer Workers (Perez, 2008)
3. Factors Affecting the Learning Styles of High School Students (Naco, 2006)
4. Managerial Skills and Difficulties of Elementary School Managers (Lao, 2007)
5. Predictors of Leadership Behaviors of Principals and Efficacy of High School Teachers

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RESEARCH TITLE

A research title prefaces the study by providing a summary of the main idea and is usually short and
concise. Writing it may seem to be a simple task, but it actually requires more consideration on the
part of the researcher. While he or she may have written the contents of the study in great detail,
researchers may find it hard to create a research title for their study that is concise and represents
all the relevant elements of the study at the same time.

• A research title should have the following characteristics:

• It should summarize the main idea of the paper.

• It should be a concise statement of the main topic.

• It should include the major variables of the research study.

• It should be self -explanatory.

• It should describe or imply the participants of the study.

In general, the researcher should avoid using words that serve no useful purpose and can mislead
indexers. Words such as “methods,” “results,” and “investigations” should not appear in the title. In
many cases, the general problem of the research or even the specific question that the researcher
intends to answer, when rewritten in a statement form, can serve as the title.
RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research problem states the area of concern of the research paper whether it is a circumstance
needing development, a difficulty requiring attention, or an inquiry necessitating an answer. This
section sets the direction of the research study as it provides the foundation for the research
hypothesis and defines what kind of research study is suitable to address the problem. However, it
is important to note that this section should only state the problem and not preface or suggest a
solution for it.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Research problems may be derived in almost any kind of setting such as hospitals or clinics,
schools, offices, homes, or any part of the community. Research problems can be commonly based
from circumstances with the following characteristics:

• It conveys a feeling of discomfort or difficulty.

• It has a perceived difficulty in broad subjects such as family affairs, home
management, and leadership system.
• It displays a gap between theory and practice: what is said by the elders and what
the students see and observe.
• It utilizes a procedure requiring technologically advanced equipment.
• It involves the experience of any kind of individual.
• It shows some kind of pattern or trend.
• It makes use of literature reviews, continuous readings, and past studies.
These readings

17
 • can lead a student to a topic, and its scope and clues for further studies. The
repetition of a prior research study in a different setting and time is called replication.
• It relates to an individual’s curiosity and interest.

Furthermore, a discerned problem is said to be researchable when the following criteria are met:

• Solutions are available but not yet tested and not yet known by the practitioner.
• No solutions are available to answer the gap, or the problem being assessed.
• When the given answers or solutions, as well as the possible results, are seemingly
untested or are factually contradictory with each other.
• A phenomenon requiring an explanation has occurred.
• There are several possible and plausible explanations for the existence of an
undesirable condition.
EXTERNAL CRITERIA

1. Novelty – This refers to the practical value of the problem due to its “newness” in the field of
inquiry.
2. Availability of subjects – This refers to the people with the desired capability and
willingness to participate in the study. The sample of the study participants must be
representative enough to ensure reliability and validity of the results.
3. Support of the academic community – This refers to the assistance given by the
members of the institution, like the principal, teachers, staff, students, and the parents, in the
gathering of data and defraying the cost of the study. Permission of those concerned for the
participation in the study of staff members, children, the aged, and the mentally challenged
should be secured.
4. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment – Devices such as computers, and
telephones used in undertaking the study must be considered.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

5. Ethical considerations – These include the avoidance of research problems that pose
unethical demands on the part of the research participants.

INTERNAL CRITERIA

1. Experience, training, and qualifications of the researcher – These constitute the

researcher’s knowledge and expertise as a result of experience and study.
2. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher –
These are essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or enjoyment in the
completion of research tasks.
3. Time factor – This considers the fact that studies must be pursued within a given time frame.
4. Costs and returns – These factors matter in choosing a research problem. Research is an
expensive undertaking. The amount of funding needed, after all, depends on the size of the
sample, the place where the research is to be conducted, the treatment of data, and the kind
of research design.
5. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps – These depend upon the researcher’s physical and
intellectual capacity and moral judgment

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CHOOSING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AS A HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT

The background of the researcher is an important factor that defines the selection of
research problems and topics. A researcher in a particular field, like medicine, engineering, or the
social sciences, focuses on topics within their field or discipline. A student researcher, on the other
hand, focuses on more practical and relatable topics for research. One useful guide to student
researchers taking this course is to consider their respective tracks for Senior High School.
Students on the STEM track should consider researching on topics related to science and
technology. ABM track students, meanwhile, should consider topics on business and management.
Finally, HUMSS track students can choose from the wide variety of social science and humanities
topics such as history, politics, society, culture, arts, and music.

Researchers should also be aware of the following factors in determining their research problem
and topic:

1. The feasibility of the research study is a very important consideration in choosing the
problem. The time needed to conduct the study must be measured and its setting should be
defined and located. The researcher must have ready access to the relevant materials to the
subjects to be studied. The entire cost of the study must be estimated—the travel expenses
when meeting with the respondents, purchase costs of the instruments to be used, and
expenses incurred in encoding the results.
2. External support is also an essential element to look into when determining whether a
research is feasible or not. Is the teacher or adviser present when conflicts arise in the
conduct of research? Are experts in the field accommodating? Do they lend a hand when
requested for technical assistance in finishing the paper? These questions are also important
concerns to be addressed.
3. The innovative quality of the topic should still be considered. A review of literature and
studies ensures that solutions are yet to be proposed for the problem, thus showing the
need to conduct the study.

Activity

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

GROUP WORK!
INSTRUCTIONS: Ask the students to answer all questions and provide the required
information of Research Form 3 (Research Title Formulation).

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT II: IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

Lesson 7: THE INTRODUCTION

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, the students must be able to:
A. identify the essential elements of the introduction;
B. formulate the introduction of the research.

CONCEPT NOTES

Assign each student a partner. Let the students perform a role play on the following
situation: If you are a businessman, how will you introduce yourself to a prospective client?

BEGINNING OF THE RESEARCH

The first chapter of the research paper is entitled “The Problem” or “The Problem and Its
Background.” Its purpose is to introduce the problem and clarify important variables, its
delimitations, and its significance to the field of study. It has the following essential elements:
1. Introduction
2. Statement of the problem
3. Scope and delimitation
4. Significance of the study
5. Notes in Chapter I

It should also be noted that the researcher has to introduce the different elements of the first chapter
by giving a brief description of each element, so that the reader knows what to expect from the
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

chapter.

Example:

This chapter presents the different essential elements: the introduction, which contains
the rationale (an explanation of the reasons for the conduct of the research); the review of
literature and statistical foundation; the statement of the general and specific problems;
the scope and delimitation which identifies the major variables, sub-variables and the
indicators; the significance of the study which enumerates the beneficiaries of the study
and the corresponding benefits each will receive; and lastly, the notations.

20
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INTRODUCTION

The introduction is important in establishing the cognitive setting of the research. It has the following
elements:
1. Rationalization of the need to research on the problem
2. Clarification of the important terminologies for the reader to easily understand what
the research is about
3. Establishment of the degree of seriousness of the problem which prompted the
researcher to look for solutions
The following questions can aid the researcher in formulating the introduction:

1. What is the rationale of the problem? This question is answered by sharing the reasons why
the researcher decided to look for solutions to the problem. A rationale may include the narration of
personal experiences, a description of an article read, a scene witnessed, a news heard, or a theory
that needs to be clarified. The researcher should describe the existing and prevailing problem based
on his or her experience. The scope may be local, national, or international. Ideally, the rationale
can start from a global perspective to a more personal one.
Example:
As a Grade 12 student, Arjohn David, experienced some difficulties in performing well
because of various factors such as the attitude of his teachers as well as their teaching
methods, the absence of laboratory facilities, and inadequacy of books in the library. He is
having difficulties in his quizzes and class performance.

2. What is the setting of the problem? The setting forms part of the delimitation of the study. It
defines the geographic boundaries and certain demographic characteristics of the research. This
describes the place where the research was conducted, since the setting has a significant bearing
on the variables being studied. In the description of the setting, its distinctive characteristics must be
highlighted.
Example:

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Puting Capunitan Elementary School is one of the barrio schools in Orion, Bataan where
most enrollees are from disadvantaged families whose immediate ancestors are either
laborers or fisher folks. This school is one of the schools with poorly performing students in
their division according to the Department of Education.

3. What is the basic literature foundation of the study? This is different from the review of the
related theories, conceptual literature, and research literature. This part seeks to provide the
researcher clarity on the terms or variables used in the study. The terms and variables must be
clear to the researcher for an easy understanding of the readers. As such, sufficient background
can assist the investigator in determining the boundaries of the study. This part is derived from
different literature sources. The use of various references is crucial in this part of the first chapter.
Example:

As teaching is considered to be a complex activity (Medley, as cited in Iqbal, 1996), the

scholars and researchers in the field of education have since long been exploring into and
analyzing the teaching phenomenon. Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a
situation in which a learner tries to overcome the learning problems. Teaching is also a
multidimensional set of activities intended to facilitate learning (Torrington et al., 2003).
However, it is universally recognized that teachers’ instructional performance plays a key
role in students’ learning and academic achievement (Panda and Mohanty, 2003).

21
4. How serious is the chosen research problem? The researcher is tasked to identify the
intensity and magnitude of the problem. When the gravity of the problem has already been
described, he or she may then gauge the kind of action to be used to identify the problem. In most
cases, the researcher at this point looks for statistical or quantitative evidence to assess the
significance of the problem at hand.
Example:

Based on the DepEd Division Memo series 2012, among the 12 schools with the most
poorly performing students, Puting Capunitan Elementary Schools ranked 12th.

5. What is the general objective of the problem? This is the general statement of the problem or
the major tasks of the researcher to discharge and should also be the basis of the enumerated
statements of specific problems.
Example:

With the abovementioned scenario and situations, it is the main objective of the researcher
to determine the common reasons of the poor performance of the students. Therefore, the
research findings on that objective become the basis of an intervention program for school
effectiveness.

6. What is the overall purpose of the problem? It is important to note that the researcher must be
totally aware of the purpose of the research problem. He or she must fully understand the
implications of the resulting findings of the study.
Example:

This is mainly for the purpose of letting the students acquire the needed competencies
before graduation and enabling the school to perform better in the Regional Achievement
Examinations.

INTRODUCTION SAMPLE:

Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratory of Selected Private Schools

(Estrella, 2009)
Rationale

Experimenting is one of the tasks in a science class. No science course is ever complete
unless each student has been given the opportunity to conduct an experiment. It opens
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

opportunities to students to be exposed to hands-on activities where they discover the answers to
their scientific queries. Laboratory activity requires students to use many of the other scientific
process skills like observation, measurements, inference, prediction, and generalization. All levels of
students from primary, secondary, and tertiary levels conduct laboratory activities. It is a well-known
fact that college students taking up professional courses cannot do away with science as one of
their basic subjects. However, it has been observed that students still find difficulties even in
identifying common laboratory apparatus and following simple procedures. This is despite the fact
that they have been already exposed to science activities during their high school years.
Setting of the problem
To cite, they have Integrated Science in their first year, Biology in their second year, Chemistry in
third year, and Physics in their fourth year. It is therefore, expected that they are already familiar with the
basics in science experiment. However, this is not the case. Most of the time, the teacher

22
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repeats simple laboratory procedures, whereby, it must be explained properly “to the letter,” and all
the observations would lead the teacher to teach the “ABCs” of doing a laboratory activity so that
they can perform it correctly. In addition, the teacher would have to orient the students on the basic
and the most commonly used laboratory apparatus.
Literature foundation

However, as cited by Cuyegkeng (2008), in the Philippine educational system, one of the
most disturbing problems is the poor achievement of Filipino students in the areas of science and
technology. Educators agree that one of the major causes of this problem has to do with the method
of facilitating the learning of science concepts, processes, and poor laboratory practices inside the
classroom. Somehow, this indicates that the current methods do not fully develop the skills of both
students and teachers. Also, Puno (2005), citing specific issues concerning higher education,
mentioned that academic excellence must be viewed in terms of excellence in practical or applied
learning theories. Application of these theories and concepts will make the learner a productive
member of society. It is not the quantity of knowledge but more importantly how much of these
knowledge can be put to good use. We need graduates whose lives will be full of action and not
merely have heads which are just full of facts.
Seriousness of the problem

Earlier studies show that one of the problems of students, in general, is the failure to connect
the chemistry principles they have learned in class with the problems in the real world. They fail to
appreciate chemistry concepts and draw connections between them, because chemistry is usually
presented as a very theoretical, abstract body of knowledge. This is especially true if the teacher is
not properly trained, which the sad plight of Philippine secondary schools is often. Coupled with
poor learning facilities and materials, the result is a failure in science education. All these ideas
point to the significance of learning by doing. For this reason, it is viewed that in studying science,
students may not only be more on theories but application as well. There are many experiments that
may be conducted and performed in any science unit of study, and yet conducting them may not be
that effective and the mark of knowledge is absent.
General objective

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

At present, the researcher, as a college instructor, is experiencing the abovementioned
scenario in science education. If not dealt with properly, it might result to poor performance in
science laboratory activities. It is in this light that this research was conducted to determine the
factors affecting the student’s performance in Chemistry laboratory.
General purpose

To improve the performance of science instructors, which will result to improved student
performance in achievement examinations and a positive impact on school effectiveness.

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 Activity 1

INSTRUCTIONS: Based on the sample introduction below, identify the different parts of the sample introduction.
Encircle the paragraph/s and then label which part they correspond to.

Problems of State Universities and Colleges’ Middle Level Managers: A Basis for the Development of A
Management Intervention Program (Muello, 2002)

Since time immemorial, conflict has been a natural part of human existence. It exists on many levels
and takes many different forms. It is an inevitable part of organizational life.

Although conflict is natural and unavoidable, it is important that administrators learn to manage conflict
effectively and turn it toward a constructive end. When properly handled, it does not disrupt the normal operation
of the organization. At its intense level, however, conflicts may lead to more radical measures of reform like
strikes, mass leave of absence, and even unwanted unionism. Therefore managers need to understand the
nature and cause of conflict. Managers need to analyze what the conflict is, where it comes from, and how it
develops and dissipates.

Managers must understand that conflict is an almost constant and continuous process (Himoc, 1989).
By sound planning and action management, leaders can constantly direct the energies of conflict into productive
and creative channels of related endeavors. These perspectives on conflict give the manager additional roles
like that of a referee and a counselor who help the protagonist reach an acceptable solution. They act as
motivators who direct human energies towards organizational goals. Ultimately, this educational experience of
resolving conflict could provide the managers deeper insights into, and a greater understanding of the goals of

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

the organization, vis-à-vis the interests and needs of their subordinates. The feedback on conflicts may serve as
clues in potential problem analysis, and enhance the development of measures to minimize conflict and
maximize smooth interpersonal relationship.

Today’s educational leaders are faced with more changes, more conflicts, and more pressures than in
any other decades in the 20th century (Gmelch, 1981). This is largely due to substantial increases in their
responsibilities. Many factors have also contributed to the broader scope and expanded amount of work that
leaders need to fulfill. Among such factors are the tremendous increases in the school population and additional
job requirements necessitated by many educational innovations. Not only are they expected to continue their
traditional duties such as planning and overall school organization, but they are also asked to give personal
leadership and inspiration. Leaders are expected to actively engage in establishing educational programs and in
developing good teachers’ morale. Thus, it has become exceedingly important that school administrators and
teachers understand and are prepared to meet the many responsibilities inherent to their position. Thus, time
management becomes exceedingly important for managers to efficiently attend to their duties and avoid
conflicts (Muello, 2002)

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT II: IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

Lesson 8: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, the students must be able to:
A. differentiate the general problem from the specific problems
of the research;
B. compare the different types of research questions; and
C. formulate the general problem of the study and its
specific questions.

CONCEPT NOTES

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

After the investigator has clarified the rationale, identified the degree of seriousness of the
problem, provided the literature review, and set the overall objective, the formulation of the heart of
the thesis—the statement of the general and the specific problems—must be done. The opening
paragraph of this section contains the general problem of the study.

Writing the General Problem in a Qualitative Study

In the book Principles of Qualitative Research: Designing a Qualitative Study, Creswell and Clark
(2014) provide the following criteria in writing the purpose statement:

7. It should use single and not compound sentences.

8. It should clearly express the purpose of the study.
9. It should include the central phenomenon.
10. It should use qualitative words, e.g., explore, discover, and explain.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

11. It should identify the participants in the study.
12. It should state the research site.

A sample pattern for the purpose statement is provided below.

The purpose of this (narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, case) is to

(understand, describe, develop, discover) the (central phenomenon of the study) for (the
participants) at (the site). At this stage in the research, the (central phenomenon) will be generally
defined as (a general definition of the central concept) (Creswell and Clark, 2014).

Below are some examples of a general problem.

Example 1:

The overall objective of this phenomenological study is to describe the intrapersonal and
interpersonal competencies of school principals, and their relationship to the school effectiveness in the
Division of Bataan for the school year 2001-2002. The result is used as a basis for an intervention
program (Cristobal, 2003). Here, intrapersonal is the school managers’ own self -concept and personality
while interpersonal is their communication and expressions in dealing with subordinates.

Example 2:

25
 The objective of this ethnographic study is to differentiate the customs and traditions of the
Aetas and the locals of Zambales enrolled in Olongapo National City High School for the school
year 2014-2015. In this research, the customs and traditions are defined as their practices in the
celebration of feasts.
Example 3:

The objective of this grounded theory study is to characterize the general study habits of the
high school students that belong to the top ten of the class. The study habits are concentrated on
the student’s preparation before attending classes daily.

The general problem is followed by an enumeration of the specific problems. These problems are
usually stated as questions that the researcher seeks to answer. Therefore, the specific problems
must meet the following criteria:
1. They must be in question form.
2. They must define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
3. They must identify the variables being studied.

According to Creswell and Clark (2014), there are two types of research questions. These are as
follows:
1. Central questions – These are the most general questions that can be asked.
2. Sub-questions – These questions subdivide the central question into more specific
topical questions and are only limited in number.
Creswell and Clark (2014) also provide some guidelines in formulating the research question:
1. The question should begin with words such as “how” or “what”.
2. The readers should be informed of the information that will be discovered, generated,
explored, identified, or described in the study.
3. The question “What happened?” should be asked to help craft the description.
4. The question “What was the meaning to people of what happened?” should be asked to
understand the results.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

5. The question “What happened over time?” should be asked to explore the process.
In addition, Cresswell and Clark (2004) also provide the following scripts as a guide in
designing qualitative central and sub-questions:
1. Central question script
a. “What is the meaning of/what does it mean to (central phenomenon)?”
Examples:

• What is the meaning of intrapersonal competencies?

• What does it mean to differentiate the customs and traditions of Aetas to those of the locals?
• What does it mean to characterize the study habits of the top 10 students of the class?
b. “How would (participants) describe (central phenomenon)?”
Examples:
• How would school managers describe intrapersonal competencies?
• How would the Aetas and locals of Zambales differentiate their customs and traditions?
• How would the top ten high school students characterize their general study habits?
2. Sub-question script
a. “What (aspect) does (participant) engage in as a (central phenomenon)?”

26
 Examples:

a. What level of self-concept does the school managers engage in as a characteristic of

interpersonal competencies?
b. What nature of practices do the Aetas and locals of Zambales engage in as a part of
their customs and traditions?
c. What kind of preparation does the top 10 high school students engage in as an indicator
of their general study habits?
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In general, there are two types of questions formulated in research. These are as follows:
1. Non-researchable questions – These are questions of value and are answerable by yes or no.
Examples:
a. Should all mothers breastfeed their babies?
b. Should high school teachers be watchful over their Grade 7 students?
c. Should the schools offering different majors in senior high schools require their students
to have a mandatory review before taking the National Assessment Exam?
d. Do all head teachers have a master’s degree? e. Are family members helping their
children in reviewing their lessons?
2. Researchable questions – These are questions of opinions, perceptions, or policy that are
raised to accumulate data. Formulating a clear, significant question prepares the researcher for
subsequent decision-making on research design, data collection, and data analysis.
Examples:

a. What are the common preparations done by Grade 7 students during their first days in
school?
b. How do senior high school students respond to their Math teacher?
c. What are the study habits of students who are poorly performing?
d. What is the relationship of the attitudes of the adviser to the classroom behavior of

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Grade 9 students?
e. How do the officers of the Parent-Teacher Community Association assist in the
improvement of school facilities?
Dickoff et. al (as cited by Wilson, 1989) provide further classification to research questions. These
are as follows:
3. Factor-isolating questions – These ask the question “What is this?” These questions are
sometimes called factor-naming questions because they isolate, categorize, describe, or name
factors and situations.
Examples:
a. What is the profile of school principals in terms of the following?
o Age
o Management experience
o Civil status
b. What are the levels of competencies of school principals as described by their respective
teachers and themselves in terms of the following?
o Intrapersonal
o Interpersonal

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4. Factor-relating questions – These ask the question “What is happening here?” The goal of
these questions is to determine the relationship among factors that have been identified.
Examples:

a. What is the relationship of the level of performance of the senior high school teachers to
the OJT performance of the students enrolled in the business track of Saint Paul School
of Professional Studies?
b. How does the performance level of volleyball teams of boys differ to that of the girls?

5. Situation-relating questions – These questions ask the question “What will happen if...?”
These questions usually yield hypotheses testing or experimental study designs in which the
researcher manipulates the variables to see what will happen.
Examples:

a. What are the effects of computer -learning assisted methods of teaching to the interest
level of the sophomores to their history subjects?
b. How significantly different is the performance of the call center agents who are well
rested than those who are not?

6. Situation-producing questions – These ask the question “How can I make it happen?” These
questions establish explicit goals for actions, develop plans or prescriptions to achieve goals,
and specify the conditions under which these goals will be accomplished.
Examples:

a. Based on the findings, what human relation intervention program can be adopted to
enhance or improve effectiveness of existing teaching methods?
b. What faculty development activities can be sponsored by the PTCA to improve the
performance of graduating in the UP College Admission Test (UPCAT)?

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Activity 1

Answer the following questions.

1. What is the significance of a problem statement in a research paper?
2. What is the purpose of dividing the problem statement into a central question and a sub-
question?
3. How do you think can non-researchable questions become researchable ones? In
addition, provide a sample of a non-researchable question and then change it into a
researchable one.

28
 Activity 2

GROUP WORK!

INSTRUCTIONS: Ask the students to answer all questions and provide the required
information of Research Form 4 (Formulation of Research Objectives) and Research form 5
(Statement of the Problem

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

29
 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT II: IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

Lesson 9: THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATION AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, the students must be able to:
A. Specify the different variables, sub-variables, and indicators
of the study;
B. Cite the potential benefits of the study.
C. Define the scope and delimitation of the study.
D. Describe their relevance to each other and their purpose in
the research paper.3. Discuss the variables and attributes.
E. Provide examples for each to provide further context.
F. Discuss the different characteristics and kinds of variables.

CONCEPT NOTES

Synthesize your ideas and create captions for the two pictures.

Discuss to the class why you chose the captions. Company

your answers with those of the other groups
GUIDE QUESTIONS

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

1. What is the common interpretation of the groups on the pictures?

2. What is the most likely meaning of the target board relative to research?
3. How can you relate the pictures in the conduct of research?

SETTING THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study is determined primarily by the selection of variables that the research study
will focus on. Defining the scope of the research requires the careful selection of variables that will
be investigated, as well as the attributes that will define and measure these variables.

A variable refers to any characteristic that can have different values or traits that may vary across
research participants. Variables are measured, controlled, and manipulated by the researcher.

30
Examples include age, gender, height, and weight. Based on the research problem, the researcher
identifies the possible variables that will be investigated to address the problem.

Attributes are important elements of a variable. It refers to the value assigned to a specific variable.
For example, if the researcher focuses on gender as a significant variable in the study, he or she
then identifies male and female as attributes of gender. The variable agreement may have the
following attributes – strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree.
Variables have the following important characteristics:

1. Dependence – this refers to how the variable is considered in a cause-and-effect

relationship. Independent variables are those characteristics that are changed, manipulated,
or selected by the researcher. Dependent variables, on the other hand, are those that change
because of changes to the independent variable.
2. For example, in a study that investigates the use of computer-aided teaching instruction on
student performance, the independent variable is teaching instruction as the researcher
chooses to implement computer-aided teaching in the classrooms. The dependent variable,
therefore, is student performance as it is expected to change in reaction to the introduction of
computer-aided teaching.
3. Mutually exclusive – this means that a participant or respondent cannot possess two
attributes of a variable. For instance, a person cannot be both male and female.
4. Exhaustive – this means that the researcher should consider all possible attributes of a
certain variable. In identifying the possible responses of the participants to survey questions,
the researcher must identify all possible answers or reactions. In reality, considering all
possible attributes and including them in the research study is a difficult and almost
impossible task. Therefore, selecting the most relevant attributes for each variable is part of
setting the scope of the study.
Kinds of Variables

1. Continuous variables – variables that may have an infinite number of values and may vary
widely among the research participants. Examples include age and weight.
2. Discrete variables – variables that have specific limits to their value. Examples include

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

income, number of children, or years of employment.
3. Categorical variables – these cannot be expressed in numbers but are given in non-
quantitative, descriptive terms. Examples include civil status (single, married, widowed), and
educational achievement (high school graduate, college graduate, postgraduate).
DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the design
and conduct of the study. These include the characteristics of the research design and methodology
that affected or influenced the findings of the study. These limitations are constraints on certain
aspects of the research, such as the interpretation of data and the applicability and usefulness of the
results and findings.
The limitations of the study are defined primarily by the scope of the study. While the scope of
the study defines the variables that are the focus of the research, the delimitation of the study identifies
the other variables that were not considered for the study. The limitations that are identified are only
those that are significant or may have had an impact on the findings of the study. For instance, in the
study on the effect of computer-aided teaching on student performance, the researcher only focused on
students in a specific school. Therefore, one limitation of the study would be that the findings and
conclusions are only applicable to the particular school that was selected and may not apply to other
schools in the country. The characteristics of chosen respondents, as well as the time period and

31
place where the research was done, are major variables that define the scope and delimitation of a
research.

The following may be the possible limitations that may arise from the research design and
methodology:

1. Sample size. The research design and methodology will determine whether the research
will have a small or large sample size. The sample size will determine the quality of data
and the relationships that will be identified among the variables.
2. Lack of available and/or reliable data. Missing and unreliable data will limit the scope of
analysis and the ability of the researcher to determine meaningful trends and relationships
among the data.
3. Lack of prior studies. This will limit the effectiveness of the literature review and may limit
the initial understanding of the research problem. This, however, can be a basis for
identifying avenues for further research.
4. Chosen data collection method. Limitations in the data collection instrument may affect
the quality of data collected. Unclear or vague questions in a questionnaire will result to
unclear or erroneous answers from the respondents. The method employed in data
collection may also affect the quality of the data. For example, the researcher may have
conducted an interview or survey at a time the respondents may be busy or preoccupied;
there may be a possibility that the respondents may not have accomplished the survey
form or answered the question thoroughly and the responses given may have been vague.
5. Nature of the information collected. Relying on preexisting data may impose limits on
the researcher as he or she can no longer clarify certain data. Self-reported data have the
risk of being false and cannot be easily verified.

Apart from the design and methodology, the characteristics of the researcher and the limits that
he or she experiences in the conduct of the research will also give rise to limitations. These are as
follows:

1. Access. The amount and quality of data will depend on the ability of the researcher to
access people, organizations, libraries, and documents that can provide him or her the

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

best available data.
2. Time period. The length of time devoted to the study will affect almost all aspects of the
research. It is advisable to select a research problem and design that gives way to a more
manageable time period.
3. Bias. This refers to a way of viewing a certain thing, issue, or idea, and may be influenced
by the researcher’s background. The researcher, therefore, should be aware of his or her
personal biases and how these affect the conduct of the research. Biases may affect the
way the researcher states and defines the research problem, the selection of research
design and methodology, the variables chosen, data collection methods, and the
interpretation of data.
4. Language. This may have an effect on data collection, especially if the researcher is
involved with respondents that speak a variety of languages. This is especially a challenge
in studies that involve documents that are written in different languages.

It is important to state the limitations of the study in detailed but concise terms. The researcher
should also explain why such limitations arose in the conduct of the study and provide a reason why
these could not be overcome by the research method employed. The impact of the limitation on the data
collected, as well as its effects on the interpretation and analysis, should also be assessed. The

32
limitations can also lead to further research, and the researcher should include a brief explanation
of how these can help future researchers improve their research design and methods.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

Example 1:
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers:
Basis for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention (Cristobal, 2003)

The study assessed the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of the school
managers in the Division of Bataan, school year 2001-2002. The school managers that were
included in the study were the secondary school principals and head teachers of big national high
schools in the division. Moreover, teacher respondents included only the teachers who are teaching
Teknolohiya, Edukasyong Pangkabuhayan, at Pantahanan subject.

Robbins (1996) enumerated the intrapersonal competency was measured by the variables
as enumerated. According to him, the most powerful predictors of behavior in an organization are
the following specific personality traits: locus of control; machiavellianism; self-esteem; self-
monitoring; risk-taking; and personality A.

Appodaca (1997) discussed the five aspects of the supervisor’s role in order to maintain
good relationship with others. These aspects are management, learning and training aspect,
motivation, developing positive employee attitudes, and problem-solving techniques.

Finally, the school effectiveness variable was measured by the school manager’s profile,
teacher’s performance, and school performance. Some indicators of school performance like the
dropout, completion, survival, and achievement rates were based from the average rating of three
consecutive school years, SY 1999-2000 to SY 2001 –2002.

A validated questionnaire-checklist served as the main instrument of the study, a follow-up

interview was also used to clarify vague answers and documentary analysis was also employed to
ANSWER THE SPECIFIC QUESTIONS RAISED IN THE PROPOSAL.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
Example 2:

Problems of Middle Level Managers in State Universities and Colleges: Basis for the
Development of a Management Intervention Program (Muello, 2002)
This study was concerned with the development and evaluation of a management intervention
program after a thorough identification and analysis of conflicts/problems as experienced by middle –
managers in Region IV state universities and colleges. Middle level managers, such as deans, directors,
chairmen and department heads, and principals, with at least two years of continuous service in the
same institution, were the respondents of the study. Personnel outside the main campus were not
included since the problems they met were perceived to resemble that of the mother units.
Transportation constraints in the island provinces turned out to be another problem, thus, other
personnel in the other campuses were not included. This study produced an intervention program
composed of a training package on leadership and motivation. The said program is deemed important in
developing the managerial skills of middle-level managers in terms of their management functions such
as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. It is assumed that their competencies will eventually be
enhanced after developing the five-day seminar workshops.

33
 Prior to the conceptualization of the management intervention program, the data gathering
procedure was conducted from January 1999 to June 1999. Open-ended questionnaires,
interviews, and observations were used as data gathering instruments.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

Example 3:

Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratories of Selected Private Schools

(Estrella, 2009)

This study was focused on the factors affecting student’s performance in chemistry
laboratory in selected schools in Balanga City for the school year 2008-2009.

In this study, the student’s performance refers to the average grade of the students in their
chemistry laboratory from first to third grading period. Chemistry, the chosen field for the study, is
the science with more abstract theories which must be proven with actual events through
experiments by the students. The grade point average (GPA) were gathered and tabulated to
measure their performance in the chemistry laboratory.

The study considered the following schools in Balanga City Schools as the research locale
of the investigation: Tomas del Rosario College, Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies, and
Bataan Christian School. This is because these schools belong to the same category as private
institutions. Specifically, the factors in this research were student-related ones which pertain to the
attitude of students in the chemistry laboratory. Teacher-related factors pertain to the teaching
strategies, competencies, and teacher’s attitude in conducting experiments in the chemistry
laboratory. Lastly, laboratory-related factors pertain to the adequacy, availability, and usability of the
laboratory equipment and the laboratory manual and facilities.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Research is a very noble undertaking if it makes significant contributions to the community or

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

the academic field or discipline where the researcher is affiliated with. That is why the significance of
the study should clearly discuss the purpose that the research will serve to society, the country, the
government, the institution or agency concerned, the curriculum planners and developers, and the
research community. This section describes the contribution of the study to the existing body of
knowledge. It could be in the form of new knowledge in the field, a confirmation of the major findings
of other studies, verification of the validity of findings in a different population, analysis of trends over
time, and validation of other findings using different methodologies.

The researcher also has to identify the beneficiaries who will directly gain from the results of the
study. In identifying the beneficiaries, the researcher should be specific in mentioning them in the paper.
The specific benefits must also be enumerated and explained if necessary. It is also important that the
beneficiaries should be listed according to the significance of the study’s results to them.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Example 1:

The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for the
Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program(Cristobal, 2003)

34
 Studies on how to improve management competencies are numerous. However the
researcher focused on the development of a human intervention program, which was evaluated by
management experts. The human relation intervention program considered the enhancement of the
intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of school managers in the division of Bataan.
Questionnaires were fielded first and interviews were done before the intervention program was
conceived.

The information generated from this research can provide the respondents, the school
managers in the Division of Bataan, with insights on how to enhance their human relation skills. The
researcher can provide a database of information for future reference. Likewise, the findings can
showcase ideas and suggestions for the improvement of their management competency, specifically
in dealing with their subordinates and establishing good rapport and stable relationships. This can
also serve as a tool for school managers for self-analysis on how good they are as managers.
Moreover, the assessment that was conducted can serve as a guide for managers and teachers for
a more effective discharge of their duties. It can also help identify and clarify the problems and
issues related to human relation, and can encourage the educational community to extend more
cooperation and support for school effectiveness.

Future administrators can gain insights in the development of their intrapersonal and
interpersonal competencies. Organizations and school officials can be provided with information in
the necessity of upgrading the different competencies through seminars, workshops, and in-service
training and the like. Researchers can be motivated to make similar studies that treat other variables
not mentioned in the study. They can also profit from the result of this study since the paper
presents a framework that can be utilized in other institutions and localities.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Example 2:

Staff Nurses’ Roles on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected Government and
Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work Performance (Reyes, 2007)

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

The results of this study will be of great benefit to the following:

Clinical instructors. The results of the study will provide them research-based information as to
the extent of participation engaged in infection control. From the results, they could identify which
areas they need to enhance and improve as well as the areas needed to be sustained for better
implementation.

Head nurses. This will provide a clear picture of the performance of their subordinate nurses. This
will enable them to give emphasis in supervising and coaching the staff nurses so as to increase
their level of performance. Furthermore, this will determine the type of management skills that head
nurses need to function effectively in the organization and will shed light on areas in the current
management practices that needed to be worked up.

Nursing personnel. This study will provide information on the extent of managerial skills that the
head nurse actually employs. This can be realized if these nurses become aware of their behavior
towards others which must be in accord with the standard values of the nursing profession.

35
 Activity

GROUP WORK!
INSTRUCTIONS: Ask the students to answer all questions and provide the required
information of Research form 6 (Significance of the Study).

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

EXIT SLIP

• The students should complete their

exit slips, describing what they
learned in the lesson and should give
their responses to a prompt that you
pose to the class related to the day’s
lesson or information learned
• Collect their Exit Slips.
• And prior to the next session, review all
of the students’ Exit Slips to determine
how the next class session may need to
be structured differently to meet the
needs of all learners in your classroom.

36
 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT III: LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Lesson 10: REVIEW OF LITERATURE (RRL)

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. Differentiate the different processes of reviewing literature;
B. Apply the symbols used in marking the pages of a book.

CONCEPT NOTES
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other
researchers have written on a certain topic. It can be a partial component of a research undertaking,
but it can also stand alone as a self-contained review of writing on a subject. The review of literature
is a crucial aspect of research, and serves the following purposes:
1. It helps in placing the work being reviewed in its context.
2. It describes the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken.
3. It identifies new ways to interpret and shed light to various gaps based from previous
researches.
4. It helps in solving conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
5. It identifies the areas that are subject to a prior study to prevent duplication of efforts.
6. It points to another research undertaking.

CONDUCTING A REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Steps in Reviewing Literature

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

The review of related literature is a systematic process composed of three steps:

1. Finding relevant materials. It is the researcher’s priority to enrich his or her work by
reading literatures containing important data relative to his problem in order to fully
comprehend the variables being studied. The library is a good source for reference materials
such as journals, textbooks, reference books, abstract of theses, dissertations, and
computers with internet access.
2. Actual reading. After the preselection process, the researcher must thoroughly critique the
contents of the materials. Critiquing involves asking questions which at this stage should
focus on the variables. Some examples of questions to ask are as follows:
a. What variables are mentioned?
b. What are the characteristics or descriptions of the variables?
c. What relationship exists between the variables based on the information given?
d. How can the information provided in this material be of use to my research?

3. Note-taking. One of the characteristics of a good researcher is being systematic. He or she

must establish a system of note-taking to save time and effort. The researcher must take
notes, putting only the important data in his or her own words. It is suggested that the

37
 researcher prepare index cards on which he or she can take down notes before gathering or
searching for reference materials for the review of literature. The note-taking process is
useful, especially when the researcher is already synthesizing and compiling ideas from the
different references. Note-taking also facilitates consolidation of the literature gathered. The
titles of the journals read should also be indicated in the index cards.
STRATEGIES IN READING LITERATURE
There are three strategies in reading literature. These are as follows:

1. Previewing. It is the process of reading to get a general idea of the things to look for in the
text. Systematic skimming is done here.
2. Highlighting. It is done by physically marking the text to identify key details and to note the
relationships among ideas. In using highlighting symbols, one should take note of the
following:
• The important ideas are underlined.
• Words, phrases, or images that need further analysis should be boxed.
• Question marks are written beside confusing passages, unfamiliar references, or
words that need to be defined.
• Related words, ideas, or images are encircled. Lines can be drawn to show their
connection.
• Incidents that occur in sequence are numbered.
• Key portions of the text should be set off with a vertical line in the margin.
• Stars are placed beside particularly important ideas.
3. Annotating. It is the recording of the reader’s reactions as marginal notes. In these notes,
one defines new words, identify allusions and patterns of language or imagery, summarize
plot relationships, list a work’s possible themes, suggest a character’s motivation, and
examine the possible significance of particular images or symbols, or record questions that
occur in reading. Ideally, annotations will help one find ideas to write about.

Activity

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

INSTRUCTIONS: Research and find atleast 3 related study of your research paper and
perform highlighting and annotations on the reference material. With a partner, exchange
outputs and then critique each other’s work. Submit your critique along with the highlighted
and annotated references to your teacher.
EXIT SLIP

• The students should complete their

exit slips, describing what they
learned in the lesson and should give
their responses to a prompt that you
pose to the class related to the day’s
lesson or information learned
• Collect their Exit Slips.
• And prior to the next session, review all
of the students’ Exit Slips to determine
how the next class session may need to
be structured differently to meet the
needs of all learners in your classroom.

38
 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT III: LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Lesson 11: THE STANDARD STYLES OF WRITING

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. differentiate the styles of research writing;
B. apply the styles of research writing in the proposed
research; study.

CONCEPT NOTES

DIFFERENT STYLES OF RESEARCH WRITING

In research writing, there are many different style guides that are followed by researchers. However,
the three most common styles followed at present are the Modern Language Association (MLA)
Style, American Psychological Association (APA) Style, and Chicago Style or Turabian.

MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION

The Modern Language Association (MLA) is an American professional organization for scholars of
literature and language based in New York City. It publishes the MLA stylebook titled MLA Style
Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing with its first edition printed in 1985 and its third edition in
2008. The MLA began in 1883 at Purdue University as a discussion group for literature and modern
language. Today, several regional associations compose the MLA.

Formatting a Paper Using the MLA Style

by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott

Alignment. Align the text flush left. If your word processor, such as Microsoft Word, has a “full
justify” setting, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right, do not use it. Leave the text
ragged on the right side. SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Binding. MLA Style calls for binding the pages with a simple paper clip or spring clip. Do not use a
staple or other permanent binding system, unless your instructor requests it.

Endnotes and footnotes. You may use endnotes or footnotes with MLA Style, but they should only
be used to further explain a term or a complex idea beyond what you are able to include in the main
text. Endnotes and footnotes should not be used to cite sources. Save those for the “Works Cited”
page.

Font. MLA Style calls for a 12-point font size, along with an easily readable font such as Times New
Roman.

Headings. In MLA Style, headings and subheads that break up the text are optional. Check with
your instructor before using them.

39
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Indentions. You will need to indent the first line of any paragraph by one-half inch from the left margin.
If you are not using word processing software, indent by five spaces.

Italics. You should use italics for titles of longer works. MLA Style also allows the use of italics
within the body of the text for emphasis of a particular word or phrase, but use such items sparingly.

Margins. All four sides of the MLA paper—top, bottom, right, and left—require a margin of 1 inch.
The only items that should appear outside the margins are the page numbers.

Page numbering. Place the page number in the upper right corner of every page. Use Arabic
numerals for the page numbers. The page number should appear one-half inch from the top of the
paper and even with the right margin (1 inch from the edge of the paper). If you choose to use an
optional title page, you should not number it. If you choose not to create a separate title page,
instead including the title and other relevant information on the first page of the main text, you must
use “1” as the number of that page.
Paper type. Use standard, 20 -pound white paper that measures 8.5 by 11 inches.

Punctuation. Follow all standard punctuation marks with just one space, including colons, commas,
periods, and semicolons. Some instructors still prefer the old rule of using two spaces after periods
that end sentences. MLA Style does allow some flexibility in punctuation when the instructor
requests a change from the standard MLA Style.

Quotation blocks. Whenever using a quotation that will be longer than four typed lines, set the
entire quotation block apart by indenting it from the left margin 1 inch (or 10 spaces). Double -space
within the quotation block. You do not need to use quotation marks with a quotation block.

Spacing. You will need to double-space all of the text within the paper, except in special
circumstances as directed by your instructor. All quotations, notes, and lists of works cited should
be double-spaced.

Title. MLA Style does not require a separate title page. You can include the information used for the
title on the first page of the paper, and begin the paper’s main text on the same page. All text should

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

be double-spaced on the first page. You can place the page number in the upper right corner. In the
upper left corner, flush left, and beginning at the margins, include your name, the instructor’s name,
the course, and the date. Then, center the text for the title, mixing uppercase and lowercase letters.
If you choose to skip the separate title page, you can begin the main text immediately after the title
text.

Underlining. With the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, the new guidelines have eliminated the
use of underlining. Now, italicize all published works, rather than underlining.
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

The American Psychological Association or APA developed its own uniform style of formatting
written works. Originally, the resulting style book was provided to their associates as a guide for
composing scientific publications, articles, handbooks, journals, and the like for the organization. It was
in 1929 when the original APA style guidelines were featured in a magazine write-up. It was only in 1959
when an official APA style manual became publicly available. Because of the practicability it brings,
many education institutions use the APA style as the standard for writing research papers

40
 Formatting a Paper Using the APA Style
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott

Abbreviations. Avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you need to use an
abbreviation or acronym that is recognized in your language and you can find it in the dictionary,
then you can use it.

Hyphenations. Do not separate and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Rather, leave one line
slightly short and put the complete word on the next line; otherwise, proceed a couple of characters
past the right margin to adjust the complete word on the line.

Indentions. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of the paper one-half inch if using a word
processing program or indent five to seven spaces in if typing on a typewriter.
However, do not indent in these unique circumstances: the abstract, block quotations, figure
captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles or headings.

Margins. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: top, bottom, right, and left. Old rules
required 1.5-inch margins, but these rules are now obsolete.

Page numbering. Number nearly every page in the paper, including the title page. Put the number
in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only Arabic numbers. Put the number “1” on the title
page and the number “2” on the abstract page. Begin the main body of the text on page number “3.”
Do not number pages that consist of only statistics or illustrations.

Paper type. Use regular white, 20-pound bond paper that has measurements of 8.5 by 11 inches. If
printing from a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper; if you must use a tractor-
feed printer, make sure to tear off the pinhole borders from the sides of the paper.

Parentheses. Aim to restrict parentheses to separate or divide items that are structurally
independent, such as listing a number or illustration that is associated with a sentence. If you are
enclosing a full sentence in parentheses, position the punctuation inside the parentheses. If you are

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

enclosing only a piece of a sentence inside parentheses, then place the punctuation outside the
parentheses.

Punctuation. In most cases, use single space after all common punctuation marks, such as
periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. There are three exceptions to this norm:

(1) do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when writing U.S. for United
States; (2) do not use a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 4:7; and (3) some professors like the
outdated rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences. If you are using Courier or
another mono-space font, APA Style does permit two spaces between sentences, although one
space is recommended.

Short title. A short title is a two- or three-word introduction of the main title. Put it on every page in
the top right corner, except for pages that consist of only numbers or illustrations. The short title
should appear slightly to the left of the page number.

Slash mark. Do not use slash marks in your paper. For instance, rather than writing “blue and/or
purple,” it is better to write, “blue, purple, or both.”

41
Spacing. Use double spacing throughout the whole paper, unless your professor expressly asks for
single spacing in specific situations, such as with block quotations.

Text alignment. Always format the text flush left. Do not use the “full justify” feature on your word
processor’s toolbar because this will spread the text fully across the paper and align sentences both
left and right.

Title. Center the title on the title page, creating a combination of uppercase and lowercase letters. If
the title is long enough to warrant a second line, double space between the lines. After the title,
include your name, followed by the college that you attend. If you do not belong to a college, you
can substitute the city and state. Double space between each line on the title page. Put the number
“1” in the upper right corner of the title page.
Typeface. If using a word processor like MS-Word, opt for a Serif font, such as Times New Roman.
Use text in a 10- or 12-point size.
Differentiate the three styles of writing by completing the table.

Activity
GROUP WORK!

INSTRUCTIONS: Format your research paper according to your chosen writing style or the
writing style assigned by your teacher (whichever is set for your class). The chosen style
should be consistently used throughout the paper.

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

A framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provide support to something” (Merriam-Webster,

n.d.). Essentially, any concept or theory requires a strong framework to establish its general feasibility. In
the case of research, it serves as the building blocks for the foundation of the study. There are two types
of research framework: theoretical framework and conceptual framework.

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves as the
foundation of the study. The present study can adopt the original model used by the cited theorist.
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

However, the researcher can modify the variables of the original framework to better suit the study,
provided that the whole theory is utilized.

In contrast, the conceptual framework is derived from a combination of theories or parts of

theories. This framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories used in
formulating a new one.

Ideally, the theoretical framework is more suitable for student researchers than the
conceptual framework because of the former’s simpler approach. That is, it is less complicated to
directly base on existing theories than to formulate a new one. Although creativity and variability in
research are valuable, a student researcher should also consider the extent of his or her access to
resource materials, which may be limited. With that consideration in mind, the following chapter
discussions are tailored for theoretical framework.

42
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Elements of the Theoretical Framework

Since the theoretical framework prefaces the entire study by providing background information, it
should be supported by established facts from different resource materials. In order to formulate the
framework of the study, the following major elements should be present:

Relevant theories. These are theories that are partially or fully relevant to the present
study and are discussed to provide a basis for the variables being tested.

Review of related literature. These are published materials that compare the study
with existing knowledge on the research topic. This part defines, classifies, and
facilitates objective comprehension of the variables being studied.

Review of related studies. This part includes the theses or dissertations on research topics
carrying the same variables. The findings from the previous studies define the approach that
the researcher took in measuring the variables.

Paradigm of the study. This is a diagrammatic presentation of the study used to visually
summarize the whole study. It is the result of a clearer understanding of the theoretical or
conceptual framework. It is usually comprised of symbols and figures such as lines,
shapes, and arrows

One of the most commonly used paradigms is the IPO (input-process-output) model. It
is used when the research seeks to discuss a factor or a major variable that causes a problem,
phenomenon, or transformation in the subject.

SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Figure 10.1 – Paradigm for Entrepreneurs’ Roles Toward Improved Work Performance
Developing the Theoretical Framework

43
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DEVELOPING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A theoretical framework serves as the basis of the research. It points out, through its cited
theories, which specific variables will be the focus of the study. In doing so, the approach that the
researcher will adopt in evaluation and interpretation of the data is better established. It also
prefaces the new knowledge introduced in the research by validating or challenging theoretical
assumptions. Thus, writing a sound theoretical framework provides the readers a better
understanding of the research study.

The University of South California (2016) provides the following strategies in formulating the
theoretical framework:

1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem should be well-
founded since it serves as the foundation of the theoretical framework.
2. Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variables in the research. The factors that
are presumed to have significant bearing on the results of the study should be identified.
3. Review related literature and studies. The basis of the research should be supported by
relevant literature and studies from authors who had conducted an extensive research on the
topic.
4. List the constructs and variables. Constructs are information inferred from observation
while variables are research factors that are measured in the study. These should be
identified to create the framework.
5. Review key theories. The theories that best explain the relationships between the key
variables in the study should be identified.
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions. The relevance of the cited theories to the
research should be established to effectively support the framework of the study.

RELEVANT THEORIES

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means “vision.” Singh
(2009) defines theory as a non-observable construct that is inferred from observable facts and
events that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study and is primarily
concerned with determining cause-effect relationships among variables.

In this part of the theoretical framework, the researcher cites and discusses related theories
that serve as the foundation of the variables and their relevance to the study. It prefaces the readers
on what theories are used as the basis of the research story.
In the discussion of relevant theories, the following parts are mentioned:
1. Name/s of the author/s
2. Title/s of their theory/ies
3. Theoretical statement or principles
4. Explanation of the theoretical statement
5. Relationship of the theory to the present study
6. Relevant Theories

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Relevant Theories Example 1:

Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School

Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija (Valenton, 2009)

There are four theories on how children learn a language: behaviorism, linguistics, social
interactionism, and the neurobiological perspective (Vukelich, 2002). Only the theory of social
interactionism (theory title) is adopted in this study.

Social interactionist theory does not come from either side of the nature or nurture debate.
Rather, it acknowledges the influence of genetics and parental teaching (theory statement).
However, it shares with behaviorists the belief that the environment plays a central role in children’s
language development. Likewise, along with nativists, it poses the belief that children possess an
innate predisposition to learn language. Parents and teachers also support the children’s effort to
learn language by focusing the child’s attention on objects in the immediate environment and
labeling each object and its action (theory explanation).

This social interactionist theory was conceptualized in English language, since English is the
Philippines’ second language. This study assumed that the English performance of second year
high school students in terms of their English factors such as social-demographic, school, and home
(relationship to the present study). Considering the generally recognized performance of students in
the achievement tests and poor command of the English language, this study aims to find out what
influences their performance for the school year 2008-2009.

Activity 1

INSTRUCTIONS: Using the IPO model, create a paradigm for your research study. Refer to
the example provided in the lesson as a guide. Write your answer in a ½ crosswise. You can
use your work in your actual research paper if you prefer.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Activity 2
GROUP WORK!

INSTRUCTIONS: Ask the students to answer all questions and provide the required
information of Research form 7 (Framework of the Study).

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RELATED LITERATURE

The related literature examines facts and principles from other resources that are related to
the present study. That is, a research study on the learning curves of high school students would
utilize literatures that deal with the same subject. These resource materials include books,
encyclopedias, published journals, newspapers, and magazines.

The related literature, which is also called conceptual literature, serves to clarify the different
variables being studied. It removes any vagueness surrounding the central concepts of the
research. As the literature is gathered, the different major variables, as well as the sub-variables,
are clarified and the delimitation of the study is established. The indicators for each variable are
identified and objectively established. The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature.
Its sub-variables help specify which particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The
indicators, on the other hand, are specific information that describes the sub-variables.
Examples:
o Major variable: Study habits
o Sub-variable: Time required for studying, methods of studying, and place for
studying o Indicators: Employing patterned time intervals for effective studying; using
mnemonics in memorizing the terms; and studying in one’s ideal environment

The American Psychological Association (2001) states that review articles (called the literature
review for research papers) are crucial in the review process. A review article summarizes all the related
literature and their relation to the study. Readers who are not knowledgeable on the topic are provided
with a basic understanding of the research before the new findings are presented.

APA provides the following definition for a review article:

Review articles, including meta-analyses, are critical evaluations of materials previously

published. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating such materials, the author of a review
article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying a problem. In a sense, a
review article is a “tutorial” in which the author defines and clarifies the problem;

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

summarizes previous investigations in order to inform the reader of the state of current
research; identifies relations, contradictions, gaps and inconsistencies in the literature; and
suggests the next step in solving the problem. (p. 7)

The different variables used in the study are the focus of the review of literature. The title,
statement of the problem, scope and delimitation, as well as the framework of the study are the
elements that give the researcher an idea of its relevance to his or her own research. The number of
resource materials to be gathered for the review of literature depends upon the researcher’s
judgment. If he or she believes that the important concepts and variables have been adequately
explained and that enough indicators have been established, then the review of related literature is
considered sufficient.

It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is divided into foreign and local
literature. It is highly recommended that the researcher use the different variables and sub-variables
being studied as subtitles in the review. This is very beneficial to the researcher and to future
investigators studying similar problems as there is a clear and logical organization of the variables
under investigation. With this system, the researcher can systematically define the important
concepts and variables as well as the discussions, descriptions, and other information gathered
from the different sources. When the related literature is arranged systematically, the construction of
the research instrument (e.g., questionnaire) will be easier since the indicators are presented
logically and sequentially.

46
 Related literature also includes works of experts in refereed or peer-reviewed journals. Expert
readers or peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are consulted to review the written works of
the researchers to determine if they meet the standards of a good reference material, i.e., reliability and
timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationally and internationally.

WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

In her book, Conducting Research Literature Review: From the Internet to Paper, Fink
(2009) defines a literature review or review of literature as a presentation of the analysis, patterns,
and critiques of individual sources or the body of literature as a whole. Its purpose is to offer a wide
review of referred scholarly articles, and other sources like journals, theses, and dissertation.

It is important to note that in reviewing literature, understanding and comprehension both

matter. Thus, the write-up expressed in one’s own words is the measure of the researchers’
synthesis of the reviewed materials.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review serves as in-depth summary of the related literatures to the study. It
does not only restate facts but rather critique and highlight their relevance to the research. In doing
so, several elements should be observed in writing this section:

• Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered

• Division of works such as those that support a particular position, those against, and those
that offer other ideas
• Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature
• Conclusion and the best arguments
• Stages Observed in Writing the Literature Review

STAGES OBSERVED IN WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Since a literature review serves to preface the purpose of the study, the related literature cannot be
evaluated without setting the foundation for the review. A literature review, therefore follows a
systematic approach in writing its content. The premise of the review should be clarified and the
relation of the cited resource materials to the study should be established. Thus, different stages are
observed when writing the literature review:
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

• Problem formulation. The researcher must determine the research problem before the
review of literature is conducted to fully understand the variables considered in the study.
• Literature search. Any reading material that is related to the study must include a discussion
and explanation of at least one of the variables.
• Data evaluation. The indicators that are synthesized from various relevant sources must
further build the researcher’s confidence as the variables of his or her study are made clear.
• Analysis and interpretation. Breaking the entire reading article into smaller parts will help the
researcher correctly interpret the information in the reviewed materials.

47
ST
FORMAT OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

In writing the literature review, the researcher can be flexible in utilizing different related
literature. However, as stated earlier, the literature review is not merely a restatement of facts. Thus,
the organization of thought should be duly considered when writing the review.
The general format of a literature review is as follows:
The Introduction

•The general problem and the variables should be defined.

•Every important data should be highlighted to effectively discuss the problem or the
variables such as the theory, methodology, evidences, conclusions, or even gaps.
• The criteria in selecting the literature should be considered to assess which
resources are pertinent and should be included, and which are irrelevant and
should be removed
The Body

Chosen approaches, conclusion of authors, specific objective, and the like should be
included. Studies and literature should be summarized. For the studies, primary
consideration must be given to the result of the studies that includes the variables. In
choosing the literature, the following should be considered:

Provenance. This refers to the author’s credentials and the empirical basis of the
•
article or literature.
• Objectivity. This refers to the rationality of every data or facts cited.
• Persuasiveness. This refers to the degree of credibility of the data.
• Value. This refers to the degree of the contributions of the literature to clarify
variables.
The Conclusion
Major contributions of the studies or articles should be summarized.
Current developments and new information should be evaluated.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

The review should be concluded by relating the gathered data to the central theme or

problem. PRACTICAL TIPS IN WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Now that the technical aspects are laid out, one should have a better understanding of the
purpose of the literature review in a research paper. Since it prefaces the entire research study, the
researcher should observe meticulous writing of the each section of the paper. After all, a well-
written literature review can help readers to easily grasp the actual content.
The following are helpful tips in writing the review:

Sources, scholarly works, references, and other materials that are refereed and indexed
should to be used. Electronic sources should be properly scrutinized since the contained
information are sometimes inaccurate or erroneous.
Each source should be selected based on its contribution to the topic under review.
The relationship of one source to another should be described.
Interpretation should be done appropriately by looking into gaps of previous research.
Conflicts or contradictions should be resolved.
Areas of prior scholarship should be identified.
One’s original work should be placed in the context of existing literature.

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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE EXAMPLE 1:

Skipping Breakfast of High School Students (Bacsal, et al., 2015)

On Eating Breakfast. Breakfast is often called the most important meal of the day (Henager,
2010). Eating breakfast allows one’s body to start the day off right. With the right nutrients, your
breakfast can be a great way to function properly. It is true that many students are coming to
schools without eating breakfast for various reasons or students are making poor nutritional choices
at breakfast times for many reasons including: not enough time in the morning, eating habits, and
food preferences. According to Baley (2003), any of these can lead to a lack of concentration at
school or throughout the day or even weight issues in the future. Poor breakfast choices can be
blamed on education, historical developments, and income and social determinants. In addition,
children who skip meals barely meet the required dietary intake. This results to lethargy and
difficulty in doing mental tasks (Bailey and Earl, 1993).

On the Types of Breakfast Prepared. Choosing the right breakfast foods is very important to
make sure you get 1/3 of your daily nutrient requirements. That is why you must realize that
skipping meals is not a quick way to lose weight (Bailey, 1993). Creveling (2014) noted that a
morning meal will help you power through a workout, as compared to those who fasted until noon.
Control of food choice like starchy carbohydrate intake must be considered to avoid fat gains
(Mehdi, 2009). Thus, one should adopt healthy habits such as regularly exercising, eating healthy
foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

RELATED STUDIES

The review of related studies is an essential part of the planning and research stage of the
study. That is, determining if the research is objective and empirically-based entails the surveying of
previous studies that involve similar variables. In doing so, it provides insight into the methods

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

through which validity of the results is to be established. The review of the related studies serves as
the basis of the analysis of results because it allows the researcher to compare and contrast his or
her findings with those of past studies. The results of a study are verified by similar findings or
negated by different findings from other researchers. The studies can be in the form of theses,
dissertation, or journal articles.
The gathered studies are related to the present study when they have the following similarities:
They use the same variables, sub-variables, concepts or construct.
They have the same subject or topic.

The researcher should be reminded however, that even if a previous research used the same
variables as his or her study, the two studies may vary in the delimitation in terms of the sub-
variables investigated or in terms of focus and purpose.
In writing a review of a related study, the following data must be indicated:
• The name of the author, the date, and the setting of the study
• The title
• The salient findings, which are the most important “ingredients” to include since the
discussion of the variables and their relationship/s will be based on them

49
 RELATED STUDIES EXAMPLE 2:

On the Spending Habits of Students (Abas, 2015)

The study entitled “Let the Games Begin: Gaming Technology and Entertainment Among
Students,” which was conducted by Steve Jones, a professor in the Department of Communication
at the University of Illinois at Chicago found out that there is a significant impact of video games on
young people’s lives. Through gaming, extra expenses are incurred by students. Another study by
Rosenthal (1989) when she studied how and where the male and female students spend their
money, she found out that female students are more interested in social activities than males. Also,
female have significantly higher interest than males in hobbies, social funs, trips, and church but
significantly less interested in sports.

“Your Spending Habits as an Adult are Affected by Your Childhood Experiences” is a

research conducted in the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management by Charlene
Owen in 2013, which is based from the theory of “life history” or that the events in an organism’s life
are guided by its need to produce the largest possible number of surviving offsprings and is
dependent on its environment. In the study, she hypothesized that how a person uses money during
dire times is affected by their lifestyles during their younger years. She found out that in two
experiments, volunteers were asked to complete tasks related to risk-taking with the premise of
experiencing economic recession. Those who grew up in low-income homes tended to be more
impulsive; they gravitated quicker toward luxury goods, and were loose with money whenever they
had a lot of it. On the other hand, those who grew up in financially stable homes were more
cautious; they gravitated less toward luxury goods and believed in delayed gratification.

ASSSIGNMENT

INSTRUCTIONS: Construct your own RRL using your resources and research related
studies of your research and please be guided with the correct format of citing source and
writing literature review.

EXIT SLIP
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

• The students should complete their

exit slips, describing what they
learned in the lesson and should give
their responses to a prompt that you
pose to the class related to the day’s
lesson or information learned
• Collect their Exit Slips.
• And prior to the next session, review all
of the students’ Exit Slips to determine
how the next class session may need to
be structured differently to meet the
needs of all learners in your classroom.

50
ST
 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT IV: UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

Lesson 12: METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. display fundamental knowledge of various qualitative research
designs;
B. differentiate the commonly used qualitative research designs
from each other.
C. differentiate the various methods of sampling and 2. formulate
the criteria for choosing the participants of their respective
studies
D. differentiate the various types of data gathering methods and
their tools and instruments;
E. choose or design their own data gathering methods and
instruments.
CONCEPT NOTES

GATHERING AND GENERATING DATA

Having established what previous researchers have discovered, documented, and published on the
topic of interest, the next step in conducting a study is gathering and generating new data.

This step requires the researchers to answer the following questions:

1. What are the gaps in existing knowledge that the study seeks to fill?
2. What kind of information is needed to fill those gaps?

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

3. How will the study collect that information?
4. How does one ensure that the information collected in the research is the kind needed to
fill the gaps and answer the initial inquiry?

Before proceeding, it is necessary to define the terms that will be used in this chapter, and to
differentiate them from one another.

• A method is a technique which the researcher uses to gather and generate data about the
subjects of their study.

• A methodology is the section of the research paper which explains why the researcher
chose to use particular methods. The methodology also includes descriptions of any and
all theoretical and/or ideological concepts informing and influencing the course of the
study, and the researcher’s rationale behind adhering to these concepts.

• A research design is a plan which structures a study to ensure that the data collected and
generated will contain the information needed to answer the initial inquiry as fully and
clearly as possible.

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MAIN METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

As the qualitative approach to research focuses less on “hard,” numerical data and more on
abstract information, the methods used to collect and generate data for qualitative research should
be designed to be descriptive, observational, conceptual, and analytical. Some of the most
commonly used data collection methods in qualitative research are individual interviews, group
interviews, observations, and surveys.

Individual interviews are like conversations which are designed to elicit the information that
the researcher needs. However, unlike casual, everyday conversations, interviews must be
conducted as rigorously, systematically, and transparently as possible to ensure the reliability and
validity of the information obtained.
Group interviews are conducted with several participants simultaneously, and may be more
appropriate in some cases, such as when the study concerns a community issue or shared
experience.

Observations are conducted to document and analyze behavior and social phenomena as
they occur in their natural context, and may be useful in identifying, for example, discrepancies
between what people say (such as in interviews) and what they do.

Although surveys and questionnaires are more often used in quantitative research, they may
also be designed to be applicable to qualitative studies. Doing so requires that the questions be
structured to be open-ended, with few to no restrictions on the respondent’s answers— resembling
an interview but in written form.

COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS

As stated, the objective of a research design is to ensure that the data collection and
generation methods are geared towards gathering the specific information which will help answer
the initial inquiry as clearly and fully as possible. If the researcher does not design their study
carefully and appropriately, the data they gather may be extraneous or irrelevant to the problem at

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

hand, and they might not be able to adequately answer the research problem. As a result, the study
may prove weak or inconclusive.

It must be asserted, then, that there is no single best way to conduct research, nor is there a
universally applicable research design—only general approaches which the researcher will, to
varying extents, have to modify and adjust to best suit their study. The following are some of the
more common designs used in qualitative research.

Phenomenological Design

This design focuses on obtaining descriptions of the subjects’ or respondents’ lived

experiences either in writing or through interviews. The goal of this study is to analyze the meaning
behind these experiences for each subject, rather than generalizing to a greater population.
(Donalek, 2004). To wholly understand the subjects’ experiences, the researcher must set aside
their own feelings and expectations towards the study. Those feelings and expectations may hinder
the researcher from seeing the experience through the subjects’ perspectives. This process is called
bracketing.

52
Example: What are the experiences of a student who failed in his or her subject?

The researcher may have their own notions regarding this problem due to first-hand or
second-hand experience. During the data collection, the researcher must put aside all the
assumptions in order to identify the real essence of the answers of the participants.
The following are characteristics of a phenomenological design:

1. The researcher applies bracketing by focusing on the meaning of the perceived

experience or on the interpretation of the said data.
2. It uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection. When conducting an interview, the
researcher starts with an open-ended question followed by general probes.
3. It uses appropriate and systematic data analysis methods or adapts established and
credible processes to suit the study’s purposes.
4. The research process is transparent.
5. It uses the first-person perspective. For example, the participant may say, “I am
experiencing sleepless nights….”
6. The researcher identifies the phenomenon not just in themes or categories.
7. It collects data in groups, such as in a focus-group interview.

Historical Design

This design focuses on the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data or
evidence from the past to confirm or reject a hypothesis. Data for historical research may be found
in printed documents, such as official records, reports, archives, and even diaries; or in non-textual
artifacts, such as relics, maps, pictures, and audiovisual material.

A historical study must be unobtrusive, meaning that the process of research must not
involve any interventions which will affect the results of the study. This also means that there is no
way to manipulate the factors of the study for different variables or contexts. On the other hand, this
non - invasive approach is well-suited for archival purposes, such that sources of historical data may
be stored accurately and consistently and be accessed and used over and over to study various

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

research problems.
When material provides first-hand information, then it is considered as a primary source.
Examples are oral histories, written records, diaries, eyewitnesses’ accounts, pictures, videos, and
other physical evidence. The minutes of meetings can also be considered primary sources.
Secondary sources are materials containing second-hand information, such as when a person
reinterprets information from the original source, or commentary on and analyses of an original
document. When the minutes of historical meetings are summarized and transferred to a different
medium, they are now considered secondary sources.

The most valuable criterion for historical data sources is authenticity, and any source to be
used for historical research must undergo internal and external criticism. External criticism is based
on the analysis of the printed material; the ink and the type of paper used; the layout and physical
appearance; as well as its age and texture. Carbon dating is useful in determining the age of
substances in objects such as paper. Internal criticism involves establishing the authenticity and
originality of the materials by looking at the consistency of information. Motives and possible biases
of the author must be considered in trying to determine the accuracy of the materials.

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Case Study Design

A case study is a comprehensive, in-depth examination of a specific individual, group of

people, or institution. It may be used to gain insights into an obscure or specific problem; provide
background data for broader studies; or explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes.
Some of the disadvantages of case studies are the problems of general application, since the study
focuses only on specific subjects; the difficulty of determining the adequacy of data; the possibility of
biases; and the expense entailed by the design.
A case study may be considered quantitative or qualitative research, depending on the
purpose of the study and the approach chosen by the researcher. This is also true to other types of
qualitative studies, for a case study to be considered qualitative, the researcher must be interested
in abstract ideas and concepts, such as the meaning of an experience to a subject, rather than in
generalizing results to other groups of people. Case studies are not used to test hypotheses, but
hypotheses may be generated from case studies (Younger, 1985).

The data from case studies is evaluated through content analysis. It involves the
examination of communication messages. Care must be exercised in selecting subjects for case
studies. The researcher should avoid choosing only those participants who are expected to respond
favorably or unfavorably to the instrument.
The following are characteristics of a case study:
1. Case studies are time-consuming and may be quite costly.
2. It needs in-depth analysis of single or multiple case/s.
3. It uses multiple sources of data such as documentation, interviews, observation, and
environmental detail.
4. It may result in descriptions of themes and assertions.
5. It clarifies cases and contexts.
6. It can select and develop issues.

Grounded Theory Design

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Grounded theory is a systematic research approach developed by two sociologists, Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss, in which rigorous procedures (such as open coding—identifying,
naming, categorizing, and describing phenomena encountered in the study, as well as their
characteristics) are used to collect data, analyze that data, and formulate a theory on the matter at
hand. This theory can then be used to explain, provide a perspective on, or even predict behavior in
and of the particular context of the study’s subject.

The grounded theory method uses both an inductive and a deductive approach to theory
development. According to Field and Morse (1985), “constructs and concepts that are grounded in
the data and hypotheses are tested as they arise from the research.” In a deductive grounded
theory, a theory is formulated, then the collection of data follows. In an inductive approach, form is
the theory itself. Leininger (1985) asserts that a pre-study of the literature search could lead to
“premature closure.” This means that the researcher would go into the research setting expecting to
find what is reported in the literature.
The following are characteristics of a grounded theory design:

1. Purposeful sampling is used. The researcher looks for certain subjects who will be able to
shed new light on the phenomenon being studied. Diversity rather than similarity is sought
in the people that are sampled.

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 2. Data is gathered in naturalistic settings (field settings). Data collection primarily consists of
participant observation and interviews, and data are recorded through handwritten notes
and tape recordings.
3. Data collection and data analysis occur simultaneously. A process called constant
comparison is used, in which data gathered in the course of the study is constantly
compared to other data that had been gathered in previous studies.
4. It presumes that it is possible to discover fundamental patterns in all social life. These
patterns are called basic social processes.
5. It is more concerned with the generation rather than the testing of hypotheses.
6. Theoretical sampling used is a part of analysis.
7. A core category grounded in the data is identified (a study may not be able to fully develop
an explanatory theory but may usefully inform by description and exploration).

Action Research Design

Action research is a design which involves a cycle of identifying a problem regarding a

situation or process, developing a strategy for intervention (the ‘action’) with the purpose of
improving said situation or process, implementing said intervention, and observing and analyzing
the results until a sufficient level of understanding of (or valid solution to) the problem is achieved.
Generalizing the findings is not a goal of this study, as in the case of quantitative research studies.
In action research, the implementation of solutions occurs as an actual part of the research process.

Participatory action research is a special kind of community-based action research in

which there is a collaboration between the respondents or participants and the researcher in all the
steps of the study, including the determination of the problem, identification of the research methods
to use, analysis of data, and deciding how the study results will be used. One can say that the
participants and the researcher are co-researchers throughout the entire research study.

Meta-Analysis Design

This design is a systematic evaluation of multiple individual studies on a topic in order to not only

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

summarize the results, but also develop a new understanding of the research problem. This design
may also be used to analyze discrepancies in the results of individual studies, and its own results
have a bigger potential for generalization to a greater population. However, due to its complexity,
studies following such a design may prove difficult, expensive, and time-consuming.
A good meta-analysis study is characterized by:
1. precisely defined objectives, variables, and outcomes;
2. well-developed reasoning for its selection of studies, including an assessment and
acknowledgement of any bias that may have influenced said selection;
3. a detailed description and analysis of the degree of heterogeneity in the sample; and
4. justification for the techniques used in the analysis of the example.
SAMPLING IN RESEARCH
Sampling is a process through which a researcher selects a portion or segment from the
population at the center of the researcher’s study. The population is a group of persons or objects that
possess some common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher, and about which the
researcher seeks to learn more. There are two groups of population: the target population and the
accessible population. The target population is composed of the entire group of people or objects to
which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study, while the accessible population

55
is a portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access. For example, in a
study about the common difficulties encountered by senior high school students in their first
semester of school year 2016-2017, the target population may be all senior high school students in
Metro Manila. However, the researcher may have access only to the students of a specific school—
these students comprise the accessible population.
Researchers commonly select samples for study rather than entire populations due to
constraints in budget, time, and manpower. A good sample should be representative of the population,
such that the characteristics of the population—especially those pertinent to the study—are reflected in
the sample with a fair amount of accuracy. The individual participants in the study are often referred to
as subjects or respondents. The subjects are individuals or entities which serve as the focus of the
study. Respondents are individuals or groups of people who actively serve as sources of information
during data collection. The subjects of a study may also be its respondents, but there also times that
these are two groups of different individuals or entities. Subjects and respondents may also be referred
to as elements—particularly if said elements are objects, rather than people.

Take for example a study focused on the behavior of the students who belong to broken
families. The students who belong to these families are the subjects of the study, which may also be
the respondents the researcher seeks to interview directly. If the researcher interviews or surveys
the classmates of these students, the students remain the subjects, and the classmates then
become the respondents. A statistic is a number describing a property of a sample, whereas a
parameter is a number describing a property of a population. A statistic can be used to estimate the
parameter in what is called a statistical inference. For example: a researcher, examining all
marriages in the Philippines in the year 2016, wants to find a particular parameter—the mean age of
all the men in those marriages. From a sample of 1,000 subjects, she obtains a sample mean of 31
years. This figure is a statistic. Using this figure, she concludes that the mean age of Filipino men
who married in 2016 is likely to be close to 31, as well.

It is important for the researcher to use an acceptable sample size to ensure that their study
will be accurate. Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable the results of the study will be.
Hence, it is advisable to have a sample large enough to yield reliable results, yet small enough to be
manageable within the constraints of the study.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size

Homogeneity of the population. The higher the degree of homogeneity of the

population, the smaller the sample size that can be utilized.

Degree of precision desired by the researcher. The larger the sample size, the higher the
precision or accuracy of the results will be.
Types of sampling procedure. Probability sampling uses smaller sample sizes than non-
probability sampling.
Various Approaches to Determining the Sample Size

1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution
of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990).
2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve as the
sample size. This is called universal sampling.
3. Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size (Sevilla, 2003)

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According to Gay (1976), the following are the acceptable sizes for different types of research:

• Descriptive research – 10% to 20% may be required

• Comparative research – 15 subjects or groups

By using Calmorin’s formula, the problem is solved as follows:

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

TYPES AND SUBTYPES OF SAMPLING

In the book, Nursing Research: Principles and Methods, Polit and Beck (2004) list the different
types and subtypes of sampling:
1. Probability sampling is a type of sampling in which all the members of an entire population
have a chance of being selected. This is also called scientific sampling.
a. Simple random sampling is a method of choosing samples in which all the members
of the population are given an equal chance of being selected. It is an unbiased way
of selection, as samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of obtaining
samples through simple random sampling (Treece & Treece, 1986). These include
the roulette wheel, fishbowl method, and the use of a table of random numbers.

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 The fishbowl method observes the following steps:
i. The sampling frame, or a list of all the subjects or elements in the population
in question, should be prepared.
ii. All the names of the subjects or elements should be written down on strips of
paper (one name per strip of paper).
iii. The strips of paper with the listed names are then placed in a bowl or container.
iv. Samples can be drawn as desired.
A more systematic procedure for randomly selecting samples is the use of a
table of random numbers (see Figure 14.2). This table is a list of numbers that
have been generated in such a manner that there is no order or sequencing of
numbers. This table can be generated by a computer. These random numbers
can have any number of digits and are dependent on the size of the population.

Using a table of random numbers entails the following steps:

i. A number should be assigned to each element of the accessible

population.
ii. The table of random numbers should be entered at an arbitrary or
random starting point. This can be done by closing one’s eyes and
using a pen to point at a number.
iii. A systematic movement should be followed for going up or down, left
or right, or diagonally. The direction is not important but should be
decided before starting the process. This direction shall continue until
the total sample is selected.
iv. Continue to select numbers until the desired sample is reached.

b. In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into different strata,
and then the sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications are some
possible criteria used to divide a population into strata.

Example:

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A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school students. The
researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from the freshman, sophomore,
junior, and senior levels.

c. Cluster sampling is used in large-scale studies, where the population is

geographically spread out.

Sampling procedures may be difficult and time-consuming.

Example:
A researcher wants to interview 100 teachers across the country. It will be difficult and
expensive on their part to have respondents in 100 different cities or provinces. Cluster
sampling is helpful for the researcher who randomly selects the regions (first cluster), then
selects the schools (second cluster), and then the number of teachers.

d. Systematic sampling is a method of selecting every nth element of a population, e.g.,

every fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element until the desired sample size is reached.

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 2. Non-probability sampling. It is a process of selecting respondents in which not all
members of the entire population are given a chance of being selected as samples. There
are cases that certain segments of a population are given priority over others, such as when
a researcher does not intend to generalize to a larger population. This is also called non-
scientific sampling and is commonly used in qualitative research.

a. Convenience sampling. It is also called accidental or incidental sampling. Example:

Examples:
A researcher intends to study the elementary students of a particular school and has determined
the desired sample size. Due to the study’s constraints, the elementary pupils who are present at
the time of the researcher’s visit to the school will be chosen as respondents.

b. Quota sampling is somewhat similar to stratified sampling, in that the population is

divided into strata, and the researcher deliberately sets specific proportions in the
sample, whether or not the resulting proportion is reflective of the total population.

This is commonly done to ensure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population.
Example:

A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company regarding their thoughts on the
company’s new policies. The researcher intends to have representatives from all
departments in his sample, but one department is so small that doing random sampling
might result in that department not being represented. The researcher then sets a quota of
respondents from that department to ensure their inclusion in the sample.

c. Purposive sampling involves handpicking subjects, usually to suit very specific

intentions. This is also called judgmental sampling.
Example:

In a study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students and chooses
the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other students.

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In selecting the sample of a study, the following elements must be properly
discussed: the total population and its parameters; the sample and its statistics; the
sampling method with references to support it; an explanation and discussion of the
sampling method; an explanation of how the sampling was done; an enumeration of the
qualifying criteria; and the profiles of the subjects and/or respondents.

ASSSIGNMENT

INSTRUCTIONS: Research examples of methods of collecting data such as survey,

interview and observation for qualitative research. Look at your approved research titles and
reflect on the possible data collection methods to be employed.

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
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2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT IV: UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

Lesson 13: FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION

Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. differentiate the various types of data-gathering methods and
their tools and instruments and
B. choose or design their own data-gathering methods
and instruments.

CONCEPT NOTES

• Ask the students to analyze the

pictures provided.
• Have them identify their functions
in a research study

DATA COLLECTION
RESEARCH METHODS AND
THEIR INSTRUMENTS

An exciting part of research is

personally meeting the subjects or
respondents of the study and reading their

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

responses through the data-gathering
instruments. The task of the researcher is to
devise a way to examine and analyze the variables of interest so that the answers to the research
problem can be derived. The decisions on what tools and instruments to use and how they are
implemented are very critical issues that determine the validity and reliability of the findings.

MOST FREQUENTLY USED DATA COLLECTION

METHODS INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS
Interviews are conversations that are designed to obtain specific kinds of information. The skill of
the interviewer is necessary to enable the interviewee to express his or her thoughts clearly. Life
histories are also needed in this area. These are narrative self-disclosures about the individual’s life
experiences. The interviewer must guide the respondents to narrate the accounts in sequence. Data
obtained from an interview may be recorded on audiotapes or videotapes with the permission of the
respondent. This is because some researchers believe that recording responses by hand jeopardizes
rapport, reduces the amount of eye contact, and may disrupt the pace and flow of the interview.

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TYPES OF INTERVIEW

• Unstructured. The researcher must be skilled in steering the course of the interview. The
interviewer must be knowledgeable on the subject or topic of concern. This can be in the
form of normal conversations or a freewheeling exchange of ideas.
• Structured. The conduct of questioning follows a particular progression and has a well-
defined content. The interviewer does not ask questions that are not part of the
questionnaire but he or she asks the interviewee to clarify his or her answers.
• Semi-structured. There is a specific set of questions, but there are also additional probes
that may come in the form of follow-up questions that are not included in the list of original
questions. Through this process, the researcher can gather additional data from a
respondent that may add depth and significance to the findings.

The instrument often used in this method is the interview schedule. Although, interviews are
often dynamic and it is very difficult to get different interviews with different people to follow exactly
the same flow. Researchers can use interview schedules to ensure that the interview stays on track,
and even to give their interview the desired amount of structure.

GROUP INTERVIEWS

Group interviews are interviews conducted with several respondents simultaneously—

ideally six to ten people. This method may be used when a certain effect is desired, or if a topic calls
for it. For example, if the study seeks to examine a communal experience like commuting to school
or work, rather than a personal experience, then engaging respondents via group interview may
yield better results. Researchers conducting group interviews often use instruments called topic
guides, which resemble interview schedules, but are less restrictive in structure to allow the
respondents a more free and dynamic exchange of ideas. It is not uncommon to have two
researchers moderating a group interview—one to facilitate the discussion, and the other to take
notes, handle logistics, and the like. With permission from all the respondents, a group interview
may also be documented via a video or audio recording device.
Group interviews can be classified into two types:

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• Focus groups – Participants in a focus group are selected by the researcher according to
specific sampling criteria, e.g., licensed dermatologists who have been practicing for at least
ten years; current college students majoring in English who are vying for honors.
• Natural groups – The participants belong to a group that exists independently of the study,
e.g., all members of the marketing department of a certain company; members of a local
sports team.
OBSERVATION

This method enables the researcher to conduct research in an immersive manner, collecting
data on natural phenomena or behavior as it occurs. The instrument often used in conjunction with
this method is called an observation checklist or observation guide. Observation checklists are
quantitative in nature and make use of ratings or numerical rankings; observation guides are more
qualitative, and allow for more general, descriptive documentation.
Observation must be done in a quiet, inconspicuous, and unobtrusive manner to get realistic
data. It can be used to gather information such as the characteristics and conditions of individuals,
verbal communication, non-verbal communication and activities, and environmental conditions. The
following dimensions should be taken into consideration: the focus of observation: concealment, the

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condition wherein the subject of observation has no knowledge of that he or she is being
observed; duration; and the method of recording the observations.
There are two types of observation:

• Structured. The researcher devices a checklist as a data collection tool wherein expected
behaviors of interest have been specified. The researcher just records the frequency of the
occurrences of the behavior
• Unstructured. This is performed by the researcher as he or she tries to explain events
without any preconceived ideas about what will be observed. The researcher observes
things as they happen.
Advantages of Observation
• It is the most direct measure of behavior.
• It provides direct information.
• It is easy to complete and is efficient.
• It can be used in natural or experimental settings.

Disadvantages of Observation
• It may require training.
• It is susceptible to bias.
• Observer’s presence may create an artificial situation.
• It can potentially overlook meaningful aspects.
• It is open to misinterpretation.
• It is difficult to analyze.

Improving your Observation Skills (Revenaugh, 2010: Cox, 2015)

• Look at everyday life in a clear manner. Empty yourself of preoccupied thoughts.

• Be curious. As you look for some objects try to focus and look at every side of it, the color,
the shape, what makes it up and other details.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

• Be inquisitive. Always try to ask people questions.
• Be open to new experiences. Develop a positive attitude towards experiencing new things.
• Know your own behavior attitudes and personal skills and how they impact others. Go on
research. Surf the net. Read more.
• Be willing to seek the inputs of others. Be humble enough to receive criticisms, this will open
your mind to new avenues and perceptions.
• Be open to new ideas. Listen to someone. Attend meetings and convocations.
• Practice good listening skills.
• Set aside personal biases
• Be comfortable with ambiguity.

SURVEYS OR QUESTIONNAIRES
Surveys, also known as questionnaires, are perhaps the most commonly used instrument in
research particularly in quantitative research. It is a list of planned, written questions about a particular
topic, with spaces provided for the response to each question, intended to be answered by a number of
persons. This means that questionnaires are both a method and an instrument. It is relatively
inexpensive, easy to administer, potentially more consistent than the other methods, assures
confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on question-phrasing modes. However, it also has its own
disadvantages: respondents may interpret the questions differently, and may answer them in ways

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the researcher did not intend. There is also the strong possibility that some respondents will choose
not to fill out or return their questionnaires.

The questionnaire can be structured or unstructured. It is structured if possible answers are

provided and respondents just have to select from them. It is unstructured if the questions are open-
ended no options are provided and the respondents are free to answer however they wish.
Structured questionnaires are generally used for quantitative research, while unstructured
questionnaires are more suited to qualitative research.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1. Yes or No type. Items are answerable by a yes or a no.

Example: Do call center agents have
the right to refuse calls? ( ) Yes ( ) No

2. Recognition type. Fixed alternative answers are already provided, the respondents simply
choose from among the given choices. It contains close-ended questions.
_____ Elementary School graduate _____ College graduate
_____ High School graduate _____ MA/PhD
_____ Technical/Vocational school graduate _____ Others (pls. specify) ____

3. Completion type. The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the necessary
information. Questions are open-ended.
Example: As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will ________

4. Coding type. Numbers are assigned to names, choices, and other pertinent data. This
entails knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher, as statistical formula application
is necessary to arrive at the findings.

Example: On a scale of one to ten, how will you rate your student’s communication

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

skills?

5. Subjective type. The respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of concern.
Example: What can you say about teachers who are deeply committed to their work?

Researchers may choose to construct questionnaires consisting of a single type of question, or

divide their questionnaire into two or more short sections, each using a different type of question.

SCALES COMMONLY USED IN AN INSTRUMENT

Particularly for quantitative research, the data collected via the various instruments needs to
be managed in a measurable manner. The following scales are used in research instruments to
make respondents’ answers uniformly measurable:

• Likert Scale. It is a common scaling technique which consists of several declarative

statements that express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate how
much they agree or disagree with the statements. The answers usually come in the form of
acronyms, e.g., SA for Strongly Disagree, A for Agree, D for Disagree, and SD for Strongly
Disagree.

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 Example: A Likert scale that measures attitudes towards the ban of cell phones in schoo

The following items should be discussed on the formulation of the instrument of the study;
the type of instrument used; the conceptual definition of the instrument with corresponding
references; the rationale or reasons why the researcher decided to use the instrument; and the
description of the essential parts of the instrument.

Activity

APPLICATION
1. Instruct the to write 10 questions based on their research titles.
2. Remind them to follow the guidelines for the proper wording of interview questions.
3. Provide one-on-one student consultation when necessary.

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

4. Ask the students to submit the accomplished Research Activity

EXIT SLIP

• The students should complete their

exit slips, describing what they
learned in the lesson and should give
their responses to a prompt that you
pose to the class related to the day’s
lesson or information learned
• Collect their Exit Slips.
• And prior to the next session, review all
of the students’ Exit Slips to determine
how the next class session may need to
be structured differently to meet the
needs of all learners in your classroom.

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT V: ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Lesson 14: ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. differentiate the various types of data-gathering methods
and their tools and instruments;
B. design their own data-gathering methods and instruments.

CONCEPT NOTES

ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA

Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation
of patterns and themes in textual data and determines how these patterns and themes help
answer the research questions at hand. Qualitative data analysis is atime-consuming
process. It makes you deal with data coming from wide sources of information.

The National Science Foundation (1997) describes qualitative analysis as “unguided

by universal rules; has a fluid process that is greatly dependent on the evaluator and to the
context of the study; and adaptable to progressing studies and data.”

This section will provide a loosely structured guide for the steps one should take when
analyzing qualitative data. It is important to note that qualitative data analysis is an ongoing,
fluid, and cyclical process that happens throughout the data collection and evaluation stage
of the project and carries over to the data entry and analysis stages. Although the steps listed

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

below are somewhat sequential, they do not always happen in isolation from each other.

DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS

As mentioned, qualitative analysis is an ongoing and cyclical process. However, it is
important to note that while the earlier contents of the research paper is systematic (e.g., the
review of the related literature and studies), this process of qualitative data analysis is rather
fluid. Methods happen simultaneously as they are immediately necessary.

Data Analysis according to Yin (1994:102) ―data analysis consists of examining,

categorizing, tabulating, or otherwise recombining the evidence to address the initial
prepositions of a study. Giving the data an orderly appearance is putting them in a graph,
specifically a table of responses. Data analysis in a qualitative research is a rigorous act of a
thematic or theoretical organization of ideas or information into a certain format that is
capable of presenting groups of responses.

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 There are a variety of approaches to this process of analysis and interpretation. Some of
the most commonly used approaches include

➢
Content Analysis - used to analyze and interpret verbal data, or
behavioral data. Content can be analyzed descriptively or
interpretatively.
➢
Narrative Analysis - used to analyze text that may come from
variety of sources including transcripts from interviews, diaries,
field notes, surveys and other written forms. Narrative analysis
often involves reformulating stories presented by people in
different context and based on their different experiences.
➢
Discourse Analysis - a method of analyzing naturally occurring
spoken interactions and written text and is concerned with the
social context in which the communication occurred. It focuses
on how language is used in everyday life and looks at how
people express themselves.
➢
Grounded Theory - also called analytic induction. This is a
method that attempts to develop causal explanations of a
phenomenon from one or more cases being studied.
Explanations are altered as additional cases are studied until the
researcher arrives at a statement that fits all cases.
➢
Conversation Analysis - examines the use of language by
people as a type of action or skilled accomplishment. A key
concept in this analysis is the principle of people taking turns in
conversation. Meanings are usually shaped in the context of the
exchange itself.

GUIDELINES FOR THE ANALYSIS PROCESS

As the researcher moves between and within the steps of analysis, it is important to always
keep some guide questions in mind that will help one reflect on the study’s purpose, research
questions, and potential.

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• What patterns or common themes emerged around specific items in the data? How do these
patters helped shed light on the broader study question/s?
• Is there any deviation from these patterns? If there is, what factors could explain these
atypical responses?
• What interesting stories emerged from the data? How can these stories help shed light on
the broader study question?
• Do any of the patterns or common themes suggest that additional data needs to be
collected? Do any of the study questions need to be revised?
• Do the patterns support the findings of other corresponding qualitative analyses that have
been conducted?

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FORMAT OF THE DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS

In writing this part of the research paper, it is differently titled by various educational
institutions. Some of these are “Results and Discussions,” “Presentation and Discussion,” and
“Analysis of Findings”. The presentation, discussion, and analysis are usually included in Chapter IV
of the paper. However, in an APA style of writing, the chapter includes the results and discussion.
MAJOR ELEMENTS

1. Presentation of the data. This showcases the data for easy understanding of the reader.
They can be displayed using tables, diagrams, or other figures for easy comprehension.
2. Analysis. In this part, the knowledge and logical understanding of the researcher is required.
The important data are given enough attention as it will be the basis of the final results of the
study.
3. Interpretation. In this part, comprehensible statements are included after analyzing and
synthesizing the patterns and categories that are derived from the findings.
4. Discussion. After the analysis and interpretation of the data, the discussions and
explanations of the results are needed to give a more logical and empirical basis for the
conclusion. The transcripts and personal narration of events that serve as proof of the
themes and categories are mentioned in verbatim. In this part, the results of the investigation
are compared and contrasted with reviewed literature and studies.

Activity

GROUP WORK!
INSTRUCTIONS

1. The students are task to describe the data interpretation based on their
interview/survey from their respective participants.
2. Remind them to follow the guidelines for the proper wording of interview
questions.
3. Provide one-on-one student consultation when necessary.
4. Ask the students to submit the accomplished Research Activity
5. Each group will present their 1st draft of Chapter 3 (Methodologies, Data
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Analysis and Results & Discussion) to their teacher.

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

UNIT VI: REPORTING AND SHARING THE FINDINGS

Lesson 15: THE FORMULATION OF THE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS,

CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Learning Objectives: At the end of the session, students must be able to:
A. discuss the ways of formulating the summary of findings,
conclusion, and recommendations;
B. formulate the summary of findings, conclusion, and
recommendations of your research paper.

CONCEPT NOTES
CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH PAPER

Similar to the opening activity, a research paper eventually comes to its end point where all
the ideas presented in the earlier parts culminate and rationalize the findings of the study. This last
section is a very crucial part of the research paper because it binds all the concepts presented in
the paper to point out which direction the research is ultimately headed.

However, no new information should be presented in this part of the research paper.
According to Berry (2000), the concluding part should be a nod to the opening part. In his book The
Research Project: How to Write It, he stated that “the formal aim of the paper should be stated in
the opening paragraph; the conclusion should return to the opening and examine the original
purpose in the light of the data assembled. It is a prime error to present conclusions that are not
directly related to the evidence previously presented.”
In this part, the following are resolved in the research paper:

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

• The main points of the study are restated and summarized.
• The researcher’s questions are validated by the findings.
• A deeper meaning of the research is conveyed.
• A need for further investigation on the topic is highlighted.
• A solution to the problem is recommended.
• The concluding part is comprised of the summary of findings, conclusion, and
recommendations.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

This section serves as a brief restatement of the components of the research paper. This
section includes summarized statements for the overall purpose and objective of the study, the type
of research used, the nature and size of the sample, the locale of the study, the main and sub-
problems, and the major findings of the research. However, the restatements should be
straightforward but still meaningful. It should also state the findings from which the conclusion will be
derived. While these should be written in a concise manner, the clarity of thought should be
considered. To do so, the statements should be written in a way that the questions under the
statement of the problem are expressed first followed by the findings that would answer it.

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Summary of Findings Example 1:

Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development of

Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)

In summary, the participants believed that the principals of the three divisions exhibited six
prevailing leadership styles as viewed by their teacher and themselves: being strategic leaders in
facilitating the school improvement process; (2) being instructional leaders in managing the processes of
teaching and learning and managing human resource and professional development; (3) being external
leaders in designing structures and process that result in community engagement, support and
ownership; being managerial leaders responsible for various administration tasks of running the school
and seeing that the facilities and resources meet educational needs; (5) being ethical or moral leaders in
demonstrating conduct to the highest standard through personal actions and interpersonal relationships;
and (6) being cultural leaders possessing positive Kapampangan traits and observing and valuing
Kapampangan practices that helped them become effective leaders of their schools.
3

Summary of Findings Example 2:

The Level of Performance of Instructors: Basis for the Formulation of an Academic

Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2015)

Looking at the qualitative descriptions of the students to the instructors in terms of strengths,
the instructors are strong in mastery of the subject matter; explain the lessons; give enough
examples; are good teachers; and have humor. This denotes that the students are satisfied with the
knowledge and inputs of their instructors as they give enough examples. The theories and principles
being discussed are thoroughly understood by them. These strengths should be sustained if not
continuously enhanced.

For the areas of improvement, the students said that their instructors should further improve
the following: speaking in low volume; tardiness in class; lacking of instructional materials; speaking
in a fast pace; lacking interaction; repetitive instructional methods; poor time management; boring
classes; poor classroom management; and unclear grading system. Labeling these comments, it
could be inferred that instructors need more improvement in their instruction and classroom
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management. This only affirms the indicators and variables that need further improvement to
establish quality of instruction. This is very important because though instructors have a high
knowledge of their subject matter, how to impart them also needs care and consideration.
CONCLUSIONS

Essentially, the conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each problem. These
insights answer the questions presented at the beginning of the research paper. However, the
conclusion to be drawn should not come from the indirect implications of the study. It should be
limited within the information actually yielded by the conducted investigations. The conclusion is
simply stated and must be devoid of any elaborate discussion of the findings. Each item in the
conclusion is a precise statement directly answering the stated problems. This section should be
stated in a way that reader will in no way doubt the correctness of the entire research study.

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Conclusion Example 1:

Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development of

KapampanganPrincipal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)

The framework suggests a requirement for school leaders to develop a portfolio of

leadership styles. Principals need to be able to carry out holistic leadership, head, heart, hands, and
feet aspects or styles of leadership and adapt their approaches to the specific context. This
framework reminds principals of the need to maintain balance in dealing with their multi-faceted life.

Conclusion Example 2:

The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for a Human
Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2003)

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn.

Intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies are highly related to each other. The home
management styles, hobbies, involvement to civic and cultural organizations, self-esteem, self-
monitor, and intrapersonal competency are positively but negligibly related to school effectiveness,
while age, educational attainment, training, home atmosphere, locus of control, risk-taker, and all
the other specific variables of interpersonal competency are negatively and lowly related to school
effectiveness.

Human virtues and machiavellianism are positively slightly related to school effectiveness
while administrative experience is negatively slightly related to school effectiveness. The factors of
school effectiveness are human relation skills, professionalism, and management capability. The
proposed human relation intervention program is strongly agreed to be implemented.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, recommendations serve as practical
SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

suggestions for future research in similar fields. They are envisioned to further improve the pertinent
variables that were the subject of the investigation undertaken. Recommendations are expressed in
clear and concise terms. They are relevant to the research problems and are feasible for
implementation. The general recommendations may also be stated giving suggested measures to
concerned agencies, institutions, or to the government that may lead towards the betterment of
society in general.

The researcher’s final recommendation is addressed to other researchers who may want to
pursue similar studies. Moreover, suggested topics of interest or variables are given. In the case
that the qualitative study is conducted to propose an intervention program, the recommendation will
be the adaption of said program.

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Recommendations Example 1:

Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development of Kapampangan

Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)

Since this study is limited to a specific context and sampled a small number of principals, it is
recommended that a similar study be conducted in different contexts that would explore and
elaborate the role of culture in managing successful schools. It is also recommended that a
research-based, competency-linked, and a 360-degree evaluation or triangulation process for
Kapampangan principals be developed for evaluation of performance and basis in changing of high
quality professional learning programs.

Recommendations Example 2:

The Level of Performance of Instructors: Basis for the Formulation of an Academic

Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2015)

With the abovementioned conclusion, an academic program to further develop the

performance of instructors in the different departments of the Saint Paul School of Business
and Law is hereby recommended.

Activity

GROUP WORK!
INSTRUCTIONS:

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

1. The students are task to construct Chapter 4 (Summary of Findings, form 5
(Summary of Findings), form 6 (Conclusions and Recommendations) after
analyzing the data collected from the survey/interview.
2. Remind them to follow the guidelines for the proper construction of research paper.
3. Provide one-on-one student consultation when necessary.
4. Ask the students to submit the accomplished Research Forms/Activity
5. Each group will present their 1st draft of Chapter 5 (Summary of Findings and
Chapter 6 (Conclusions and Recommendations).

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 Cagayan de Oro Center
nd
2 level, Stary Building Max Suniel St., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines

OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER

A research paper is divided into chapters which are then subdivided into various components of the
research study. The following is the conventional outline of an academic research paper:

Chapter 1:
Introduction
Background of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Scope and Delimitation
Significance of the Study
Research Framework

Chapter 2:
Review of Related Literature
Review of Related Studies
Definition of Terms

Chapter 3:
Methodology
Research Design
Respondents of the Study
Instrument of the Study
Validity and Reliability
Statistical Treatment

GRADE 11: 1ST SEMESTER Prepared by Regina Mae F. Pacudan, LPT

Chapter 4:
Results and Discussions
Presentation of Data
Analysis
Interpretation
Discussion

Chapter 5: Summary of Findings

Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

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