6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

Compact disc
Compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that
was co-developed by Philips and Sony and released in 1982. The Compact disc
format was originally developed to store and play only sound
recordings (CD-DA) but was later adapted for storage of data (CD-
ROM). Several other formats were further derived from these,
including write-once audio and data storage (CD-R), rewritable
media (CD-RW), Video Compact Disc (VCD), Super Video Compact
Disc (SVCD), Photo CD, PictureCD, Compact Disc-Interactive (CD-
i), and Enhanced Music CD. The first commercially available audio
CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan.

Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres (4.7 in) and can
hold up to about 1 hour and 20 minutes of uncompressed audio or
about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging
from 60 to 80 millimetres (2.4 to 3.1 in); they are sometimes used
for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio, or delivering
device drivers.

At the time of the technology's introduction in 1982, a CD could The readable surface of a compact
store much more data than a personal computer hard drive, which disc includes a spiral track wound
would typically hold 10 MB. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered tightly enough to cause light to
as much storage space as a thousand CDs, while their prices had diffract into a full visible spectrum.
plummeted to commodity level. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio
CDs, CD-ROMs, and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs. By 2007, Media type Optical disc
200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide.[2] Encoding Various
Capacity Typically up to
From the early 2000s, CDs were increasingly being replaced by
other forms of digital storage and distribution, with the result that 700 MiB (up to
by 2010 the number of audio CDs being sold in the U.S. had dropped 80 minutes'
about 50% from their peak; however, they remained one of the audio)
primary distribution methods for the music industry.[3] In 2014, Read mechanism 780 nm
revenues from digital music services matched those from physical wavelength
format sales for the first time.[4] (infrared and
red edge)
semiconductor
Contents laser (early
players used
History
helium–neon
Digital audio laser-disc prototypes
lasers),[1] 1,200
Collaboration and standardization
Kibit/s (1×)
Initial launch and adoption
Write mechanism 780 nm
Further development and decline
wavelength
Awards and accolades
(infrared and
Physical details red edge)
Integrity semiconductor
Disc shapes and diameters laser in
Logical format recordable
Audio CD formats CD-R
Super Audio CD and CD-RW,
CD-MIDI pressed mold
CD-ROM (stamper) in
Video CD (VCD) readonly
Super Video CD formats
Photo CD Standard Rainbow Books
CD-i Developed by Philips, Sony
CD-i Ready Usage Audio and data
Enhanced Music CD (CD+)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 1/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

VinylDisc storage

Manufacture Extended from LaserDisc

Writable compact discs Extended to CD-RW

Recordable CD DVD
ReWritable CD Released 1 October 1982
Copy protection (Japan)
March 1983
Other uses
(Europe and
See also North America)
References
Further reading
External links

History
American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record digital
information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp.[5][6]
Russell's patent application was filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970. Following litigation,
Sony and Philips licensed Russell's patents (then held by a Canadian company, Optical Recording Corp.)
in the 1980s.[7][8][9]

The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a focused laser beam is used that
enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were
developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s.[10] Although originally dismissed by
Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit,[11] the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the
LaserDisc format struggled.[12] In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a
new digital audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard
was published in 1980. After their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were
extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United
States between 1983 and 1984.[13] By 1988, CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs,
and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes.[14][15] The success of the
compact disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, which together agreed
upon and developed compatible hardware. The unified design of the compact disc allowed consumers to
purchase any disc or player from any company, and allowed the CD to dominate the at-home music
market unchallenged.[16]

Digital audio laser-disc prototypes

In 1974, Lou Ottens, director of the audio division of Philips, started a small group to develop an
analog[17] optical audio disc with a diameter of 20 cm (7.9 in) and a sound quality superior to that of the
vinyl record.[18] However, due to the unsatisfactory performance of the analog format, two Philips
research engineers recommended a digital format in March 1974.[17] In 1977, Philips then established a
laboratory with the mission of creating a digital audio disc. The diameter of Philips's prototype compact
disc was set at 11.5 cm (4.5 in), the diagonal of an audio cassette.[17][19]

Heitaro Nakajima, who developed an early digital audio recorder within Japan's national public
broadcasting organization NHK in 1970, became general manager of Sony's audio department in 1971.
His team developed a digital PCM adaptor audio tape recorder using a Betamax video recorder in 1973.
After this, in 1974 the leap to storing digital audio on an optical disc was easily made.[20] Sony first
publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. A year later, in September 1977,
Sony showed the press a 30 cm (12 in) disc that could play an hour of digital audio (44,100 Hz sampling
rate and 16-bit resolution) using MFM modulation.[21] In September 1978, the company demonstrated
an optical digital audio disc with a 150-minute playing time, 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16-bit linear
resolution, and cross-interleaved error correction code—specifications similar to those later settled upon
for the standard compact disc format in 1980. Technical details of Sony's digital audio disc were
presented during the 62nd AES Convention, held on 13–16 March 1979, in Brussels.[21] Sony's AES
technical paper was published on 1 March 1979. A week later, on 8 March, Philips publicly demonstrated
a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called "Philips Introduce Compact
Disc"[22] in Eindhoven, Netherlands.[23]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 2/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

Collaboration and standardization

Sony executive Norio Ohga, later CEO and chairman of Sony, and Heitaro
Nakajima were convinced of the format's commercial potential and pushed
further development despite widespread skepticism.[24]

As a result, in 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to
design a new digital audio disc. Led by engineers Kees Schouhamer Immink
and Toshitada Doi, the research pushed forward laser and optical disc
technology.[22] After a year of experimentation and discussion, the task
force produced the Red Book CD-DA standard. First published in 1980, the
standard was formally adopted by the IEC as an international standard in
1987, with various amendments becoming part of the standard in 1996.

Philips coined the term compact disc in line with another audio product,
the Compact Cassette,[19] and contributed the general manufacturing
process, based on video LaserDisc technology. Philips also contributed 8- Dutch inventor and Philips
chief engineer Kees
to-14 modulation (EFM), while Sony contributed the error-correction
Schouhamer Immink was
method, CIRC, which offers a certain resilience to defects such as scratches
part of the team that
and fingerprints.
produced the standard
compact disc in 1980
The Compact Disc Story,[17] told by a former member of the task force,
gives background information on the many technical decisions made,
including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc
diameter. The task force consisted of around 6 persons,[11][25] though according to Philips, the compact
disc was "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team."[26]

Initial launch and adoption

Philips established the Polydor Pressing Operations plant in Langenhagen near Hannover, Germany,
and quickly passed a series of milestones.

The first test pressing was of a recording of Richard Strauss's Eine Alpensinfonie (An Alpine
Symphony) played by the Berlin Philharmonic and conducted by Herbert von Karajan, who had been
enlisted as an ambassador for the format in 1979.[27]
The first public demonstration was on the BBC television programme Tomorrow's World in 1981,
when the Bee Gees' album Living Eyes (1981) was played.[28]
The first commercial compact disc was produced on 17 August 1982, a 1979 recording of Chopin
waltzes by Claudio Arrau.[29]
The first 50 titles were released in Japan on 1 October 1982,[30] the very first of which was a re-
release of the Billy Joel album 52nd Street.[31]
The first CD played on BBC Radio was in October 1982 on BBC Radio Scotland (Jimmy Mack
programme, Followed by Ken Bruce and Eddie Mair all BBC Scotland), with the first CD played on
UK independent radio station shortly after (Radio Forth, Jay Crawford Show). The CD was Dire
Straits album Love Over Gold.[32]

The Japanese launch was followed in March 1983 by the introduction of CD players and discs to
Europe[33] and North America (where CBS Records released sixteen titles).[34] This 1983 event is often
seen as the "Big Bang" of the digital audio revolution. The new audio disc was enthusiastically received,
especially in the early-adopting classical music and audiophile communities, and its handling quality
received particular praise. As the price of players gradually came down, and with the introduction of the
portable Discman the CD began to gain popularity in the larger popular and rock music markets. With
the rise in CD sales, pre-recorded cassette tape sales began to decline in the late 1980s; CD sales
overtook cassette sales in the early 1990s.[35][36]

The first artist to sell a million copies on CD was Dire Straits, with their 1985 album Brothers in
Arms.[37] One of the first CD markets was devoted to reissuing popular music whose commercial
potential was already proven. The first major artist to have their entire catalog converted to CD was
David Bowie, whose first fourteen studio albums of (then) sixteen were made available by RCA Records
in February 1985, along with four greatest hits albums; his fifteenth and sixteenth albums had already
been issued on CD by EMI Records in 1983 and 1984, respectively.[38] On February 26, 1987, the first
four UK albums by the Beatles were released in mono on compact disc.[39] In 1988, 400 million CDs
were manufactured by 50 pressing plants around the world.[40]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 3/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

Further development and decline

The CD was planned to be the successor of the vinyl record for

playing music, rather than primarily as a data storage medium.
From its origins as a musical format, CDs have grown to encompass
other applications. In 1983, following the CD's introduction, Immink
and Braat presented the first experiments with erasable compact
discs during the 73rd AES Convention.[41] In June 1985, the
computer-readable CD-ROM (read-only memory) and, in 1990, CD-
Recordable were introduced, also developed by both Sony and
Sony CD Walkman D-E330
Philips.[42] Recordable CDs were a new alternative to tape for
recording music and copying music albums without defects
introduced in compression used in other digital recording methods.
Other newer video formats such as DVD and Blu-ray use the same physical geometry as CD, and most
DVD and Blu-ray players are backward compatible with audio CD.

CD sales in the United States peaked by 2000.[43] By the early 2000s, the CD player had largely replaced
the audio cassette player as standard equipment in new automobiles, with 2010 being the final model
year for any car in the United States to have a factory-equipped cassette player.[44] With the increasing
popularity of portable digital audio players, such as mobile phones, and solid state music storage, CD
players are being phased out of automobiles in favor of minijack auxiliary inputs, wired connection to
USB devices and wireless Bluetooth connection.[45]

Meanwhile, with the advent and popularity of Internet-based distribution of files in lossily-compressed
audio formats such as MP3, sales of CDs began to decline in the 2000s. For example, between 2000 and
2008, despite overall growth in music sales and one anomalous year of increase, major-label CD sales
declined overall by 20%,[46] although independent and DIY music sales may be tracking better according
to figures released March 30th, 2009, and CDs still continue to sell greatly.[47] As of 2012, CDs and
DVDs made up only 34% of music sales in the United States.[48] By 2015, only 24% of music in the
United States was purchased on physical media, 2/3 of this consisting of CDs;[49] however, in the same
year in Japan, over 80% of music was bought on CDs and other physical formats.[50] In 2018, U.S. CD
sales were 52 million units—less than 6% of the peak sales volume in 2000.[43]

Despite the rapidly declining sales year-over-year, the pervasiveness of the technology remained for a
time, with companies placing CDs in pharmacies, supermarkets, and filling station convenience stores
targeting buyers least able to use Internet-based distribution.[12] In 2018 Best Buy announced plans to
decrease their focus on CD sales, however, while continuing to sell records, sales of which are growing
during the vinyl revival.[51][52][53]

Awards and accolades

Sony and Philips received praise for the development of the compact disc from professional
organizations. These awards include

Technical Grammy Award for Sony and Philips, 1998.[54]

IEEE Milestone award, 2009, for Philips only with the citation: "On 8 March 1979, N.V. Philips'
Gloeilampenfabrieken demonstrated for the international press a Compact Disc Audio Player. The
demonstration showed that it is possible by using digital optical recording and playback to reproduce
audio signals with superb stereo quality. This research at Philips established the technical standard
for digital optical recording systems."[55]

Physical details
A CD is made from 1.2-millimetre (0.047 in) thick, polycarbonate plastic and weighs 15–20 grams.[56]
From the center outward, components are: the center spindle hole (15 mm), the first-transition area
(clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the
program (data) area, and the rim. The inner program area occupies a radius from 25 to 58 mm.

A thin layer of aluminum or, more rarely, gold is applied to the surface, making it reflective. The metal is
protected by a film of lacquer normally spin coated directly on the reflective layer. The label is printed on
the lacquer layer, usually by screen printing or offset printing.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 4/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

CD data is represented as tiny indentations known as pits, encoded

in a spiral track moulded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The
areas between pits are known as lands. Each pit is approximately
100 nm deep by 500 nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 µm in
length.[57] The distance between the tracks (the pitch) is
1.6 µm.[58][59][60]

When playing an audio CD, a motor within the CD player spins the
disc to a scanning velocity of 1.2–1.4 m/s (constant linear velocity,
CLV)—equivalent to approximately 500 RPM at the inside of the
disc, and approximately 200 RPM at the outside edge. The track on
the CD begins at the inside and spirals outward so a disc played from
beginning to end slows its rotation rate during playback. Diagram of CD layers

A. A polycarbonate disc layer

has the data encoded by
using bumps.
B. A shiny layer reflects the
laser.
C. A layer of lacquer protects
the shiny layer.
Comparison of various optical storage media
D. Artwork is screen printed
on the top of the disc.
The program area is 86.05 cm2 and the length of the recordable E. A laser beam reads the CD
spiral is 86.05 cm2 / 1.6 µm = 5.38 km. With a scanning speed of and is reflected to a
1.2 m/s, the playing time is 74 minutes, or 650 MiB of data on a CD-
sensor, which converts it
ROM. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by
most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of into electronic data
1.2 m/s and a narrower track pitch of 1.5 µm increases the playing
time to 80 minutes, and data capacity to 700 MiB.

A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm wavelength (near infrared)

semiconductor laser through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer.
The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference
in the way the light is reflected. Because the pits are indented into
the top layer of the disc and are read through the transparent
polycarbonate base, the pits form bumps when read.[61] The laser
hits the disc, casting a circle of light wider than the modulated spiral
track reflecting partially from the lands and partially from the top of
any bumps where they are present. As the laser passes over a pit
(bump), its height means that the part of the light reflected from its
peak is 1/2 wavelength out of phase with the light reflected from the
The pits in a CD are 500 nm wide,
land around it. This causes partial cancellation of the laser's
between 830 nm and 3,000 nm long
reflection from the surface. By measuring the reflected intensity
and 150 nm deep.
change with a photodiode, a modulated signal is read back from the
disc.

To accommodate the spiral pattern of data, the laser is placed on a mobile mechanism within the disc
tray of any CD player. This mechanism typically takes the form of a sled that moves along a rail. The sled
can be driven by a worm gear or linear motor. Where a worm gear is used, a second shorter-throw linear
motor, in the form of a coil and magnet, makes fine position adjustments to track eccentricities in the
disk at high speed. Some CD drives (particularly those manufactured by Philips during the 1980s and
early 1990s) use a swing arm similar to that seen on a gramophone. This mechanism allows the laser to
read information from the center to the edge of a disc without having to interrupt the spinning of the
disc itself.

The pits and lands do not directly represent the 0's and 1's of binary data. Instead, non-return-to-zero,
inverted encoding is used: a change from either pit to land or land to pit indicates a 1, while no change
indicates a series of 0's. There must be at least 2, and no more than 10 0's between each 1, which is
defined by the length of the pit. This, in turn, is decoded by reversing the eight-to-fourteen modulation
used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding, finally
revealing the raw data stored on the disc. These encoding techniques (defined in the Red Book) were
originally designed for CD Digital Audio, but they later became a standard for almost all CD formats
(such as CD-ROM).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 5/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

Integrity

CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from

environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a
disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of
focus during playback. Consequently, CDs are more likely to suffer
damage on the label side of the disc. Scratches on the clear side can
be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by
careful polishing. The edges of CDs are sometimes incompletely
sealed, allowing gases and liquids to enter the CD and corrode the Philips CDM210 CD Drive
metal reflective layer and/or interfere with the focus of the laser on
the pits, a condition known as disc rot.[62] The fungus Geotrichum
candidum has been found—under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate
plastic and aluminium found in CDs.[63][64]

Disc shapes and diameters

The digital data on a CD begins at the center of the disc

and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation
to the different size formats available. Standard CDs are
available in two sizes. By far, the most common is 120
millimetres (4.7 in) in diameter, with a 74- or 80-minute
audio capacity and a 650 or 700 MiB (737,280,000-byte)
data capacity. Discs are 1.2 mm thick, with a 15 mm
center hole. The official Philips history says this capacity
was specified by Sony executive Norio Ohga to be able to
contain the entirety of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on
one disc.[24] This is a myth according to Kees Immink, as
the code format had not yet been decided in December
1979. The adoption of EFM in June 1980 would have
allowed a playing time of 97 minutes for 120 mm
diameter or 74 minutes for a disc as small as 100 mm,
but instead the information density was lowered by 30
Comparison of several forms of disk storage
percent to keep the playing time at 74 minutes.[65][11][66]
showing tracks (not-to-scale); green denotes start
The 120 mm diameter has been adopted by subsequent
and red denotes end.
formats, including Super Audio CD, DVD, HD DVD, and * Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W)
Blu-ray Disc. The 80-mm-diameter discs ("Mini CDs") recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV modes.
can hold up to 24 minutes of music or 210 MiB.

Audio CD-ROM data

Physical size Definition
capacity capacity
74–80
120 mm 650–700 MiB Standard size
min
21–24
80 mm 185–210 MiB Mini-CD size
min
80×54 mm – "Business
~6 min 10–65 MiB
80×64 mm card" size

Logical format

Audio CD

The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a
document produced in 1980 by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips. The document is known
colloquially as the Red Book CD-DA after the color of its cover. The format is a two-channel 16-bit PCM
encoding at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per channel. Four-channel sound was to be an allowable option
within the Red Book format, but has never been implemented. Monaural audio has no existing standard
on a Red Book CD; thus, the mono source material is usually presented as two identical channels in a
standard Red Book stereo track (i.e., mirrored mono); an MP3 CD, however, can have audio file formats
with mono sound.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 6/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

CD-Text is an extension of the Red Book specification for an audio CD that allows for the storage of
additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD.
The information is stored either in the lead-in area of the CD, where there is roughly five kilobytes of
space available or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.

Compact Disc + Graphics is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the
audio data on the disc. The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special
CD+G player, it can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD+G player is hooked up to a television set
or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for
karaoke performers to sing along with. The CD+G format takes advantage of the channels R through W.
These six bits store the graphics information.

CD + Extended Graphics (CD+EG, also known as CD+XG) is an improved variant of the Compact Disc +
Graphics (CD+G) format. Like CD+G, CD+EG uses basic CD-ROM features to display text and video
information in addition to the music being played. This extra data is stored in subcode channels R-W.
Very few, if any, CD+EG discs have been published.

Super Audio CD

Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution read-only optical audio disc format that was designed to
provide higher-fidelity digital audio reproduction than the Red Book. Introduced in 1999, it was
developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the Red Book. SACD was in a format
war with DVD-Audio, but neither has replaced audio CDs. The SACD standard is referred to as the
Scarlet Book standard.

Titles in the SACD format can be issued as hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as
well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward
compatible.

CD-MIDI

CD-MIDI is a format used to store music-performance data, which upon playback is performed by
electronic instruments that synthesize the audio. Hence, unlike the original Red Book CD-DA, these
recordings are not digitally sampled audio recordings. The CD-MIDI format is defined as an extension of
the original Red Book.

CD-ROM

For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio. However, in 1988,
the Yellow Book CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile
optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs,
readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.

Video CD (VCD)

Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video
media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern DVD-Video players, personal
computers, and some video game consoles.

The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the
White Book standard.

Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to VHS video. Poorly compressed VCD video can
sometimes be lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise
and does not deteriorate further with each use.

352×240 (or SIF) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical and half the horizontal resolution
of the NTSC video. 352×288 is similarly one-quarter PAL/SECAM resolution. This approximates the
(overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan
lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution.

Super Video CD

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 7/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on
standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video and
falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality.

SVCD has two thirds the resolution of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD-R disc can
hold up to 60 minutes of standard-quality SVCD-format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video
length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, to
accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto
one SVCD without incurring significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play video
with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second.

Photo CD

Photo CD is a system designed by Kodak for digitizing and storing photos on a CD. Launched in 1992,
the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high-quality images, scanned prints and slides using special
proprietary encoding. Photo CDs are defined in the Beige Book and conform to the CD-ROM XA and
CD-i Bridge specifications as well. They are intended to play on CD-i players, Photo CD players, and any
computer with suitable software (irrespective of operating system). The images can also be printed out
on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine. This format is not to be confused with Kodak
Picture CD, which is a consumer product in CD-ROM format.

CD-i

The Philips Green Book specifies a standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for CD-i
players (1993). CD-i discs can contain audio tracks that can be played on regular CD players, but CD-i
discs are not compatible with most CD-ROM drives and software. The CD-i Ready specification was later
created to improve compatibility with audio CD players, and the CD-i Bridge specification was added to
create CD-i compatible discs that can be accessed by regular CD-ROM drives.

CD-i Ready

Philips defined a format similar to CD-i called CD-i Ready, which puts CD-i software and data into the
pregap of track 1. This format was supposed to be more compatible with older audio CD players.

Enhanced Music CD (CD+)

Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD Extra or CD Plus, is a format which combines audio tracks and
data tracks on the same disc by putting audio tracks in a first session and data in a second session. It was
developed by Philips and Sony, and it is defined in the Blue Book.

VinylDisc

VinylDisc is the hybrid of a standard audio CD and the vinyl record. The vinyl layer on the disc's label
side can hold approximately three minutes of music.

Manufacture
In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD. Wholesale cost of
CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, while the typical retail price of a prerecorded music CD was $16.98.[67] On
average, the store received 35 percent of the retail price, the record company 27 percent, the artist 16
percent, the manufacturer 13 percent, and the distributor 9 percent.[67] When 8-track tapes, cassette
tapes, and CDs were introduced, each was marketed at a higher price than the format they succeeded,
even though the cost to produce the media was reduced. This was done because the apparent value
increased. This continued from vinyl to CDs but was broken when Apple marketed MP3s for $0.99, and
albums for $9.99. The incremental cost, though, to produce an MP3 is negligible.[68]

Writable compact discs

Recordable CD

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 8/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

Recordable Compact Discs, CD-Rs, are injection-molded with a

"blank" data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which
the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated. The write laser of the CD
recorder changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a
standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard
stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM
drives and played in most audio CD players. CD-Rs follow the
Orange Book standard.

CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time, the dye's

physical characteristics may change causing read errors and data
loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction
methods. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the
quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage
conditions. However, testing has demonstrated such degradation of
some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage
conditions.[69][70] This failure is known as disc rot, for which there
are several, mostly environmental, reasons.[71]

The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio

CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial
Copy Management System), an early form of digital rights
management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home
Individual pits are visible on the
Recording Act). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat
micrometer scale.
more expensive than CD-R due to lower production volume and a 3
percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for
the making of a copy.[72]

High-capacity recordable CD is a higher-density recording format

that can hold 20% more data than of conventional discs.[73] The
higher capacity is incompatible with some recorders and recording
software.[74]

ReWritable CD

CD-RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead

of a dye. The write laser, in this case, is used to heat and alter the
properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change 700 MiB CD-R next to a mechanical
its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in pencil for scale
reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio
players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio
players and stand-alone DVD players can. CD-RWs follow the Orange Book standard.

The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which will not
(without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use the Serial
Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to
the United States' Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat
more expensive than CD-RW due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to
compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.[72]

Copy protection
The Red Book audio specification, except for a simple "anti-copy" statement in the subcode, does not
include any copy protection mechanism. Known at least as early as 2001,[75] attempts were made by
record companies to market "copy-protected" non-standard compact discs, which cannot be ripped, or
copied, to hard drives or easily converted to other formats (like FLAC, MP3 or Vorbis). One major
drawback to these copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives or
some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that such discs are not
permitted to bear the trademarked Compact Disc Digital Audio logo because they violate the Red Book
specifications. Numerous copy-protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free,
software, or even by simply turning off automatic AutoPlay to prevent the running of the DRM
executable program.

Other uses
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 9/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

After the fall in popularity of CDs, old discs or failed CD-R have been
repurposed, since the reflections of the sun on a moving plate may
scare birds.

See also
5.1 Music Disc
Compact disc bronzing
Digipak
DualDisc Old CDs hanging from a tree to
scare birds from the crops.
Extended Resolution Compact Disc
GD-ROM
Hidden Track
High Definition Compatible Digital
Longbox
SPARS code
Video Single Disc
List of optical disc manufacturers

References
1. Träger, Frank (5 May 2012). Springer Handbook of Lasers and Optics (https://books.google.com/?id
=Ad5G1HWtDRgC&pg=PA824&lpg=PA824&dq=cd+player+hene#v=onepage).
ISBN 9783642194092.
2. "Compact Disc Hits 25th birthday" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6950845.stm). BBC News.
17 August 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100218031404/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/t
echnology/6950845.stm) from the original on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2009.
3. Plambeck, Joseph (30 May 2010). "As CD Sales Wane, Music Retailers Diversify" (https://www.nytim
es.com/2010/05/31/business/media/31bestbuy.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20170501175846/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/31/business/media/31bestbuy.html)
from the original on 1 May 2017.
4. "IFPI publishes Digital Music Report 2015" (http://www.ifpi.org/news/Global-digital-music-revenues-m
atch-physical-format-sales-for-first-time). 14 April 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150
414194629/http://www.ifpi.org/news/Global-digital-music-revenues-match-physical-format-sales-for-fi
rst-time) from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
5. U.S. Patent 3,502,000 (https://www.google.com/patents/US3502000) Analog to digital to optical
photographic recording and playback system, March 1970.
6. U.S. Patent 3,796,000 (https://www.google.com/patents/US3796000) Method and apparatus for
synchronizing photographic records of digital information, March 1974.
7. Brier Dudley (29 November 2004). "Scientist's invention was let go for a song" (http://seattletimes.co
m/html/businesstechnology/2002103322_cdman29.html). The Seattle Times. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20140810225444/http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2002103322_cdm
an29.html) from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
8. "Inventor and physicist James Russell '53 will receive Vollum Award at Reed's convocation" (http://re
ed.edu/news_center/press_releases/2000-2001/288.html) (Press release). Reed College public
affairs office. 2000. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131009170700/http://www.reed.edu/ne
ws_center/press_releases/2000-2001/288.html) from the original on 9 October 2013. Retrieved
24 July 2014.
9. "Inventor of the Week - James T. Russell - The Compact Disc" (https://web.archive.org/web/2003041
7162935/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/russell.html). MIT. December 1999. Archived from the original
(http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/russell.html) on 17 April 2003.
10. "The History of the CD" (https://www.philips.com/a-w/research/technologies/cd/beginning.html).
Philips Research. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
11. K. Schouhamer Immink (2007). "Shannon, Beethoven, and the Compact Disc" (https://www.research
gate.net/publication/322951358). IEEE Information Theory Society Newsletter. 57: 42–46. Retrieved
6 February 2018.
12. Straw, Will (2009). "The Music CD and Its Ends". Design and Culture. 1 (1): 79–91.
doi:10.2752/175470709787375751 (https://doi.org/10.2752%2F175470709787375751).
13. Rasen, Edward. "Compact Discs: Sound of the Future" (http://www.spin.com/1985/05/compact-discs-
sound-of-the-future/). Spin. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151216064105/http://www.spin.
com/1985/05/compact-discs-sound-of-the-future/) from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved
9 January 2016.
14. Billboard (March 1992). "CD Unit Sales Pass Cassettes, Majors Say". Billboard.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 10/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

15. Kozinn, Allan (December 1988). "Have Compact Disks Become Too Much of a Good Thing?". The
New York Times.
16. Introducing the amazing Compact Disc (1982) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Tx6TYnPat8).
Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 10 June 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151123
170700/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Tx6TYnPat8) from the original on 23 November 2015.
Retrieved 9 January 2016 – via YouTube.
17. K. Schouhamer Immink (1998). "Compact Disc Story" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294
484774). Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. 46 (5): 458–460. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
18. Why CDs may actually sound better than vinyl (http://www.laweekly.com/music/why-cds-may-actually
-sound-better-than-vinyl-5352162) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160409132701/http://ww
w.laweekly.com/music/why-CDs-may-actually-sound-better-than-vinyl-5352162) 9 April 2016 at the
Wayback Machine, Chris Kornelis, 27 January 2015
19. Peek, Hans B. (January 2010). "The Emergence of the Compact Disc". IEEE Communications
Magazine. 48 (1): 10–17. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2010.5394021 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMCOM.201
0.5394021). ISSN 0163-6804 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0163-6804).
20. McClure, Steve (8 January 2000). Heitaro Nakajima (https://books.google.com/books?id=kw0EAAAA
MBAJ&pg=PA68). Billboard. p. 68. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150319065246/http://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=kw0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA68) from the original on 19 March 2015.
Retrieved 4 November 2014.
21. "A Long Play Digital Audio Disc System" (http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=2912). AES.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090725223113/http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=29
12) from the original on 25 July 2009. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
22. "How the CD Was Developed" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071222035025/http://news.bbc.co.uk/
2/hi/technology/6950933.stm). BBC News. 17 August 2007. Archived from the original (http://news.b
bc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6950933.stm) on 22 December 2007. Retrieved 17 August 2007.
23. "Philips Compact Disc" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090319141821/http://www.philipsmuseumein
dhoven.nl/phe/products/e_cd.htm). Philips. Archived from the original (http://www.philipsmuseumeind
hoven.nl/phe/products/e_cd.htm) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
24. "Sony chairman credited with developing CDs dies" (http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/04/24/sony
-chairman-credited-developing-cds-dies/), Fox News, 24 April 2011, archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20130521044524/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/04/24/sony-chairman-credited-developi
ng-cds-dies/) from the original on 21 May 2013, retrieved 14 October 2012
25. Knopper, Steve (7 January 2009). "Appetite for Self-Destruction: The Rise and Fall of the Record
Industry in the Digital Age". Free Press/Simon & Schuster.
26. "The Inventor of the CD" (https://archive.today/20080129201342/http://www.research.philips.com/ne
wscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html). Philips Research. Archived from the original (http://www.re
search.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html) on 29 January 2008. Retrieved
16 January 2009.
27. Kelly, Heather (29 September 2012). "Rock on! The compact disc turns 30" (http://www.cnn.com/201
2/09/28/tech/innovation/compact-disc-turns-30). CNN. Retrieved 30 September 2012. "The first test
CD was Richard Strauss's Eine Alpensinfonie, and the first CD actually pressed at a factory was
ABBA's The Visitors, but that disc wasn't released commercially until later."
28. Bilyeu, Melinda; Hector Cook; Andrew Môn Hughes (2004). The Bee Gees:tales of the brothers
Gibb. Omnibus Press. p. 519. ISBN 978-1-84449-057-8.
29. "Debut of the Compact Disc" (https://www.chonday.com/16551/decbucdkl3/). www.chonday.com. 14
August 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2019.
30. "Sony History: A Great Invention 100 Years On" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080802133849/htt
p://www.sony.net/Fun/SH/1-20/h5.html). Sony. Archived from the original (http://www.sony.net/Fun/S
H/1-20/h5.html) on 2 August 2008. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
31. Giles, Jeff (1 October 2012). "How Billy Joel's '52nd Street' Became the First Compact Disc
released" (http://ultimateclassicrock.com/the-first-compact-disc-released/). Ultimate Classic Rock.
Townsquare Media, LLC. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170706021629/http://ultimateclass
icrock.com/the-first-compact-disc-released/) from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 13 October
2017.
32. http://www.hificorner.co.uk Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171004211808/http://www.hificor
ner.co.uk/) 4 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
33. "Philips celebrates 25th anniversay of the Compact Disc" (http://www.newscenter.philips.com/main/st
andard/about/news/press/20070816_25th_anniversary_cd.wpd) Archived (https://wayback.archive-it.
org/all/20150817154431/http://www.newscenter.philips.com/main/standard/about/news/press/200708
16_25th_anniversary_cd.wpd) 17 August 2015 at Archive-It, Philips Media Release, 16 August 2007.
Retrieved 6 October 2013.
34. Kaptainis, Arthur (5 March 1983). "Sampling the latest sound: should last a lifetime". The Globe and
Mail. Toronto. p. E11.
35. "Record and prerecorded tape stores" (http://www.answers.com/topic/record-and-prerecorded-tape-s
tores). Gale Encyclopedia of American Industries. 2005. Retrieved 20 September 2006.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 11/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

36. Harlow, Oliva. "When Did the CD Replace the Cassette Tape?" (https://southtree.com/blogs/artifact/
when-did-the-cd-replace-the-cassette-tape). artifact. Retrieved 13 October 2019.
37. Maxim, 2004
38. The New Schwann Record & Tape Guide Volume 37 No. 2 February 1985
39. JON PARELES (25 February 1987). "NOW ON CD'S, FIRST 4 BEATLES ALBUMS" (https://www.nyt
imes.com/1987/02/25/arts/now-on-cd-s-first-4-beatles-albums.html). New York Times.
40. MAC Audio News. No. 178, November 1989. pp 19-21 Glenn Baddeley. November 1989 News
Update. Melbourne Audio Club Inc.
41. K. Schouhamer Immink and J. Braat (1984). "Experiments Toward an Erasable Compact Disc" (http
s://www.researchgate.net/publication/237764745). J. Audio Eng. Soc. 32: 531–538. Retrieved
2 February 2018.
42. The world's first CD-R was made by the Japanese firm Taiyo Yuden Co., Ltd. in 1988 as part of the
joint Philips-Sony development effort.
43. Richter, Felix. "The Rise and Fall of the Compact Disc" (https://www.statista.com/chart/12950/cd-sale
s-in-the-us/). Statista. Retrieved 13 October 2019.
44. Williams, Stephen (4 February 2011). "For Car Cassette Decks, Play Time Is Over" (https://www.nyti
mes.com/2011/02/06/automobiles/06AUDIO.html). New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20121110105333/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/06/automobiles/06AUDIO.html) from the
original on 10 November 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
45. "As Digital Content Moves into Cars, CD Players Begin to Move Out." (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0161008194548/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-189276198.html), Journal of Transportation, 8
November 2008, archived from the original (https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-189276198.html)
on 8 October 2016, retrieved 24 August 2016
46. Smith, Ethan (2 January 2009). "Music Sales Decline for Seventh Time in Eight Years: Digital
Downloads Can't Offset 20% Plunge in CD Sales" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB12307598883664
6491?mod=rss_whats_news_technology&mg=com-wsj). Wall Street Journal. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20171020191140/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123075988836646491?mod=rss_w
hats_news_technology&mg=com-wsj) from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 4 March
2009.
47. "CD Baby Payouts Surge « Indie Music Stop" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110718100639/http://in
diemusicstop.wordpress.com/2009/04/01/cd-baby-payouts-surge/). Indiemusicstop.wordpress.com.
30 March 2009. Archived from the original (http://indiemusicstop.wordpress.com/2009/04/01/cd-baby
-payouts-surge/) on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2009.
48. "Buying CDs continues to be a tradition in Japan - Tokyo Times" (http://www.tokyotimes.com/buying-
cds-continues-to-be-a-tradition-in-japan/). 23 August 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
161220150903/http://www.tokyotimes.com/buying-cds-continues-to-be-a-tradition-in-japan/) from the
original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2016.
49. Friedlander, Joshua P. (2015). "News and Notes on 2015 Mid-Year RIAA Shipment and Revenue
Statistics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150930135150/http://riaa.com/media/238E8AC7-3810-A95
C-44DC-B6DEB46A3C6E.pdf) (PDF). Recording Industry Association of America. Archived from the
original (http://riaa.com/media/238E8AC7-3810-A95C-44DC-B6DEB46A3C6E.pdf) (PDF) on 30
September 2015.
50. Sisaro, Ben. New York Times 11 June 2015: "Music Streaming Service Aims at Japan, Where CD Is
Still King" (https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/12/business/media/line-music-a-new-streaming-service
-aims-at-japanese-market.html?_r=0). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171020191923/http
s://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/12/business/media/line-music-a-new-streaming-service-aims-at-japan
ese-market.html?_r=0) from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
51. Ong, Thuy (6 February 2018). "Best Buy will stop selling CDs as digital music revenue continues to
grow" (https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/6/16973538/bestbuy-target-cd-sales-vinyl-cassette). The
Verge. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
52. Owsinski, Bobby (7 July 2018). "Best Buy, Winding Down CD Sales, Pounds Another Nail Into The
Format's Coffin" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/bobbyowsinski/2018/07/07/best-buy-cd-sales/amp/).
Forbes.
53. Chris Morris (2 July 2018). "End of a Era: Best Buy Significantly Cuts Back on CDs" (http://fortune.co
m/2018/07/02/best-buy-ends-cd-sales/). Fortune.
54. "Technical Grammy Award" (http://www.grammy.org/recording-academy/producers-and-engineers/a
wards). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141026094809/http://www.grammy.org/recording-ac
ademy/producers-and-engineers/awards) from the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved
5 November 2014.
55. "IEEE CD Milestone" (http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Compact_Disc_Audio_Playe
r,_1979). IEEE Global History Network. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091126195434/htt
p://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Compact_Disc_Audio_Player,_1979) from the
original on 26 November 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2010.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 12/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

56. "Q. How Do You Calculate Moment of Inertia?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090417000316/http://

www.cd-testing.com/). Archived from the original (http://www.cd-testing.com/#i17) on 17 April 2009.
Retrieved 19 August 2009. "a typical disc with ... weight of 15 grams ... maximum allowed weight
(20 g)"
57. "Compact Disc" (http://www.laesieworks.com/digicom/Storage_CD.html). Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20160512100137/http://www.laesieworks.com/digicom/Storage_CD.html) from the
original on 12 May 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
58. Sharpless, Graham (July 2003). "Introduction to CD and CD-ROM" (http://www.multimediadirector.co
m/help/technology/downloads/tech_docs/cdintroduction.pdf) (PDF). Deluxe Global Media Services
Ltd. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160309135812/http://www.multimediadirector.com/help/
technology/downloads/tech_docs/cdintroduction.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2016.
Retrieved 3 May 2016.
59. "IEC 60908 Audio recording - Compact disc digital audio system" (https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/
3885). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160506194944/https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/38
85) from the original on 6 May 2016.
60. "ISO/IEC 10149 Information technology -- Data interchange on read-only 120 mm optical data disks
(CD-ROM)" (https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/9362). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201605
06194949/https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/9362) from the original on 6 May 2016.
61. An Introduction to Digital Audio, John Watkinson, 1994
62. Council on Library and Information Resources: Conditions that Affect CDs and DVDs (http://www.clir.
org/pubs/reports/pub121/sec5.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160915012213/https://
www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/sec5.html) 15 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine
63. "Fungus eats CD" (http://www.nature.com/news/1998/010628/full/news010628-11.html). Nature.
2001. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131212044729/http://www.nature.com/news/1998/01
0628/full/news010628-11.html) from the original on 12 December 2013.
64. "Fungus 'eats' CDs" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1402533.stm). BBC. June 2001.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131212220948/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/14
02533.stm) from the original on 12 December 2013.
65. K.A. Schouhamer Immink (2018). "How we made the compact disc" (https://www.researchgate.net/p
ublication/324571504). Nature Electronics. 1. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
66. Tim Buthe and Walter Mattli, The New Global Rulers: The Privatization of Regulation in the World
Economy, Princeton University Press, Feb. 2011.
67. Neil Strauss (5 July 1995). "Pennies That Add Up to $16.98: Why CD's Cost So Much – New York
Times" (https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/05/arts/pennies-that-add-up-to-16.98-why-cd-s-cost-so-m
uch.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm). Nytimes.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201308110
00713/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/05/arts/pennies-that-add-up-to-16.98-why-cd-s-cost-so-muc
h.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm) from the original on 11 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
68. Amy HarmonPublished: 12 October 2003 (12 October 2003). "MUSIC; What Price Music?" (https://w
ww.nytimes.com/2003/10/12/arts/music-what-price-music.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm).
Nytimes.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130512175059/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/
10/12/arts/music-what-price-music.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm) from the original on 12 May 2013.
Retrieved 25 July 2013.
69. "CD-R Unreadable in Less Than Two Years" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070214195603/http://ww
w.cdfreaks.com/news/CD-Recordable-discs-unreadable-in-less-than-two-years.html). cdfreaks.com.
Archived from the original (http://www.cdfreaks.com/news/CD-Recordable-discs-unreadable-in-less-t
han-two-years.html) on 14 February 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
70. "CD-R ROT" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050204065340/http://www.pc-active.nl/toonArtikel.asp?
artikelID=508). Archived from the original (http://www.pc-active.nl/toonArtikel.asp?artikelID=508) on 4
February 2005. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
71. "5. Conditions That Affect CDs and DVDs — Council on Library and Information Resources" (http://w
ww.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/sec5.html). www.clir.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016
0915012213/https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/sec5.html) from the original on 15 September
2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
72. Andy McFadden (8 August 2007). "CD-Recordable FAQ" (http://www.cdrfaq.org/). Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20070920211018/http://www.cdrfaq.org/) from the original on 20 September
2007. Retrieved 20 September 2007.
73. "Understanding CD-R & CD-RW" (http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa7.htm). Osta.org. Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20130801123221/http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa7.htm) from the
original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
74. "CD-Recordable FAQ – Section 3" (http://www.cdrfaq.org/faq03.html). 9 January 2010. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20131118040105/http://www.cdrfaq.org/faq03.html) from the original on 18
November 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013. "Small quantities of 90-minute and 99-minute blanks
have appeared [...] Indications are that many recorders and some software don't really work with the
longer discs."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 13/14
6/30/2020 Compact disc - Wikipedia

75. Campaign For Digital Rights (5 December 2001). "Copy Protected CDs (via Archive.org)" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20011205101807/http://uk.eurorights.org/issues/cd/bad/). Archived from the
original (http://uk.eurorights.org/issues/cd/bad/) on 5 December 2001.

Further reading
Ecma International. Standard ECMA-130: Data Interchange on Read-only 120 mm Optical Data
Disks (CD-ROM) (http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-130.htm), 2nd
edition (June 1996).
Pohlmann, Kenneth C. (1992). The Compact Disc Handbook (https://archive.org/details/compactdisc
handb0000pohl). Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. ISBN 0-89579-300-8.
Peek, Hans et al. (2009) Origins and Successors of the Compact Disc (https://www.springer.com/eng
ineering/electronics/book/978-1-4020-9552-8). Springer Science+Business Media B.V. ISBN 978-1-
4020-9552-8.
Peek, Hans B., The emergence of the compact disc (https://www.philips.com/c-dam/corporate/resear
ch/technologies/cd/The-Emergence-of-the-Compact-Disc_v2.pdf), IEEE Communications Magazine,
Jan. 2010, pp. 10–17.
Nakajima, Heitaro; Ogawa, Hiroshi (1992) Compact Disc Technology (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=9G9Nu9n0DJQC), Tokyo, Ohmsha Ltd. ISBN 4-274-03347-3.

External links
Video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut_40U0t9pU) How Compact Discs are Manufactured
CD-Recordable FAQ (http://www.cdrfaq.org/) Exhaustive basics on CD-Recordable's
Philips history of the CD (cache) (https://archive.today/20080129201342/http://www.research.philips.
com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html)
Patent History (CD Player) (https://archive.today/20121216094847/http://www.ip.philips.com/licensin
g/licensingprogramshistory/history_cdplayer_joint.html) – published by Philips in 2005
Patent History CD Disc (https://archive.today/20121206014421/http://www.ip.philips.com/licensing/lic
ensingprogramshistory/history_cddisc_joint.html) – published by Philips in 2003
Sony History, Chapter 8, This is the replacement of Gramophone record ! (第8章 レコードに代わる
ものはこれだ) (http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-08.html) – Sony
website in Japanese
Popularized History on Soundfountain (http://www.soundfountain.com/amb/cd25years.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Compact_disc&oldid=964932018"

This page was last edited on 28 June 2020, at 12:56 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site,
you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a
non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc 14/14